Petroleum Geology

Introduction

Benedict Yankyerah
Content:

• Course outline
• Course description
• Objectives
• Course basics
• Assessment
• Course materials & references
• Why this course
Course outline:

• Background (The Petroleum Industry)

• Origin of Petroleum
• Composition of oil and gas
• Petroleum Generation
• Petroleum Systems
• Sedimentary basins
• Non-conventional Petroleum Resources
Course description:

This undergraduate course provides an overview of

geological processes related to petroleum formation,
accumulation, and exploration.
Objectives:

• To students gain in-depth understanding of hydrocarbon

generation and exploration approaches
• To help them familiarize with the petroleum play concept
and its components
• To make them able to describe relatively simple
subsurface datasets from wells and evaluate these data
to conduct a geological evaluation of a field
Course basics:

• Course code: PENG 255

• Class: Petroleum Engineering Year 2 (Sem 1)
• Credits: 3
• Lecture schedule: Mon 2-3pm, SH1; Fri 7-9am, SH1
Assessment:
Total (100%)

5
5

10

20 60

Final exams Mid Sem Quizzes Assignments Attendance

Course materials & references:

• PPT slides
• Selley, R. C., & Sonnenberg, S., A. (2014) Elements of Petroleum Geology. Academic Press
• Nontechnical guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling and Production (2nd Edition) by Norman
Hyne. PennWell Corporation, USA
• Nontechnical guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling and Production (2nd Edition) by Norman
Hyne. PennWell Corporation, USA
• Environmental management in oil and a gas exploration. Joint E & P Forum/UNEP Technical
Publication.
• Fundamentals of Finding Oil & Gas. Maverick Energy Inc.
• Basic petroleum Geology and Log Analysis. Halliburton , 2001
• Petroleum Geology. Baker Hughes INTEQ ,1999
• ‘Oil and gas Exploration and Production’ Children’s Education Programme, 7th Edition. ENI Exploration
and Production, 2010.
• Prerequisites for a petroleum discovery. Nils Ræstad, Bridge Consult 2008
Why this course:
Why this course:
Why this course:
Why this course:
Origin of Petroleum
Content:

• PETROLEUM
• Abiogenic theory
• Biogenic theory
Petroleum:

• The word petroleum comes from the Greek word, Petra-

rock; and oleum-oil
• Has also been called mineral oil
• A naturally occuring mixture of hydrocarbons of different
molecular weights and posses a wide range differing
physical properties (appearance and composition) from
one oil field to another.
• Crude oil, natural gas, bitumin, wax
• The use of asphalt in construction ~ 400BC Babylonia
Abiogenic theory:

• Inorganic theory of the origin of petroleum:

– deep carbon deposits from when the planets formed
• traces of solid and liquid hydrocarbons recorded in precambrian
basement rocks
– extraterrestrial occurence of hydrocarbons
– magmatic materials (* Iron carbide) reacting with water in the
earth
• CaC2 + 2H2O C2H2 + Ca(OH)2 (Mendele’ev, 1902)
• traces of gaseous hydrocarbons recorded at certain regions of valcanic
eruptions
Biogenic theory:
• theory of organic origin of petroleum:
• remnants of buried organic matter (plant and animal life),
deposited with sediments under lacustrine, deltaic and marine
environments.
• accumulates, preserved and altered over extensive periods of
time, high temperature and pressure.
• Terrestrial deposits form gas and coal ...
• Marine deposits form oil ...
– Hydrocarbon compounds abundant in living organisms
– Commercial quantities of petroleum in sedimemtary rocks
– Most large deposits are found in regions of ancient river mouths and
deltas and prehistoric reefs
For further investigation:

• https://youtu.be/d4Q_9jpEeLk?si=akwpsK2Rv0ZBzRg5
Composition of oil and gas
Content:

• Chemical composition of petroleum

• Forms of Hydrocarbons
• Fundamental organic compounds in petroleum
• Non Hydrocarbon compounds (Nitrogen, Sulphur and
Oxygen)
• Metallic/ Trace elements
• Classification of crude oil
• Crude oil Benchmarks
Chemical composition of petroleum

• Petroleum is fundamentaly composed of hydrocarbons-

chemical compounds of hydrogen and carbon
Forms of hydrocarbons

• Solids (C16 and above)

• Liquid (C5 - C15)
• Gaseous (C1 - C4)
Fundamental organic compounds in petroleum

