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CHAPTER

Basic Electronics
E lectronics is the branch of applied physics that deals with the control of motion of electron using different devices.

16.1 THERMIONIC EMISSION

 The process of emission of electrons from a hot metal surface is called thermionic emission.
Explanation:
Metals contain a large number of free electrons. At room temperature electrons cannot escape the metal surface due to
attractive forces of the atomic nucleus. If the metal is heated to a high temperature, some of the free electrons may gain
sufficient energy to escape the metal surface.
NOTE:
Thermionic emission can also be produced by electrically heating a fine tungsten For Your Information
filament. Typical values of the voltage and current used are 6 V and 0.3 A respectively. In 1897, J.J. Thomson
Conceptual Q. 16.1: Name two factors which can enhance thermionic emission. observed the deflection of
Ans: Thermionic emission can be enhanced by: cathode rays by both electric
and magnetic fields. He
 Increasing Temperature concluded that cathode rays
 Increasing Intensity of Light are the negatively charged
 Increasing the Voltage particles (electrons.)

16.2 INVESTIGATING THE PROPERTIES OF ELECTRONS

► An electron gun is used to investigate the properties of electron beam.
Working of Electron Gun:
The electrons are produced by thermionic emission from a tungsten filament heated by
6V supply. A high positive potential is applied to a cylindrical anode (+). The electrons
are accelerated to a high speed and pass through the hole of the anode in the form of a
fine beam of electrons. The whole set up is fitted in an evacuated glass bulb.
Deflection of electrons by electric field:
When an electron beam enters the electric field (E), these are deflected towards the
positive plate.
Reason:
It is because electrons are attracted by the positive charges and are repelled by the
negative charges due to the electric force (F = qE). The degree of deflection of electrons
from their original direction is proportional to the strength of the electric field applied.
Deflection of electrons by magnetic field:
By applying the magnetic field at right angle to the beam of electrons by using a
horseshoe magnet, the spot of the electrons beam on the screen is getting deflected
from its original direction due to the magnetic force acting on them, given by:
F = qvB sin θ.

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Conceptual Q. 16.2: Give three reasons to support the evidence that cathode rays are negatively charged
electrons.
Ans: Cathode rays are negatively charged electrons because:
 In an electric field, these are deflected towards the positive plate.
 When it enters the magnetic field perpendicularly, it starts moving in a circle.
 Its charge to mass ratio (e/m value) is equal to that of electron.
Conceptual Q. 16.4: When a moving electron enters the magnetic field, it is deflected from its straight path. Name
two factors which can enhance electron deflection.
Ans: The magnetic force acting on a charged particle is given by:
F = qvB sin θ
Hence; the deflection can be increased by:
 Increasing the strength of magnetic field.
 By increasing the angle (θ).

16.3 CATHODE – RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

“It is an instrument which is used to display the magnitudes of changing electric currents or potentials.”
► The information is displayed on the screen of a “cathode-ray tube”.
Components of CRO:
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (C.R.O) consists of the following components:
i. The electron gun with control grid
ii. The deflecting plates
iii. A fluorescent screen

Electron Gun:
The electron gun produces a beam of electrons. It consists of:
► Filament:
When current is passed through it, it glows and produces heat that heats up the cathode.
► Cathode:
When cathode is heated, it emits electrons by thermionic emission.
► Grid:
It is at negative potential relative to cathode. It controls the number of electrons reaching the screen and thus
controls the brightness of spot on the screen.
► Anodes:
The anode is connected to positive potential and hence is used to accelerate the electrons. The electrons are
focused into a fine beam as they pass through the anode.
Deflecting Plates:
There are two set of deflecting plates, called X – plates and Y− plates.

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 When a voltage is applied between the X – plates, it deflects the beam horizontally (parallel to x – axis).
 When a voltage is applied between the Y– plates, it deflects the electronic beam vertically (along the y – axis).
Display System:
The screen CRO consists of a thin layer of phosphor, which gives a glow of light when electrons collide with it.
USES OF CRO:
CRO is used:
 To display the waves form.
 To display the heart beats.
 To measure the peak value of voltage.
 To measure frequency and time period
 In range finding and echo- sounding.

