1.

1 Background to language and language learning

1.1 Overview of first and second language

1. Listening and Responding to an Audio-Visual Recording on the Meaning of

Language
When analyzing a recording about the meaning of language, you should focus on
the following aspects:
- **Content**: Identify the main ideas and arguments presented. Are there any
key definitions or examples given?
- **Speaker's Purpose**: What is the speaker trying to achieve? Are they
informing, persuading, or entertaining?
- **Language Use**: Analyze the vocabulary and tone. Are they formal or
informal? Is there any use of rhetorical devices like metaphors or analogies?

2. Properties and Functions of Language

Here are a few more properties and functions to consider:
- **Duality**: Language operates on two levels: sounds (phonemes) and
meanings (morphemes).
- **Discreteness**: The ability to break down language into smaller units (words,
syllables).
- **Interchangeability**: Ability of individuals to both send and receive messages.
 Arbitrariness: No inherent connection between words and their meanings.
 Productivity: Ability to produce infinite sentences.
 Displacement: Ability to talk about things not present.
 Cultural Transmission: Language is passed through culture.

Functions:
- **Metalinguistic**: Using language to talk about language itself.
- **Heuristic**: Language used for discovery and learning.
 Informative: Sharing information.
 Expressive: Expressing feelings or emotions.
 Directive: Giving commands or requests.
 Phatic: Maintaining social relationships.

3. How Children Learn Their First Language (L1)

Children use several strategies in L1 acquisition:
- **Imitation**: Copying words and sentences they hear.
- **Reinforcement**: Positive reinforcement when they use language correctly.
- **Interaction**: Social interaction plays a crucial role, with caregivers adjusting
their speech to the child's level.
 Listening: Children listen to the language around them.
 Babbling: Experimenting with sounds.
 One-Word Stage: Using single words to communicate.
 Two-Word Stage: Forming simple sentences.
 Complex Sentences: Developing grammar and syntax

This process can help L2 learning by:

 Immersion: Creating an English-rich environment.
 Interaction: Engaging in conversations.
 Repetition and Practice: Consistent exposure and practice.
- **Total Physical Response (TPR)**: Combining language learning with physical
movement.
- **Language Games**: Making learning fun and interactive.

### 4. Differences Between L1 Acquisition and L2 Learning

 L1 Acquisition: Natural, subconscious process in early childhood.
 L2 Learning: Often a conscious effort, usually later in life.
- **Critical Period Hypothesis**: Suggests there’s an optimal period for L1
acquisition (early childhood), which is not the same for L2.
- **Language Transfer**: L1 can interfere or aid in L2 learning, depending on
similarities and differences.
- **Affective Factors**: Motivation, anxiety, and self-confidence significantly
impact L2 learning.

Implications for L2 Learning:

 Teaching Methods: Adapted to age and cognitive development.
 Motivation: Higher in L2 learners due to personal or professional reasons.
- **Tailored Instruction**: Customize methods based on the learner's age,
background, and proficiency.
- **Language Environment**: Creating an immersive language environment can
help overcome the limitations of classroom learning.

5. Order of Language Skill Development

 Listening (Receptive)
 Speaking (Productive)
 Reading (Receptive)
 Writing (Productive)
- **Pre-Literacy Skills**: Before formal education, children develop skills like
phonemic awareness and vocabulary through listening and speaking.
- **Balancing Skills**: Emphasize integrated skills, where listening supports
reading, and speaking supports writing.
Implications:
 Teaching Sequence: Focus on listening and speaking first.
 Integrated Skills: Combining skills in lessons.
- **Scaffolding**: Providing support structures to help learners build new skills
upon existing ones.
- **Formative Assessment**: Regularly assessing progress and adapting teaching
strategies accordingly.

6. Receptive and Productive Language Skills

 Receptive Skills: Listening and Reading.
 Productive Skills: Speaking and Writing.
- **Receptive Skills**: Involves decoding and understanding language. Listening
comprehension and reading comprehension are crucial for academic success.
- **Productive Skills**: Involves producing language. Speaking and writing require
active use of grammar and vocabulary.

### 7. Downloading the BECF and Discussing the Essence Statement

The Basic Education Curriculum Framework (BECF) emphasizes:
- **Holistic Development**: Focus on cognitive, emotional, and social
development.
- **Competency-Based Approach**: Moving away from rote learning to skill-
based education.
- **Inclusion**: Catering to diverse learner needs and ensuring no one is left
behind.

### 8. What is Language?

Language is a complex, rule-governed system of symbols that allows humans to
communicate thoughts, emotions, and ideas. It is dynamic and evolves with
cultural and social changes.