• Paraffins (CnH2n+2)/ normal alkanes and branched alkanes

– Saturated straight-chained/ branched hydrocarbons
• Naphthenes CnH2n / cyclo-alkanes
– Saturated hydrocarbons with circular structure
– Usually exists between C5 and C7
– Can form more than 1 rings of saturated carbon atoms
• Olefins (CnH2n) / Alkenes
– Unsaturated hydrocarbons with double bonds
• Aromatics (CnH2n-6)
– Unsaturated hydrocarbons with double bonds and benzene-
ring structure
• What is the difference?
Non Hydrocarbon compounds (Nitrogen, Sulphur and Oxygen)

• Sulfur Compounds
– Crude oils have a sulfur content ranging from less than 0.1% to
10% by weight.
– Types of sulfur compounds in crude oils include thiols
(mercaptans), sulfides, disulfides, and thiophenes.
– Thiols are most abundant in the lower distillation range up to
about 150°C, while thiocycloalkanes and thiophenes dominate
the 150-250°C range.
– In higher distillation ranges, benzothiophenes and complex ring
structures are prevalent
Structure of benzothiophene
• Nitrogen Compounds
– Nitrogen content in crude oils varies from trace amounts to
0.9% by weight.
– Basic nitrogen compounds, such as pyridines and quinolines,
are found in fractions boiling below 200°C.
– Nonbasic nitrogen compounds include pyrroles, indoles, and
carbazoles.
• Oxygen Compounds
– Oxygen content ranges from 0.06% to 0.4% by weight, with
alkane and cycloalkane acids being the majority.
– Oxygen-containing compounds increase with boiling range,
with more found in distillates boiling above 400°C
Metallic/ Trace elements

• Trace metallic compounds such as nickel and vanadium

are found in crude oils, ranging from a few ppm to 200
ppm for nickel and up to 1200 ppm for vanadium.
• These metals primarily occur as complexes like
porphyrins and can be distilled at temperatures above
500°C.
• Other trace elements reported in crude oil include arsenic,
with concentrations varying depending on the source of
the crude oil
Classification of crude oil

• API classification with respect to density

– API gravity: a standard measure of how heavy or light oil is in
comparison to water
–
– where SG is specific gravity

– (SG= density of substance / density of water)

– What would be the API gravity of water??
• Relationship between API gravity and SG
• In general the darker the crude oil, the lower the API
• Sulphur is an undesirable impurity in fossil fuels such as
crude oil, natural gas and coal.
• Crude oils are classified as sweet and sour based on their
suphur content.
– Sweet crudes have less than 1% sulphur by weight
– Sour crudes have more than 1% sulphur by weight.
Crude oil Benchmarks

• It is a standard against which other crude oils are compared and

prices are set.
• In the United States, West Texas Intermediate (WTI) is 30-40 °
API and 0.3% S
• Brent , the benchmark crude oil for the North Sea is 38 ° API and
0.3% S. `
• Bonny light benchmark crude for Nigeria is 37.6°API and 0.13%
S.
• Brass River benchmark crude for Nigeria is 43° API and 0.08% S.
• Dubai benchmark crude oil for the Middle East. It is 31° API and
2% S.
Petroleum Generation
Content

• Organic matter
• The carbon cycle
• Preservation of organic matter
• Total Organic Carbon
• Kerogen
• Types of Kerogen
• Stages of petroleum formation
Organic Matter

• Carbon is a crucial part of most substances vital for the

development of life (biomolecules) - proteins, lipids,
sacharides, etc.
• Petroleum (biologically) has originated from the remains
of ancient marine organisms such as plankton, algae and
bacteria
• Plankton is grouped into:
• Phytoplankton: eg diatoms
• Zooplankton: eg foraminifera, radioralia, crustacea
• Plankton makes up about 90% of biomass on earth
The Carbon cycle

Photosynthesis: The carbon cycle begins

with photosynthesis, where phytoplankton
and contenental plants some
microorganisms use sunlight to convert
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the oceans/
atmosphere into organic compounds such
as carbohydrates. This process removes
carbon from the atmosphere and
incorporates it into plant tissues.
• 6CO2 + 6H2O + Light Energy C6H12O6 + 6O2
• Some of the organic carbon is passed on to zooplankton
and other organisms that consume these photosynthetic
organisms (producers).
• When both the consumers and producers die, a large
portions of organic carbon found in their remains
decompose completely while a tiny fraction is preserved
under deep ocean sediments or in waterlogged
environments with low circulation and decomposition
rates.
Preservation oforganic matter/ carbon

• The preservation of organic matter is favored by anaerobic bottom

conditions
– oxygen lost through decomposition and decay of other organic
materials, and unreplenished
• and a rapid sedimentation rate.
• Read on Annoxic barred basins
• Another important condition favoring the preservation of organic
matter is the presence of stratification within the waters from
which sedimentation occurs
– stratification/layering caused by light, temperature and circulation rate
differentiation with depth - eg in freshwater lakes
– salinity stratification which also prevent vertical circulation
• The total carbon content in the Earth's crust is 9 x 1019 kg.
Over 80% of this is in carbonates. Organic carbon
amounts to 1.2 x 1019 kg and is distributed approximately
as follows:

