PAKISTAN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL (ES), JEDDAH

Y9 CHEMISTRY BOARD NOTES

Prepared by: Ms. Ishbah Sahar

Chapter 1: States of matter

Solids

● Solids have a fixed volume and shape and they have a high density
● The atoms vibrate in position but can’t change location
● The particles are packed very closely together in a fixed and regular pattern
● Particles in a solid are closely packed and can vibrate but cannot move around, they have
low energies.
Liquids

● Liquids also have a fixed volume but adopt the shape of the container
● They are generally less dense than solids (an exception is water), but much denser than
gases
● The particles move and slide past each other which is why liquids adopt the shape of the
container and also why they are able to flow freely
● Particles in a liquid are still closely packed, but can both vibrate and move around within
the liquid because they have more energy – enough to overcome the forces that hold the
particles together in the solid.
Gases

● Gases do not have a fixed volume, and, like liquids, take up the shape of the container
● Gases have a very low density
● Since there is a lot of space between the particles, gases can be compressed into a much
smaller volume
● The particles are far apart and move randomly and quickly (around 500 m/s) in all directions
● They collide with each other and with the sides of the container (this is how pressure is
created inside a can of gas)
● Particles in a gas are widely spread out and can both vibrate and move around freely.
They have the most energy of the three states.
 Summary of the Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases

State Changes

Melting

● Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid

● Requires heat energy which transforms into kinetic energy, allowing the particles to
move
● Occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point (m.p.)

Boiling

● Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas

● Requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the surface of a liquid,
allowing for liquid particles to escape from the surface and within the liquid
● Occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point (b.p.)

Freezing

● Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid

 ● This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same temperature as melting,
hence the melting point and freezing point of a pure substance are the same. Water, for
example, freezes and melts at 0 ºC
● Requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal energy) and occurs at
a specific temperature

Evaporation

● Evaporation occurs when a liquid changes into a gas and occurs over a range of
temperatures
● Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids where high energy particles can escape
from the liquid's surface at low temperatures, below the b.p. of the liquid
● The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid surface, the more quickly a liquid
can evaporate

Condensation

● Condensation occurs when a gas changes into a liquid on cooling and it takes place over
a range of temperatures
● When a gas is cooled its particles lose energy and when they bump into each other they
lack the energy to bounce away again, instead they group together to form a liquid

Introduction to kinetic particle theory:

The word “kinetic” refers to motion. Moving particles have kinetic energy, hence the name
‘kinetic particle theory’.
Solids: Particles are closely packed in an orderly manner and are held together by very strong
forces of attraction. They have enough kinetic energy to vibrate & rotate about their fixed
positions thus cannot move about freely. Hence, a solid has fixed shape.

Liquids: Particles are arranged in disorderly manner and have weaker forces of attraction than
the particles of a solid. They have more kinetic energy than particles of solid, & are not held in
fixed positions thus move freely throughout the liquid. Hence a liquid has no fixed shape.

Gases: Particles of gas are spread far apart from one another and have weaker forces of
attraction than the particles of liquid. They have more kinetic energy than the particles of a
liquid, and are not held in fixed positions thus can move rapidly in any direction. Hence, a gas
has no fixed shape.

NOTE: Whenever kinetic particle theory and particles are linked together, always make
comparison between two states.

State Changes & Kinetic Theory

● When substances are heated, the particles absorb thermal energy which is
converted into kinetic energy. This is the basis of the kinetic theory of matter
● Heating a solid causes its particles to vibrate more and as the temperature
increases, they vibrate so much that the solid expands until the structure breaks and
the solid melts
● On further heating, the now liquid substance expands more and some particles at
the surface gain sufficient energy to overcome the intermolecular forces
and evaporate
● When the b.p. temperature is reached, all the particles gain enough energy to
escape and the liquids boils
● These changes in state can be shown on a graph called a heating curve
● Cooling down a gas has the reverse effect and this would be called a cooling curve
● These curves are used to show how changes in temperature affect changes of state
 Heating curve

How to test purity of substance

 ● A pure substance has a fixed melting and boiling point.
● The purity of a substance can be tested by checking its melting and boiling point.
● If a substance is impure i.e. it contains traces of another substance, the melting and
boiling point of that substance will change.
Gases & Kinetic Theory
• Gaseous particles are in constant and random motion
• The pressure that gas creates inside a closed container is produced by the gaseous
particles hitting the inside walls of the container

● A change in temperature or pressure affects the volume of gases

● An increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of each particle, as the heat
energy is transformed to kinetic energy, so they move faster
● As the temperature increases, the particles in the gas move faster, colliding with the
container's walls more frequently.
● This is because the volume of a gas increases as its temperature increases
● As temperature increases gas volume increases.
• If you have a gas stored inside a container that is squeezed, the pressure increases as
you decrease the volume
• This is what happens in a bicycle pump. As you compress the bicycle pump the high
pressure allows you to inflate a tire
• You can feel the force of the high pressure if you put your finger on the end of the
pump.

Pressure increases as volume decreases

Diffusion:

● Random movement between the particles from the region of higher

concentration to the region of lower concentration is called diffusion.
● Eventually the concentration of particles is even as they spread out to
occupy all of the available space.
● Diffusion happens on its own and no energy input is required
Factors effecting the rate of diffusion:
Temperature: Increase in temperature will make the particles move faster
Relative Molecular Mass: Lighter gas particles can travel faster because
their molecular mass is lower, therefore the lower its relative mass the faster a
gas will diffuse

Reaction between ammonia, NH3, and hydrogen chloride gas, HCl,

inside a long glass tube
 ● NH3 molecules have less mass than the HCl molecule, so diffuse
faster, hence the product (a white smoke of NH4Cl) forms closer
to the end where the HCl is
● Where the two gases meet a white smoke of ammonium chloride, NH 4Cl, is
formed
● This does not occur in the middle of the tube as you might expect, but
much closer to the end with the hydrogen chloride (Mr = 36.5) and the
ammonia (Mr = 17) molecules are smaller and lighter.

Q. Why do liquids diffuse slower than gases & diffusion does not takes place solid into solid?
Ans: Diffusion in liquid is slower than that in gases. This is because the particles in liquid
move slowly as compared to the particles in gases. For diffusion to work ,particles must be
able to move around which means diffusion does not happen in solids-solids as particles in
solids can only vibrate and cannot move from place to place.

Unit 2: Elements, Mixtures & Compounds.

1. An Element is a substance made up of only one type of atoms joined together by
chemical bonds. Atoms of elements generally combine to form molecules or giant
structures of atom.
2. Atoms are the smallest particles of an element that have the chemicuproperties of that
element. Each element contains only one type of atoms.
3. Molecules is a group of two or more atoms that are chemically combined.
4. Compounds are pure substances composed of two or more different types of atoms
joined together by chemical bonds. Have properties that are different from their
constituent elements.

Chemical formula of some compounds:

5. Mixtures is a combination of two or more pure substances that are not chemically
combined. Substances held together by physical forces, not chemical . The proportion of
the components is variable. A mixture can contain both elements and compounds.
MIXTURES COMPOUNDS