### 9. How Do We Acquire Language?

Language acquisition is a multifaceted process involving:
Language acquisition involves exposure, interaction, and practice. It's influenced
by social, cognitive, and environmental factors
- **Biological Factors**: Brain development and neural pathways.
- **Environmental Factors**: Exposure to language through interaction and
media.
- **Social Factors**: Interaction with caregivers, peers, and the broader
community.

### 10. Why Do We Study Language?

Studying language helps us:
 Communication: How we share thoughts and ideas.
 Cognition: How language shapes our thinking.
 Culture: How language reflects and influences culture.
 Education: Improving teaching and learning methods.
- **Understand Human Cognition**: How language shapes our thoughts and
perceptions.
- **Preserve Culture**: Language is a key aspect of cultural identity and heritage.
- **Improve Communication**: Enhancing clarity, precision, and effectiveness in
communication.
- **Advance Technology**: Developing AI and linguistic technology.

1. Conducts an Online Research on the Role of English in Kenya and Shares

Ideas in Class
English plays a multifaceted role in Kenya:
 Official Language: English is one of Kenya's official languages, used in government,
legal documents, and international diplomacy.
 Educational Medium: It's the primary language of instruction from upper primary to
tertiary education, making it crucial for academic success.
 Economic Advancement: Proficiency in English is often a requirement for white-collar
jobs, enhancing career prospects.
 Global Connectivity: English connects Kenya to global markets, media, and technology,
facilitating trade and international relations.
  Cultural Influence: English influences media, literature, and entertainment, blending
local and global cultures.
2. Discusses the Constitution and the Language in Education Policy in Kenya and
Their Implications to Language Learning
Constitution:
 Bilingualism: The Kenyan Constitution recognizes both English and Kiswahili as official
languages.
 Language Rights: Promotes linguistic diversity and the right to use mother tongues.
Language in Education Policy:
 Mother Tongue Instruction: Emphasizes using local languages in early education to
enhance understanding.
 Multilingual Education: Supports learning Kiswahili and English, fostering
bilingualism.
Implications:
 Inclusive Education: Ensures learners from different linguistic backgrounds have access
to education.
 Language Proficiency: Balances mother tongue fluency with proficiency in national and
international languages.
 Cultural Preservation: Protects and promotes indigenous languages and cultures.
3. Discusses the Standard Varieties of English (Standard British English and
American English), and Their Differences and Implications in English Language
Learning in Kenya
Differences:
 Pronunciation: Varies in vowel and consonant sounds. E.g., "tomato" (BrE: /təˈmɑː.təʊ/
vs. AmE: /təˈmeɪ.t̬oʊ/).
 Vocabulary: Different terms for the same objects. E.g., "lift" (BrE) vs. "elevator"
(AmE).
 Spelling: Variations in spelling conventions. E.g., "colour" (BrE) vs. "color" (AmE).
 Grammar: Differences in usage of tenses and prepositions. E.g., "at the weekend" (BrE)
vs. "on the weekend" (AmE).
Implications:
 Curriculum Design: Decisions on which variety to teach, or whether to include both,
affecting textbooks and resources.
 Language Consistency: Importance of consistency in teaching materials to avoid
confusion among learners.
 Global Competence: Exposure to both varieties prepares learners for global
communication.
4. Reads the Basic Education Curriculum Framework (BECF) and Identifies the
Values that Should Be Nurtured at the Primary School Level
Values in BECF:
 Respect: Encouraging mutual respect among students and teachers.
 Responsibility: Fostering a sense of accountability and duty.
 Integrity: Promoting honesty and strong moral principles.
  Patriotism: Instilling love and dedication to the country.
 Inclusivity: Ensuring all learners feel valued and included.
 Environmental Sustainability: Teaching the importance of preserving the environment.
 Equity: Promoting fairness and equal opportunities for all students.
5. Discusses How Patriotism Can Be Inculcated During an English Lesson in
Grade 5
Inculcating Patriotism:
 Local Content: Use stories, poems, and texts about Kenya's history, heroes, and cultural
heritage.
 National Symbols: Discuss the significance of national symbols like the flag, anthem,
and coat of arms.
 Community Projects: Encourage students to participate in community service and
environmental conservation.
 Class Discussions: Facilitate discussions about current events and national pride.
 Cultural Activities: Include activities that celebrate Kenyan culture, such as traditional
songs, dances, and festivals.
6. What is the Role of English in Kenya?
English is crucial for:
 Communication: Acts as a common language among diverse ethnic groups.
 Education: Key medium of instruction from upper primary to university levels.
 Economic Growth: Essential for careers in business, technology, and international
relations.
 Global Integration: Connects Kenyans to global markets, media, and educational
resources.
 Cultural Exchange: Facilitates the blending and exchange of local and international
cultures.
7. What is the Difference Between American English and British English?