• What inferences could be drawn concerning the efficiency

of organic carbon preservation?
Total Organic Carbon

• TOC refers to the amount of carbon present in organic matter in a

rock sample
• High TOC content indicates a potential source rock for oil and gas
generation
• TOC content is measured using various analytical techniques
such as Rock-Eval pyrolysis and elemental analysis

(weight %)
• Finer grained sedements usually retain more organic
carbon. why?
• The organic carbon found in source rocks are in two
different forms:
1. Bitumen: which is the fraction of the TOC soluble in
organic solvents like chloroform
2. Kerogen: which is the insoluble portion formed from
organic matter transformation
Kerogen

• Sediments slowly cooks as pressure and temperature

increases with burial depth
• Given sufficient heat , pressure and time, the sediments
lithifies and the organic matter contained within
transforms kerogen
• Kerogen is a complex mixture of heavy organic
compounds which found in petroleum source rocks as a
precursor to hydrocarbon formation, insoluble in ordinary
organic solvent.
Types of Kerogen

• Kerogen can be classified into four types, based on origin

and the specific organic materials it’s composed of.
• It is also classified on the basis of hydrogen, carbon and
oxygen content.
• Each type has a distinct bearing on what kind of
petroleum, if any would be produced.
• The types are:
• I, II, III and IV
Type I

• It is generated predominantly from lacustrine

environments (anoxic).
• Has high Hydrogen-carbon ratio and low oxygen content;
• Organic matter is derived from bacterial breakdown of
various species of algae
• Proneness: high genetic potential for oil
Type II

• Intermediate Hydrogen-Carbon ratio and moderate

oxygen content which usually varies depending on the
composition and origin of the organic matter.
• Proneness: This kerogen can generate oil/gas with
progressive heating and maturation.
• They originate from rich organic matter is derived from
moderately deep marine planktons, pollen /spore, waxes
and resins deposited in a confined reducing environment.
Type III

• Have high Hydrogen-Carbon ratio and low oxygen

content.
• They are derived from terrestrial plants transported to a
marine or nonmarine environment of deposition
• They undergo only moderate level of degradation before
burial
• Proneness: they generate dry gas
Type IV

• Often refered to as inertinite due to it’s unreactive nature

• derived from mainly highly oxidized woody plant
materials such as lignin and cellulose
• This type of kerogen has low hydrogen to carbon ratio
and low to moderate oxygen
• Proneness: gas prone with very little hydrocarbon source
potential
Stages of petroleum formation
Diagenesis

• Depth: Seafloor to a few hundred meters

• Temperature: ≤ *50°C
• Key Processes:
– Accumulation of Organic Matter: In sedimentary environments such as marine or
lacustrine (lake) settings, organic matter accumulates over time
– Aerobic Decay: Microbes decompose organic matter in the presence of oxygen,
releasing CO2 and H2O.
– Burial: Further burial and depletion of oxygen
– Anaerobic Decay: Microbial activity continues without oxygen, producing
methane, CO2, and H2S.
– Hydrolysis: Water breaks down complex molecules (proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates) into simpler ones.
– Condensation: Smaller molecules combine, releasing water and forming
kerogen, the precursor to oil and gas.
Catagenesis

• Depth: 1 km to 4 km
• Temperature: *50°C to 150°C
• Key Processes:
– Thermal cracking: high temperatures break down the larger, more complex
organic molecules converting kerogen into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons.
– Decarboxylation: removal of CO2 from organic molecules by eliminating carboxyl
groups (COOH) as CO2 to form methane (CH4) and other lighter hydrocarbons
– Dehydration: removal of H2O from the organic molecules to stabilize and mature
organic matter into hydrocarbons by reducing the oxygen making it more
hydrocarbon-rich.
– Expulsion: Oil and gas migrate from source rock to reservoir rock due to
pressure differences.
Metagenesis