Point – To – Ponder!
When a magnet is brought near to the screen of a television tube, picture on the screen is distorted. Why?
Ans:
The picture on a T.V screen is formed due to bombardment of electrons. When a magnet is brought near its screen, the
magnetic field of the magnet interacts with magnetic field of the electrons. So, the magnetic force will act on them.
Due to this, the path of electron beam is deflected and as a result the picture of TV screen is distorted.

16.4 ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Analogue Quantities Digital Quantities

The quantities whose values vary continuously or The quantities whose values vary in non-continuous
remain constant are known as analogue quantities. manner are called digital quantities.
Examples: ► These are expressed in terms of digits or numbers.
 Temperature, time, pressure, distance etc. Example:
 Digital version of temperature is represented as:  Digital version of temperature is represented as:

Analogue Electronics Digital Electronics

It is the branch of electronics consisting of circuits The branch of electronics which deals with digital
which process analogue quantities. quantities is called digital electronics.
► Examples: A public address system, used to amplify ► Digital electronics uses only two digits ‘0’ (zero)
sound. and ‘1’ (one).
Analogue Signals Digital Signals
A continuously varying signal is called an analogue A signal that can have only two discrete values is called
signal. a digital signal.
Example: Example:
 An alternating voltage.  Voltage with square waveform is a digital signal

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Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC) Digital to Analogue Converter (DAC)

It is the circuit which converts the analogue signal into It is the circuit which converts the digital data into
digital data. analogue signal.
For Your Understanding:

Amplifier:
 It is an analogue circuit which amplifies the signal without changing its shape to such
an extent that it can operate a loudspeaker.
USES OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY:
Applications of digital electronics are very common:
 In Computers
 Modern telephone system
 Radar system,
 Naval and other systems of military importance
 Devices to control the operation of industrial machines,
 Medical equipment etc.

16.5 BASIC OPERATIONS OF DIGITAL ELECTRONICS – LOGIC GATES

Logical Operations:
 Digital circuits perform the binary arithmetic operations with binary digits ‘1’ and ‘0’. These operations are
called logic function or logical operations.
Binary Variables:
 Such things which can have only two possible states are known as binary variables. For Example: A switch has
only two possible states. It could be either open or closed.
Logic States:
 The states of binary variables are usually represented by the digits ‘0’ and ‘1’. These states are called logic states
or logic variables.
Boolean Algebra (Algebra of Logics):
It is a branch of mathematics which deals with the relationships of logic variables.
► It is invented by George Boole.
► Boolean variables can have only two values; 0 and 1.
Logic Gate:
A logic gate is a switching circuit (i.e., a digital circuit), that perform simple mathematical as well as complex logical
operations.
Universal Logic Gates:
There are three universal logic gates:
(i) AND gate
(ii) OR gate
(iii) NOT gate

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16.6 AND OPERATION

► A logical operation whose output is high only when all of its inputs are high, is called AND operation.
Symbol:
Symbol for AND operation is dot (  ).
Boolean Expression:
XA  B read as “X equals A AND B”.
Explanation:
Consider a lamp is connected to a battery using two switches S1 and S2 connected in series. There are four possible
states of these two switches which are given below:
Switch S1 Switch S2 Lamp
Open Open OFF
Open Close OFF
Close Open OFF
Close Close ON
It is clear that when either of the switches (S1 or S2) or both are open, the lamp is OFF.
When both switches are closed, the lamp is ON.
Truth – Table:
► Set of inputs and outputs in binary form is called truth table. The truth table of AND operation is:
A B XA  B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
AND gate:
The circuit which implements the AND operation is known as AND gate.
 Its symbol is shown in Figure.
 AND gate has two or more inputs and only one output.
 Output of AND gate will be '1' only when all of its inputs are at logic '1'.

16.7 OR OPERATION
► It is a logical operation whose output is low only when all of its inputs are low.
Symbol:
Symbol for OR operation is dot (  ).
Boolean Expression:
X  A  B Read as “X equals A OR B”.
Explanation:
Consider a lamp is connected to a battery using two switches S1 and S2 connected in parallel. The four possible states
of these two switches are given below:
Switch S1 Switch S2 Lamp
Open Open OFF
Open Close ON
Close Open ON
Close Close ON

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It is clear that lamp is ON if at least one of the switches is closed.