Differences:
 Pronunciation: Variations in how words are pronounced.
 Vocabulary: Different words for the same concepts (e.g., "biscuit" (BrE) vs. "cookie"
(AmE)).
 Spelling: Differences in spelling conventions (e.g., "favour" (BrE) vs. "favor" (AmE)).
 Grammar: Variations in grammar usage (e.g., past simple vs. present perfect).
Implications:
 Resource Selection: Choosing textbooks and materials that align with the chosen variety.
 Language Exposure: Introducing learners to both varieties for broader understanding.
 Communication Skills: Enhancing learners' ability to understand and use both varieties
in different contexts.
1.1.2 Language situation in Kenya
1. Conducts an online research on the role of English in Kenya and shares ideas
in class
 Historical Context: English was introduced during the British colonial period and has
remained a significant language in Kenya.
  Official Language: English is one of the two official languages in Kenya, alongside
Swahili.
 Education: English is the primary language of instruction in schools, especially in higher
education and professional settings.
 Economic Opportunities: Proficiency in English is often linked to better job prospects
and social mobility.
 Cultural Influence: English is widely used in media, literature, and entertainment,
influencing local culture.
 Global Communication: English facilitates international communication and business,
making it essential for global engagement.
2. Discusses the Constitution and the Language in Education Policy in Kenya and
their implications for language learning
 Constitutional Provisions: The Constitution of Kenya recognizes English and Swahili as
official languages.
 Language in Education Policy: The policy emphasizes the use of both English and
Swahili in education, with a focus on promoting multilingualism.
 Implications for Language Learning: Students are encouraged to learn both languages,
which can enhance cognitive abilities and cultural awareness.
 Challenges: Implementing the policy can be challenging due to resource constraints and
varying levels of proficiency among teachers and students.
 Future Directions: There is a push towards incorporating indigenous languages in
education to preserve cultural heritage.
3. Discusses the standard varieties of English (Standard British English and
American English), and their differences and implications in English language
learning in Kenya
 Standard British English: Used in the UK, characterized by specific spelling,
vocabulary, and pronunciation.
 American English: Used in the USA, with differences in spelling, vocabulary, and
pronunciation.
 Differences: Examples include "colour" (British) vs. "color" (American), "flat" (British)
vs. "apartment" (American), and different pronunciations of words like "schedule" and
"aluminum".
 Implications: English learners in Kenya may be exposed to both varieties, leading to a
need for awareness of these differences in professional and academic settings.
 Teaching Strategies: Educators can incorporate both varieties to provide a
comprehensive understanding of English.
4. Reads the Basic Education Curriculum Framework (BECF) and identifies the
values that should be nurtured at the primary school level
 Core Values: The BECF emphasizes values such as respect, responsibility, integrity, and
patriotism.
 Holistic Development: The curriculum aims to develop well-rounded individuals with a
strong moral foundation.
 Cultural Awareness: Promoting understanding and appreciation of Kenya's diverse
cultures.
 Critical Thinking: Encouraging analytical and problem-solving skills.
  Community Engagement: Fostering a sense of community and social responsibility.
5. Discusses how patriotism can be inculcated during an English lesson in grade 5
 Literature: Using stories and poems that highlight national heroes and significant events
in Kenya's history.
 Discussion: Encouraging students to share their thoughts on what it means to be patriotic
and how they can contribute to their country.
 Projects: Assigning projects that involve researching and presenting on national
symbols, anthems, and traditions.
 Role-Playing: Engaging students in role-playing activities that simulate historical events
or scenarios that promote national pride.
 Creative Writing: Encouraging students to write essays or stories that reflect their love
for their country.
6. What is the role of English in Kenya?
 Official Language: English is one of the two official languages in Kenya, used in
government, education, and media.
 Economic Importance: Proficiency in English is linked to better job opportunities and
economic advancement.
 Global Communication: English facilitates international communication and business,
making it essential for global engagement.
 Educational Tool: English is the primary language of instruction in schools, especially
in higher education and professional settings.
7. What is the difference between American English and British English?
 Spelling: Differences in spelling, such as "color" (American) vs. "colour" (British).
 Vocabulary: Variations in vocabulary, like "elevator" (American) vs. "lift" (British).
 Pronunciation: Differences in pronunciation, for example, the "r" sound is more
pronounced in American English.
 Grammar: Some grammatical differences, such as the use of the present perfect tense.