• Depth: > 4 km
• Temperature: > 150°C
• Key Processes:
– Further Cracking: further breakdown of larger hydrocarbon
molecules into smaller, more volatile compounds to generate
lighter hydrocarbons, such as natural gas, and the alteration of
heavier hydrocarbons into more mature forms.
– Graphite Formation: Kerogen residues convert to graphite
– ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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 CLASS PRESENTATIONS
1. Explore the formation and development of rift basins and their significance in
petroleum exploration and production.
2. Investigate the various carbonate depositional environments and their impact
on reservoir quality for hydrocarbon accumulation.
3 Discuss the Petroleum Geology of Ghana’s Tano-Cape 3 Points Basin
4. Analyze the influence of tectonic forces on the formation and evolution of
sedimentary basins and their implications for petroleum geology.
5. Explore the Petroleum Geology of Ghana’s Saltpond Basin
6. Examine the Petroleum Geology of Ghana’s Accra-Keta Basin
7. Investigate the types of sedimentary environments
conducive to the formation of petroleum source rocks and
their importance in petroleum systems.
8. Explore the application of remote sensing technologies in
analyzing sedimentary basins and identifying potential
hydrocarbon reservoirs.
9. Discuss how past and present climate changes have
influenced sedimentary depositional environments and their
implications for petroleum exploration and production.
10. Explore the Petroleum Geology of the Voltain Basin of
Petroleum Systems
Contents

• Introduction to Petroleum Systems

• Components of Petroleum Systems
• Source Rock
• Reservoir Rock
• Seal
• Trap
• Types of Traps
• Migration Pathway
Introduction to Petroleum Systems

• A Petroleum System refers to an interplay of geologic

components and processes that result in the generation,
migration and accumulation of hydrocarbons.
Components of Petroleum Systems

• The following components are required for a complete

Petroleum System:
– Source Rock: a sedimentary rock that contains sufficient organic matter
such that when it is buried and heated it will produce petroleum (oil and
gas).
– Migration Pathway: a path or conduit through which hydrocarbons migrate
from source rock to reservoir rock.
– Reservoir Rock: a porous and permeable rock capable of storing and
transmitting hydrocarbons.
– Seal Rock: an impermeable rock layer forms a cap or barrier around the
reservoir rock to prevent upward migration of hydrocarbons.
– Trap: a geological structure or configuration that traps and accumulates
hydrocarbons.
Source Rock

• Source rocks are typically fine-grained sedimentary rocks

(Mudstones and Shales) with high organic content that
have the potential to generate hydrocarbons.
• Characteristics/ determinants of source rock quality:
➢TOC/ organic richness
➢Adequate depth of burial
➢Thermal maturity
• The Petroleum Generation process:
–Organic matter accumulates in sedimentary basins
and transform into hydrocarbons over long geologic
time, high temperature and pressure conditions.
• Examples: Takoradi Shales of the Sekondian Group
(Saltpond basin), Cenomanian-Turonian Shales of the
Jubilee oilfield, Barnett Shale in the United States and the
Posidonia Shale in Europe.
Reservoir Rocks

• Porous and permeable sedimentary rocks which provide

storage space for accumulated hydrocarbons.
• Types of Reservoir Rocks:
– Sandstone: Typically composed of quartz grains and varying
amounts of other minerals, with interconnected pore spaces.
– Carbonate: Comprised of carbonate minerals (e.g., calcite,
dolomite) and characterized by varying porosity types (e.g.,
intergranular, vuggy, fracture).
• Factors Influencing Reservoir Quality:
– Sedimentary depositional environment: Controls the type and distribution
of sedimentary facies and thus influences reservoir quality.
– Diagenesis: Processes such as compaction, cementation, and dissolution
affect porosity and permeability.
– Structural features: Faults, fractures, and folds can enhance or diminish
reservoir quality.
• Examples of Reservoir Rocks:
– Takoradi Sandstone formation of the Saltpond Basin of Ghana
– Sandstone reservoirs include formations such as the Brent Group in the
North Sea and the Permian Basin in the United States.
– Carbonate reservoirs include the Middle East's giant fields like Ghawar in
Saudi Arabia and the Permian-aged reservoirs in West Texas.
Seal

• Impermeable rocks that cap a reservoir rock, preventing the

upward migration of hydrocarbons and trapping them within
the reservoir.
• Types of Seal Rocks:
– Shale: Fine-grained sedimentary rock with low permeability, often serving
as an excellent seal due to its clay content.
– Salt: Evaporite deposits with very low permeability and plasticity, capable
of flowing and self-sealing, thus providing an effective barrier to
hydrocarbon migration.
– Anhydrite: A type of evaporite mineral (calcium sulfate) that can form
dense, impermeable layers, acting as a good seal rock.
• The effectiveness of a seal rock determines the size and
sustainability of the hydrocarbon accumulation.
• Factors Affecting Seal Integrity:
– Thickness and Continuity: A thicker and more continuous seal is generally
more effective in trapping hydrocarbons.
– Permeability Contrast: The greater the permeability contrast between the
reservoir and the seal, the more effective the seal.
– Mechanical Properties: The ability of the seal rock to withstand
deformation without fracturing is crucial for maintaining seal integrity.
• Examples of Seal Rocks:
– Typical seals are fine-grained clastics such as shales, fine-grained
limestones, or anhydrite and other evaporites. Coarse-grained rocks
cemented with silica, calcite, halite, and asphalt also act as seals
Traps