Truth – Table:
► Set of inputs and outputs in binary form is called truth table. The truth table of OR operation is:
A B XA  B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
OR gate:
The circuit which implements the OR operation is known as OR gate.
 Its symbol is shown in Figure.
 OR gate has two or more inputs and only one output.
 Output of OR gate will be '1' when anyone of its inputs is at '1'. The output will
be '0', when all inputs are at '0'.

16.8 NOT OPERATION

► NOT operation inverts the state of Boolean variable.
► For example, if the value of a Boolean variable is 1, then after NOT operation it become ‘0’ and vice – versa.
Symbol:
It is represented by a line/bar ( ) over the symbol.
Boolean Expression:
X  A read as “X equals A NOT”.
Explanation:
A lamp is connected to a battery with a switch S, in parallel. When switch is open, current will pass through the lamp
and it will glow. When switch is closed, no current will pass through the lamp due to large resistance of its filament
and it will not glow.
States of the switch and the lamp are:
Switch S1 Lamp
Open ON
Close OFF
Truth – Table:
► The truth table of NOT operation is:
A XA
0 1
1 0
NOT gate:
The circuit which implements the NOT operation is known as NOT gate.
 Its symbol is shown in Figure.
 NOT gate has only one input and one output.
 If its input is 0, its output would be ‘1’and vice – versa.
Inversion (Complementation):
NOT gate is also called inverter. It converts one logic level into the opposite logic level. This logical function is called
inversion or complementation.
► When a HIGH level is applied to an inverter, a LOW level appears on its output and vice versa.
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16.9 NAND OPERATION

► NAND operation is simply an AND operation followed by a NOT operation.
Boolean Expression:
XA  B read as “X equals A AND B NOT”.
Truth – Table:
► The truth table of NAND operation is:
A B XA  B
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
► The NOT gate inverts the output of the AND gate.
NAND gate:
The circuit which implements the NAND operation is called NAND gate.
 NAND gate is obtained by coupling a NOT gate with the output terminal of the AND gate.
 Its symbol is shown in Figure.

16.10 NOR OPERATION

► NOR operation is simply an OR operation followed by a NOT operation.
Boolean Expression:
XA  B read as “X equals A OR B NOT”.
Truth – Table:
► The truth table of NOR operation is:
A B XA  B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
► The NOT gate inverts the output of the OR gate.
NAND gate:
The circuit which implements the NOR operation is called NOR gate.
 NOR gate is obtained by coupling a NOT gate with the output terminal of the OR gate.
 Its symbol is shown in Figure.

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16.11 USES OF LOGIC GATES

Gates are widely used in controlling the functions of the system by monitoring some physical parameters such as
temperature, pressure or some other physical quantity of the system. Gates operate with electrical voltages only.
Sensors:
► The device which converts various physical quantities into electrical voltage is called sensor. For example;
 An LDR,  Light sensor
 Microphone  Sound sensor
 Thermistor  Temperature sensor
LDR:
It is a Light Depending Resistor (LDR). An LDR can act as a switch that is closed when illuminated by light and
open in the dark.

HOUSE SAFETY ALARM:

A single NAND can be used to make a burglar alarm.
Components:
It consists of:
 An LDR
 A NAND gate
 A push button switch
 An alarm
Circuit Diagram:
It is shown in figure:
Working:
 Connect LDR between NAND gate input B and the positive terminal of the battery.
 The LDR will cause a HIGH level input ‘1’ at B when in light because of its Low resistance.
 The LDR will cause a Low level input ‘0’ at B when light is interrupted and causes high resistance in LDR.
 A LOW level signal is also caused at A when burglar steps on switch S.
 So this burglar alarm sounds when either burglar interrupts light falling on LDR or steps on switch S.

For Your InFormatIon!

Bit and Byte:
Digital electronic devices stores and processes data, electronically:
 A bit represents data using 1's and 0's.
 Eight bits is a byte – the standard grouping in digital electronics.
Digitization:
Digitization is the process of transforming information into 1's and 0's.

“Do Your Work.

Don’t be Stupid!

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