1.1.3 Phonology
1. Draws the speech organs and explains their role in the production of speech in
groups
 Speech Organs: Includes the lungs, vocal cords, larynx, pharynx, nasal cavity, oral
cavity, tongue, teeth, and lips.
 Lungs: Provide the airflow necessary for speech.
 Vocal Cords: Vibrate to produce sound when air passes through them.
 Larynx: Also known as the voice box, it houses the vocal cords.
 Pharynx: Acts as a resonating chamber for the sound.
 Nasal Cavity: Contributes to the resonance and articulation of nasal sounds.
 Oral Cavity: Shapes the sound into different vowels and consonants.
 Tongue: Essential for articulating various speech sounds.
 Teeth: Help produce sounds by controlling airflow and shaping the sound.
 Lips: Important for producing sounds like /p/, /b/, and /m/.
2. Accesses an online source for diagrams on speech organs and vowel chart
(Received Pronunciation)
 Online Resources: Websites like the International Phonetic Association, Phonetics
resources, and academic publications provide diagrams and charts.
 Received Pronunciation (RP): The standard accent of Standard English in the UK.
 Vowel Chart: Shows the position of vowels in the mouth, indicating how they are
articulated.
3. Articulates English sounds correctly - vowels (pure and diphthongs) and
consonants
 Pure Vowels: Monophthongs, such as /i:/ (as in "see"), /æ/ (as in "cat").
 Diphthongs: Complex vowels, such as /aɪ/ (as in "eye"), /eɪ/ (as in "day").
 Consonants: Correct articulation of sounds like /t/, /k/, /f/, /s/.
4. Discusses how the English consonant sounds are produced (Place and manner
of articulation, and voicing)
 Place of Articulation: Refers to where the airflow is restricted, such as:
o Bilabial: Both lips (e.g., /p/, /b/).
o Labiodental: Lips and teeth (e.g., /f/, /v/).
o Dental: Tongue and teeth (e.g., /θ/ as in "think", /ð/ as in "this").
o Alveolar: Tongue and alveolar ridge (e.g., /t/, /d/).
o Palatal: Tongue and hard palate (e.g., /ʃ/ as in "she").
o Velar: Back of the tongue and soft palate (e.g., /k/, /g/).
 Manner of Articulation: How the airflow is restricted:
o Plosive: Complete closure followed by release (e.g., /p/, /b/).
o Fricative: Partial closure creating friction (e.g., /s/, /z/).
o Nasal: Airflow through the nose (e.g., /m/, /n/).
o Affricate: Combination of plosive and fricative (e.g., /tʃ/ as in "chop").
o Approximant: Partial closure without friction (e.g., /r/, /j/).
 Voicing: Whether vocal cords vibrate:
o Voiced: Vocal cords vibrate (e.g., /b/, /d/, /g/).
o Voiceless: Vocal cords do not vibrate (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/).
5. Classifies vowels into pure vowels and diphthongs
 Pure Vowels (Monophthongs): Stable sounds like /i:/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/, /u:/, /e/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ɑ:/,
/ɒ/, /ɔ:/, /ə/.
 Diphthongs: Glide from one vowel sound to another within the same syllable, such as
/eɪ/, /aɪ/, /ɔɪ/, /aʊ/, /oʊ/, /ɪə/, /eə/, /ʊə/.
6. Does phonemic transcription of English words correctly
 Phonemic Transcription: Uses symbols to represent sounds in words.
 Examples:
o "cat" -> /kæt/
o "think" -> /θɪŋk/
o "education" -> /ˌedʒʊˈkeɪʃən/
7. Listens to online and offline audio materials on production of English sounds
  Online Materials: Websites, YouTube channels, language learning apps, and phonetics
courses.
 Offline Materials: CDs, language learning books with audio, phonetics software.
8. Uses a digital device to record his or her pronunciation of English sounds
 Recording Devices: Smartphones, tablets, computers with recording software.
 Apps and Software: Audacity, GarageBand, voice recording apps for practice and
playback.
9. Why should we pronounce English sounds accurately?
 Communication: Clear pronunciation ensures effective communication and
understanding.
 Confidence: Accurate pronunciation builds confidence in speaking English.
 Professionalism: Important in professional settings where clear communication is
crucial.