• A trap in petroleum geology is a geological configuration

that prevents the further migration of hydrocarbons and
allows for their accumulation.
• The integrity of a trap is crucial for the long-term
containment of hydrocarbons. Any breach or inadequacy
in the trap can lead to the leakage or dissipation of
hydrocarbon accumulations.
• Types of traps:
- Structural - Stratigraphic - Combination
Structural traps

• A structural trap is a type of geological trap that forms as

a result of changes in the structure of the subsurface, due
to tectonic, diapiric, gravitational and compactional
processes.
• Types of Structural traps:
– Anticline Traps: Formed by the upward folding of rock layers
into an arch-like structure. Hydrocarbons accumulate in the
convex-upward portion.
• Fault Traps: Created when fault movements juxtapose
permeable reservoir rocks against impermeable rocks,
trapping hydrocarbons along the fault plane.
• Salt Domes: Formed by the upward movement of buoyant
salt through overlying sedimentary layers. The salt's
plasticity can create traps by deforming surrounding
rocks.
Stratigraphic traps

• Stratigraphic traps are formed due to lateral and vertical

variations in rock layers, including changes in thickness,
facies, or porosity, that create conditions favorable for
trapping hydrocarbons.
• These traps result from the original deposition of
sediments or post-depositional processes such as
erosion. Stratigraphic variations can create barriers or
changes in permeability that prevent hydrocarbons from
migrating further, trapping them in place
• Types of Stratigraphic traps:
– Pinch-out Traps: Occur where a permeable reservoir layer
tapers and is encased in impermeable rock, trapping
hydrocarbons.
• Unconformity Traps: Formed at the boundary where
younger sediments rest unconformably upon eroded older
rocks, potentially trapping hydrocarbons against the older
rocks.
• Reef Traps: Created by the growth of reefs (like coral or
algal mounds) which can form porous reservoirs
surrounded by impermeable sediment.
Combination traps

• Combination traps are complicated hydrocarbon traps that

have both structural and stratigraphic components. These
traps benefit from differences in sediment deposition and
characteristics as well as the sealing and trapping
mechanisms offered by geological features.
• The formation of combination traps usually involves a
series of geological events that create both the structural
deformation (such as folding, faulting) and stratigraphic
variations (like changes in sediment grain size, facies
transitions) necessary for trapping hydrocarbons.
• Advantages of combination trap systems:
– more extensive and secure hydrocarbon accumulations due to
the dual trapping mechanisms.
– They often present a higher exploration success rate compared
to purely structural or stratigraphic traps because the presence
of one trapping mechanism can compensate for the partial
inefficiency of the other.
• However their complexity requires a thorough geological
and geophysical evaluation to understand and predict the
distribution of hydrocarbons within these traps.
Migration Pathway

• The conduits or routes through which hydrocarbons

migrate from the source rock to the reservoir rock, where
they accumulate.
• Types:
– Vertical Migration: Hydrocarbons move vertically through
permeable pathways such as fractures, faults, or permeable
layers within the subsurface.
– Lateral Migration: Hydrocarbons migrate horizontally through
porous and permeable layers, following the natural dip of
sedimentary strata or along unconformities.
• Factors Influencing Migration:
– Pressure Gradients: Hydrocarbons migrate from areas of high
pressure in the source rock to regions of lower pressure in the
reservoir rock.
– Pore Pressure: The pressure within the pore spaces of rocks
influences the movement of fluids, including hydrocarbons.
– Rock Properties: Permeability, porosity, and lithology of the
rocks along the migration pathway affect the rate and extent of
hydrocarbon migration.
• Mechanisms of Migration:
• Primary Migration: Initial release of hydrocarbons from the
source rock due to thermal maturation and expulsion into
adjacent reservoir rocks.
• Secondary Migration: Further movement of hydrocarbons
within the reservoir rocks, driven by buoyancy and
pressure differentials, towards the trap where they
accumulate.
Essential Terminologies

• Province: A province refers to a geologically defined region with similar

geological features and petroleum potential. It's a broader term used to
describe a large area where oil and gas resources are found, often spanning
multiple sedimentary basins or geological formations.
• Basin: A basin is a geological depression or trough in the Earth's crust where
sediments accumulate over time. These sediments can eventually form oil
and gas reservoirs if the right conditions are met.
• Play: A play is a concept used to describe a specific geological scenario or
setting that has the potential to contain economically viable hydrocarbon
resources. It involves a combination of geological elements such as reservoir
rocks, source rocks, traps, and migration pathways. Plays are identified
through geological analysis and exploration activities and serve as targets for
oil and gas exploration.
Prospect: A prospect is a specific location within a play where geological data
suggests the presence of potential hydrocarbon accumulations. It represents a
specific drilling target identified through seismic surveys, well data, and
geological analysis. Prospects are evaluated for their economic viability before
drilling operations commence.