 Listening Skills: Improves listening skills and comprehension of native speakers.
10. How do we produce sounds?
 Airflow: Initiated by the lungs and controlled by the vocal cords.
 Articulation: Movement of speech organs (tongue, lips, teeth) shapes the sound.
 Resonance: Sound resonates in the oral and nasal cavities.
11. Where are sounds produced?
 Lungs: Generate airflow.
 Vocal Cords: Produce sound through vibration.
 Oral and Nasal Cavities: Shape and resonate the sound.
12. Which sounds do you find difficult to produce?
 Personal Challenge: Individual difficulties vary based on native language influence.
 Common Difficulties: Sounds like /θ/ (as in "think"), /ð/ (as in "this"), /r/ (American
English "r"), /l/ and /r/ distinction, and certain diphthongs.
13. Applies stress appropriately on the syllables of given words
 Stress: Emphasis placed on certain syllables within words.
 Examples:
o "record" (noun) -> /ˈrekɔːd/
o "record" (verb) -> /rɪˈkɔːd/
14. Uses appropriate intonation in speech
 Intonation: The rise and fall of the voice in speaking.
 Types:
o Rising Intonation: Often used in questions.
o Falling Intonation: Used in statements and commands.
o Mixed Intonation: Combines rising and falling patterns.
15. Shares experiences on pronunciation challenges experienced by learners and
suggests remedies
 Common Challenges: Difficulty with specific sounds, stress patterns, intonation.
 Remedies:
o Practice: Regular practice of problematic sounds.
 o Listening: Exposure to native speakers through media.
o Feedback: Receiving constructive feedback from peers and teachers.
16. Identifies problematic sounds among peers and suggests possible remedies
while upholding respect for peers
 Observation: Identifying sounds that peers struggle with.
 Remedies:
o Modeling: Demonstrating correct pronunciation.
o Encouragement: Positive reinforcement and patience.
o Resources: Providing access to pronunciation guides and practice materials.
17. Discusses how unity and self-efficacy can be developed during a lesson on
pronunciation and vocabulary in grade 4
 Unity:
o Group Activities: Collaborative pronunciation exercises and games.
o Peer Support: Encouraging students to help each other.
o Inclusive Environment: Creating a welcoming atmosphere for all learners.
 Self-Efficacy:
o Goal Setting: Encouraging students to set and achieve pronunciation goals.
o Positive Feedback: Reinforcing progress and effort.
o Skill Development: Providing tools and strategies to improve pronunciation and
vocabulary.
13. Applies stress appropriately on the syllables of given words
 Stress: Emphasis placed on certain syllables within words.
 Examples:
o "record" (noun) -> /ˈrekɔːd/
o "record" (verb) -> /rɪˈkɔːd/
14. Uses appropriate intonation in speech
 Intonation: The rise and fall of the voice in speaking.
 Types:
o Rising Intonation: Often used in questions.
o Falling Intonation: Used in statements and commands.
o Mixed Intonation: Combines rising and falling patterns.
15. Shares experiences on pronunciation challenges experienced by learners and
suggests remedies
 Common Challenges: Difficulty with specific sounds, stress patterns, intonation.
 Remedies:
o Practice: Regular practice of problematic sounds.
o Listening: Exposure to native speakers through media.
o Feedback: Receiving constructive feedback from peers and teachers.
16. Identifies problematic sounds among peers and suggests possible remedies
while upholding respect for peers
 Observation: Identifying sounds that peers struggle with.
 Remedies:
 o Modeling: Demonstrating correct pronunciation.
o Encouragement: Positive reinforcement and patience.
o Resources: Providing access to pronunciation guides and practice materials.
17. Discusses how unity and self-efficacy can be developed during a lesson on
pronunciation and vocabulary in grade 4
 Unity:
o Group Activities: Collaborative pronunciation exercises and games.
o Peer Support: Encouraging students to help each other.
o Inclusive Environment: Creating a welcoming atmosphere for all learners.
 Self-Efficacy:
o Goal Setting: Encouraging students to set and achieve pronunciation goals.
o Positive Feedback: Reinforcing progress and effort.
o Skill Development: Providing tools and strategies to improve pronunciation and
vocabulary.
1.2 Listening and speaking
1.2.1 Oral skills 1
1. Reasons for Teaching Listening and Speaking
 Communication Skills: Fundamental for personal and professional interactions.
 Language Development: Enhances vocabulary and grammar.
 Social Skills: Builds empathy, understanding, and cooperation.
 Academic Success: Crucial for effective learning and comprehension.
 Career Preparation: Essential for most professions.
 Cultural Understanding: Helps appreciate and understand different cultures.
 Problem-Solving: Improves critical thinking and decision-making.
2. Research on Types of Listening
 Active Listening: Full attention and engagement with the speaker.
 Passive Listening: Listening without responding or reacting.
 Selective Listening: Focusing on specific information while ignoring others.
 Reflective Listening: Paraphrasing or reflecting back what the speaker has said.
 Critical Listening: Evaluating and analyzing the information heard.
3. Responding to Short Texts on Listening Types
 Active Listening: Demonstrate understanding by summarizing key points.
 Passive Listening: Note-taking without immediate feedback.
 Selective Listening: Identify and highlight the key messages.
4. Strategies for Effective Listening and Speaking
 Speaking Clearly: Articulate words properly to avoid misunderstandings.
 Paying Attention: Focus on the speaker without distractions.
 Maintaining Eye Contact: Shows engagement and interest.
 Body Posture: An open and attentive posture facilitates better communication.
 Asking Questions: Clarify doubts and show interest.
 Paraphrasing: Reflect back what the speaker said to confirm understanding.
5. Practicing Strategies for Effective Listening and Speaking
  Role-Playing: Simulate real-life scenarios for practice.
 Feedback Sessions: Provide and receive constructive feedback.
 Public Speaking Exercises: Enhance confidence and clarity.
 Listening Exercises: Practice through recorded speeches or podcasts.
6. Influence of Face-to-Face Relationships and Interactions
 Trust Building: Personal interactions build trust and rapport.
 Non-Verbal Cues: Body language, facial expressions enhance understanding.
 Immediate Feedback: Instant responses and clarifications.
 Emotional Connection: Personal interactions foster emotional bonds.
7. Games/Activities for Interpretation and Clear Responses
 Debates: Practice formulating and presenting arguments.
 Storytelling: Enhance creativity and narrative skills.
 Role-Playing: Simulate real-life situations to practice responses.
 Listening Games: Activities like "Telephone" to practice listening skills.
8. Modeling Citizenship and Patriotism in Grade 6
 Community Projects: Involve students in local community service.
 History Lessons: Teach about national heroes and events.
 Discussion Forums: Encourage discussions on civic responsibilities.
 Patriotic Songs/Poems: Use creative arts to instill patriotism.
9. What to Do to Listen and Speak Effectively
 Prepare: Know the topic and be ready to engage.
 Stay Focused: Avoid distractions and concentrate on the speaker.
 Engage Actively: Ask questions and provide feedback.
 Practice Empathy: Understand the speaker's perspective.
10. What Prevents Effective Listening and Speaking
 Distractions: External noise, multitasking.
 Prejudices: Biases and preconceived notions.
 Poor Communication Skills: Lack of clarity and articulation.
 Emotional Barriers: Stress, anxiety, and negative emotions.
11. Effective Use of Face-to-Face Relationships and Interactions
 Educational Settings: Classrooms, study groups.
 Workplaces: Team meetings, collaborative projects.
 Social Gatherings: Family events, community gatherings.
 Healthcare: Patient-doctor interactions, therapy sessions.