Reserve: Petroleum reserves refer to the estimated amount of oil and gas that
can be technically and economically recovered from a reservoir using current
technology and under prevailing economic conditions.

Resource: Petroleum resources encompass all the oil and gas present in a
geological formation or basin, regardless of whether it can be economically
extracted using current technology and economic conditions.
Net Reservoir: Net reservoir refers to the portion of a rock formation that
contains economically producible hydrocarbons. It's the volume of the reservoir
rock that contributes to the overall petroleum production after considering
factors such as porosity, permeability, fluid saturation, and geological
characteristics.

Gross Reservoir: Gross reservoir represents the total volume of rock within a
geological formation that has the potential to contain hydrocarbons, regardless
of whether the entire volume is economically viable for production. It includes
both the net reservoir (productive zone) and non-productive zones within the
reservoir rock.
Sedimentary Basins
Contents

• Definition of a sedimentary basin

• Mechanism of basin formation
• Local/ Small scale
• Regional/ Large-scale
• Classifcation of Sedimentary Basins
• Basins in Divergent setting
• Basins in Intraplate setting
• Basins in convergent setting
• Basins in transform and transcurrent fault setting
• Basins in hybrid setting
• Accommodation
• Concepts Associated with Accommodotion
Definition

• A sedimentary basin is an area of significant subsidence in the Earth's

crust, of tectonic origin, within which considerable amounts of sediment
accumulate over geologic time.
• This accumulation of sediments could range in thickness from
hundreds to thousands of meters and over areas of thousands to
millions of square kilometers.
• Many economic resources, such as hydrocarbons, coal, groundwater,
and other mineral and metal deposits, can be found in sedimentary
basins.
Mechanism of basin formation

• These are Naturally occuring processes that produces

subsedence of the earth crust for sediment deposition.
• The mechanisms can be grouped into those that result in
Small-scale or Local subsedence and those that produce
Large-scale or Regional subsedence
Local/ Small-scale

• Fault movements on a small scale (hundreds to

thousands of meters laterally) create relief of similar scale
(hundreds to thousands of meters), forming small basins
like intermontane basins (e.g., Death Valley).
• Dip-slip fault movements aren't the only ones creating
relief; steps along strike-slip faults can also generate
small pull-apart basins.
Regional/ Large-scale

• Basin relief can be created mechanically on a regional scale in

two very important ways: thermally and flexurally, or by a
combination of those two effects)
• Thermal
• If the lithosphere is heated from below, it expands slightly and
becomes less dense, adjusts isostatically to float higher in the
asthenosphere, producing what we see at the Earth’s surface as
crustal uplift (If the lithosphere cools back to its original temperature, there’s
isostatic subsidence back to the original level)
• But suppose that some erosion took place while the crust
was elevated.
• The crust is thinned where the erosion took place so
when the crust cools again it subsides to a position lower
than where it started, thus creating a basin available for
filling by sediments.
• The magnitude of crustal lowering by this mechanism is less
than is often observed in basins thought to be created
thermally.
• It has therefore been proposed, and widely accepted, that in many
cases extensional thinning of the lithosphere accompanies the
heating. Then, upon recooling, the elevation of the top of the
lithosphere is less than before the heating and extension.
• Flexural
• Basins are created by parking a large load on some area of the
lithosphere. The new load causes that lithosphere to subside by
isostatic adjustment. But because the lithosphere has
considerable flexural rigidity, adjacent lithosphere is bowed down
also.
• The region between the high-standing load and the lithosphere in
the far field is depressed to form a basin.
Classifcation of Sedimentary Basins

• Sedimentary basins have generally been classified based on:

– whether a basin is formed on an oceanic crust or on a
continental crust,
– proximity of the basin to a plate boundary and
– the nature of the nearest plate boundary
• A combination of all the above factors have been used to
generate 5 broad classifications of Sedimentary Basins:
• Basins in divergent setting, intraplate setting, convergent
setting, transform and transcurrent fault setting, hybrid
setting
Basins in Divergent setting

These are broadly divided into two types,

• a) terrestrial rift valley basins
– Rifts within the continental crust bounded between high angle
normal faults. These are broadly classified into passive rift and
active rift.
– Passive rift basins form when the crust undergoes extension
which are unrelated to the mantle plume and triple junction.
– Active rift involves crustal extension caused by the upward
movement of a mantle plume and formation of triple junction.
– Terrestrial rift basins may evolve into an ocean basin
with continued rifting and drifting over a period of a few
millions of years.
– Example of terrestrial rift valley basin is a half graben,
which is flanked by a high-angle extensional fault in one
side and hanging wall dip slope on the other side. Most
of the sediments are supplied by the hanging wall dip
slope. The footwall scarps supply localized fan-shaped
conglomeratic deposits. The basin may be a few tens of
km wide and a few hundred km in length.
• Terrestrial rift valley basin may also involve a series of
horst and graben structures, bounded by normal faults on
both sides
• Horsts or highs indicate the elevated portions of the basin,
while the grabens indicate depressions
• b) Proto-oceanic rift troughs:
– These are incipient oceanic basins floored by a new oceanic
crust and flanked by young rifted continental margins.
– They form because of the continued extension of the rift basin.
– Red Sea is an example of proto-oceanic rift trough.
Basins in intraplate setting

• They occur inside a plate and are situated away from

plate boundaries.
– a. Intra-cratonic basin:
– Occurs within the cratonic areas. Origin of this type of basin is
controversial because of the stable nature of the craton.
– The broad convex-downward basins are also known as sag
basins.
– Thermal subsidence is significant in formation mechanism of
sag basins
• b) Passive margin
– A passive margin represents the transition between a continent
and an ocean, which is not an active plate boundary.
– It represents a mature rifted continental margin at continent-
oceanic interface.
– Passive margin occurs at every ocean-continent boundary that
is not marked a subduction zone or strike-slip fault.
– The subsidence of this basin increases gradually toward the
deep ocean side.
• c) Active ocean basin:
– These are oceanic basins whose volume either increases or
decreases with time.
– Atlantic is an example of active growing ocean basin since it
has passive margins on both sides.
– The Pacific is an example of active shrinking ocean basin as
subduction zones occur on both sides
• d) Dormant ocean basin:
– These are ocean basins floored by non-spreading and non-
subducting oceanic crust.
– These basins are floored by oceanic crusts, which neither
spread nor subducts and therefore they maintain their volume.
– Gulf of Mexico is the largest dormant ocean basin.
Basins in convergent setting

• Basins in convergent margins may be of various types

depending on the nature of plates involved in the
subduction, i.e. ocean-ocean, continent-continent and
ocean-continent. Variation in the angle of subduction is
also an important factor.
– a) Trench:
– A trench is an elongated deep trough formed on the subducting
oceanic plate. It represents the deepest sedimentary basin.
• b) Fore-arc basin:
– This basin occurs within the arc-trench gap.
– Sediments are supplied to this basin mostly from the magmatic
arc
• c) Back-arc basin
– They lie behind the magmatic arc.
– Most of them result from tensional forces, caused by a process
known as oceanic trench rollback, where a subduction zone
moves towards the subducting plate
• d) retro-foreland basin:
• A foreland basin develops parallel to a mountain belt.
• This type of basin forms in case of gentle angle of
subduction so that plate convergence is larger than the
subduction, which causes compression
• This type of basins is called retro-arc foreland basin
because of its position behind the arc
• e) Peripheral foreland basin:
• Peripheral foreland basins occur on the plate that is
subducted
• Tectonic loading of the thrust belt forms this type of basin.
Basins in transform and transcurrent fault setting

• These are associated with regions where crustal blocks

move laterally past each other along transform faults or
strike-slip faults. These basins can form in a variety of
tectonic settings and can be characterized by their unique
structural and sedimentary features
• a) Transtensional basin: Characyerized by a
combination of extensional and strike-slip tectonic
movement to form pull-apart basins. This type of basin is
typically rectangular or rhombic in plan and is deep in
nature
• b) Transpressional basins: This type of basin forms in
the localized zones of compression along a strike slip fault
system.
 Basins in hybrid setting

• a) Aulacogen:
• It is a failed arm of a three-armed
rift system, two of whose arms
continued to evolve to form ocean
basins. The basin extends from the
margins toward the interiors of
cratons. The basin is wider near
the sea and narrows down towards
the land.
• Cambay basin is an example of
Aulacogen.
Accomodation

• It refers to the amount of vertical space available for

sediments to accumulate.
• When sediments accumulate, the basin in which they are
being deposited will tend to subside because of isostasy
• If a basin is filling up faster than the rate of subsidence
then the deposition will move elsewhere – either to a new
basin – or farther out into the ocean
• Aside other tectonic processes, accommodation is greatly
affected by and by sea-level rise/fall.
Concepts Associated with Accommodotion