1.3 Reading
1.3.1 Children's Literature 1
1. Brainstorming the Term 'Children's Literature' in the Kenyan Context
 Definition: Books, stories, and poems that are created for children.
 Cultural Context: Stories that reflect Kenyan culture, traditions, and values.
 Educational Purpose: Aimed at nurturing children's cognitive and emotional
development.
  Entertainment: Provides enjoyment and fosters a love for reading.
 Age Appropriateness: Tailored to suit the developmental stages of children.
2. Contribution of Children's Literature to Learning English
 Vocabulary Development: Introduces new words and phrases in context.
 Grammar and Syntax: Demonstrates correct sentence structures and grammar.
 Reading Skills: Enhances reading fluency and comprehension.
 Cultural Exposure: Provides insights into diverse cultures and perspectives.
 Critical Thinking: Encourages analysis and interpretation of texts.
3. Differences Between Children's Literature and Mature Learners' Literature
 Structure: Simplified narratives, shorter sentences, and frequent illustrations.
 Content: Topics are age-appropriate and often include moral lessons.
 Language: Simple language and repetitive patterns for easier understanding.
 Themes: Focus on everyday experiences, adventure, and fantasy.
4. Nature/Characteristics of Children's Literature
 Engaging Stories: Captivating plots that hold children's attention.
 Colorful Illustrations: Visuals that complement and enhance the text.
 Relatable Characters: Characters that children can identify with.
 Moral Lessons: Stories that teach values and ethics.
 Interactive Elements: Incorporates questions, puzzles, and activities.
5. Criteria for Selecting Children's Learning Materials
 Age Appropriateness: Suitable for the child's developmental stage.
 Cultural Relevance: Reflects the child's cultural background and experiences.
 Language Level: Matches the child's language proficiency.
 Educational Value: Promotes learning and development.
 Interest Level: Captivates the child's interest and encourages engagement.
6. Selecting Children's Materials for Different Grades
 Grade 1-3: Simple stories with repetitive language and large illustrations.
 Grade 4-6: More complex stories with chapters and fewer illustrations.
 Grade 7-8: Age-appropriate novels and informative texts with varied vocabulary.
7. Creating a Portfolio with Newspaper Cuttings
 Gather Resources: Collect articles, stories, and features on children's literature.
 Categorize Content: Organize by themes, genres, or age groups.
 Create Annotated Portfolio: Provide brief annotations for each cutting explaining its
relevance.
 Regular Updates: Continuously add new material to keep the portfolio current.
8. Importance of Children's Literature in the Learning Process
 Cognitive Development: Enhances critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
 Language Acquisition: Aids in learning new languages and improving proficiency.
 Emotional Development: Helps children understand and express emotions.
 Social Skills: Teaches empathy, cooperation, and social interaction.
 Creativity and Imagination: Stimulates imagination and creative thinking.
9. Determining the Appropriateness of Children's Literature
 Content Review: Ensure the material is age-appropriate and culturally sensitive.
  Educational Value: Assess the educational benefits of the material.
 Child's Interest: Consider the child's interests and preferences.
 Feedback from Educators and Parents: Gather input from those involved in the child's
education.
1.4 Grammar
1.4.1 Word classes
1. Identifying Word Classes
 Nouns: Words that name people, places, things, or ideas (e.g., dog, city, happiness).
 Verbs: Words that express actions or states of being (e.g., run, is).
 Adjectives: Words that describe or modify nouns (e.g., blue, tall).
 Adverbs: Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (e.g., quickly, very).
 Prepositions: Words that show relationships between nouns or pronouns and other words
in a sentence (e.g., on, in).
 Determiners: Words that introduce nouns and provide context (e.g., the, a, this).
 Pronouns: Words that replace nouns (e.g., he, it, they).
 Conjunctions: Words that connect clauses or sentences (e.g., and, but, because).
 Interjections: Words that express strong emotions or sudden bursts of feeling (e.g., wow,
ouch).
2. Categorizing Words Using Varied Texts
 Dialogue: Conversations between characters can be used to identify different word
classes.
 Short Passages: Brief texts allow students to practice categorizing words in context.
 Sentences: Individual sentences can be analyzed to find and categorize words.
 Stories: Longer texts provide more opportunities to practice and reinforce word class
identification.
Examples
 Dialogue:
 Example:
o "Hey, John! How are you?"
o "I'm good, thanks! How about you?"
 Word Classes:
o Nouns: John
o Verbs: are, am
o Adjectives: good
o Pronouns: you, I
o Conjunctions: and
o Interjections: Hey
 Short Passages:
 Example:
o "The sun was setting over the horizon, casting a golden glow across the sky. Birds
chirped melodiously as they returned to their nests."
 Word Classes:
o Nouns: sun, horizon, glow, sky, birds, nests
 o Verbs: was setting, casting, chirped, returned
o Adjectives: golden, melodiously
o Adverbs: across
o Prepositions: over, as, to
 Sentences:
 Example:
o "She quickly ran to the store."
 Word Classes:
o Nouns: store
o Verbs: ran
o Adjectives: quick
o Adverbs: quickly
o Prepositions: to
o Pronouns: she
 Stories:
 Example:
o "Once upon a time, in a small village, there lived a kind and generous old man.
He loved to tell stories to the children who gathered around him every evening."
 Word Classes:
o Nouns: time, village, man, stories, children, evening
o Verbs: lived, loved, tell, gathered
o Adjectives: small, kind, generous, old
o Adverbs: around, every
o Prepositions: in, to
o Pronouns: he, who
 Group Activities:
 Example:
o Activity: Create a story using a list of given words and categorize them into word
classes.
o Words: cat, jumped, quickly, over, the, lazy, dog
 Word Classes:
o Nouns: cat, dog
o Verbs: jumped
o Adjectives: lazy
o Adverbs: quickly
o Prepositions: over
o Determiners: the