• Transgression: Sea level rise relative to land. This causes the

shoreline to move landward, flooding previously dry areas. As the
water deepens, less sediment accumulates.
• Regression: The opposite of transgression. Sea level falls relative
to land, exposing more land area and pushing the shoreline
seaward. This can lead to increased sediment deposition closer to
the shore.
• Progradation: The outward growth of a shoreline, typically a delta
or coastline, due to sediment deposition exceeding erosion. This
can happen during regression but also due to high sediment input
even with stable sea level.
• Aggradation: The general increase in elevation of an area due to
sediment accumulation. This can occur on land (e.g., river
floodplain) or underwater (e.g., delta plain). It's not specifically tied
to sea level changes.
• Retrogradation: The landward movement of a shoreline due to
erosion exceeding sediment deposition. This can be caused by a
transgression but also by other factors like strong currents.
Factors that control sediment supply and basin fill

• Climate
• Weathering and Erosion Processes
• Lithology (Rock Type) of Source Area
• Relief (Topography) and Drainage Patterns
• Vegetation Cover: Vegetation helps to stabilize soil and
prevent erosion.
Unconventional Hydrocarbon Resources
Contents
Introduction

• Unconventional reservoirs are these source rocks where

oil and/or gas remained in situ due to:
• very low effective permeability
• technology limitations
• prohibitive production costs.
• Production has recently been made possible by creating
multiple fractures along horizontal drains to increase the
order of magnitude of the contact area between the well
and the formation, making the production economically
viable
The Resource Triangle
Examples of unconventional resources

• An unconventional resource refers to a type of natural

resource that cannot be extracted or utilized through
conventional means or standard industry practices
• Unconventional Petroleum resources include shale gas,
shale oil, coal seam gas, oil shale and methane hydrates
Shale gas

• Shale gas is trapped within organic-rich sedimentary

formations (usually 5-20% TOC)
• with a high proportion of fine-grained particles, such as
shale (fissile), mudstone (non-fissile), siltstone,
carbonates, and fine-grained sandstone interlaminated
with shale or mudstone.
• Permeability in these source rocks typically range
between 1x10-5 and 1x10-1 mD.
Shale oil

• Shale oil refers to crude oil that is trapped within shale

formations, which are fine-grained sedimentary rocks.
• shale oil remains dispersed within the shale formation
requiring extraction technologies like hydraulic fracturing
to increase rock permeability and enable the oil to flow to
a well.
• Until recently, the production of shale plays was focused
on gas windows. But technological advances in drilling
and completion, as well as economic constraints unlocked
the production of source rock liquids.
Coal seam gas

• Coal Seam Gas refers to methane that is produced from coal

beds.
• It is generated during the conversion of plant material to coal
through burial and heating (coalification)
• Most of the methane migrates to surface or into a reservoir rock,
but a significant volume remains trapped within the coal itself
• Saturated coal seam gas reservoirs can have five times the
volume of gas contained in a conventional sandstone gas
reservoir of comparable size.
• Most of the gas in coal beds is stored in the adsorbed form, which
is one of the main differences with shale gas, where produced
volumes essentially come from free gas storage in the
Oil shale

• Oil shales are sedimentary rocks with significant amounts of

kerogen at early maturation stage.
• These deposits were formed by underwater deposition of silt and
organic debris.
• This material is slowly transformed into shale oil by heat and
pressure
• Oil shales are exploited while the natural maturation process is
still at a very early stage and may require millions of years to be
completed.
• Oil shales can generate oil when the rock is heated upon
pyrolysis, either underground (upgrading) or at surface (retorting)
Hydrates

• Gas hydrate is a crystalline (ice) form of water trapping gas of low

molecular weight, typically methane.
• A gas molecule is surrounded by stable ‘cages’ of water
molecules.
• Each water cage encloses a space of a particular size, and only a
gas molecule small enough to fit within this site can be hosted.
• These structures can store a significant amount of gas, typically
160 scf of methane for 1 cf of gas hydrate.
• Gas hydrate is stable at low temperature and high pressure.
Hence, the gas can be released by depletion or heating. Injection
of inhibitors is also possible.
 Tar Sands
• Tar sands are a type of sedimentary rock containing a
mixture of sand, clay, water, and a dense and viscous
form of petroleum known as bitumen.
• Bitumen is a heavy, thick oil with a high viscosity, which
makes it challenging and costly to extract and process
compared to conventional crude oil.
• Extracting oil from oil sands involves mining or in-situ
extraction methods such as steam injection.