3. Constructing Sentences Using Various Word Classes

 Creating Sentences: Students can practice forming sentences using a mix of different
word classes.
 Sentence Building Activities: Engage students in activities where they construct
sentences based on given word classes.
Example of sentences
 Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions, Determiners, Pronouns, Conjunctions,
Interjections:
 Example: "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog."
o Nouns: fox, dog
o Verbs: jumps
o Adjectives: quick, brown, lazy
o Adverbs: over
o Prepositions: over
o Determiners: the
o Pronouns: none
o Conjunctions: none
o Interjections: none
 Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions, Determiners, Pronouns, Conjunctions,
Interjections:
 Example: "Wow! She swiftly ran to the store."
o Nouns: store
o Verbs: ran
o Adjectives: none
o Adverbs: swiftly
o Prepositions: to
o Determiners: the
o Pronouns: she
o Conjunctions: none
o Interjections: Wow!
 Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions, Determiners, Pronouns, Conjunctions,
Interjections:
 Example: "The cat and the dog are friends."
o Nouns: cat, dog, friends
o Verbs: are
o Adjectives: none
o Adverbs: none
o Prepositions: none
o Determiners: the
o Pronouns: none
o Conjunctions: and
o Interjections: none
 Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions, Determiners, Pronouns, Conjunctions,
Interjections:
 Example: "Oh no! They forgot their keys at home."
o Nouns: keys, home
o Verbs: forgot
o Adjectives: none
o Adverbs: none
 o Prepositions: at
o Determiners: their
o Pronouns: they
o Conjunctions: none
o Interjections: Oh no!
4. Interacting with Digital Content on Word Classes
 Online Games and Quizzes: Digital tools and platforms offer interactive ways to
practice identifying and categorizing word classes.
 Educational Apps: Apps designed for grammar practice can provide engaging ways to
learn and reinforce word classes.
5. Searching for and Sharing Information on Teaching Grammar Approaches
 Inductive Approach: This method involves presenting examples and having students
deduce the rules themselves.
 Integrated Approach: Grammar is taught within the context of reading, writing,
speaking, and listening activities.
6. Designing Activities Integrating Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
 Critical Thinking Activities: Create activities that require students to analyze and solve
grammar-related problems.
 Problem-Solving Tasks: Design tasks that challenge students to apply grammar rules in
real-life scenarios.
Activity: Grammar Detective
Objective: To enhance students' understanding of sentence structure, parts of speech, and correct
grammar usage through critical thinking and problem-solving.
Materials:
 Printed worksheets with sentences containing grammatical errors
 Highlighters or colored pens
 Whiteboard and markers
 Digital devices (optional)
Procedure:
1. Introduction (10 minutes):
o Begin the lesson by discussing the importance of grammar in effective
communication.
o Explain the concept of being a "Grammar Detective" and how they will solve
grammar mysteries.
2. Group Work (20 minutes):
o Divide the students into small groups of 3-4.
o Provide each group with a worksheet containing sentences with various
grammatical errors (e.g., incorrect verb tense, subject-verb agreement, misplaced
modifiers).
o Instruct the groups to identify and highlight the errors in each sentence.
3. Critical Thinking and Problem Solving (20 minutes):
o Ask each group to discuss the errors they found and come up with the correct
versions of the sentences.
 o Encourage them to explain their reasoning for each correction, fostering critical
thinking.
o Have each group present their corrected sentences to the class and explain their
thought process.
4. Class Discussion (15 minutes):
o Facilitate a class discussion on the different types of errors found and the
strategies used to correct them.
o Highlight common mistakes and provide additional examples to reinforce
learning.
5. Reflection and Feedback (10 minutes):
o Ask students to reflect on what they learned from the activity and how it helped
them understand grammar better.
o Provide constructive feedback on their performance and encourage them to
continue practicing their grammar skills.
6. Extension Activity (Optional):
o Use digital devices to create an online quiz or game (e.g., Kahoot!) where
students can practice identifying and correcting grammatical errors in a fun and
interactive way.

7. Importance of Using Correct Grammar

 Clarity and Understanding: Correct grammar ensures that the message is clear and easy
to understand.
 Professionalism and Credibility: Proper grammar reflects a level of professionalism and
enhances credibility.
 Avoiding Miscommunication: Good grammar reduces the chances of
miscommunication or misunderstandings.
 Effective Communication: It allows for effective communication in both written and
spoken language.
8. How Grammar Should Be Taught
 Inductive Approach: Presenting examples and having students deduce the rules
themselves encourages critical thinking and active learning.
 Integrated Approach: Teaching grammar within the context of reading, writing,
speaking, and listening activities makes it more meaningful and relevant.
 Interactive Activities: Using games, group work, and digital tools to make learning
grammar engaging and enjoyable.
 Contextual Learning: Teaching grammar through real-life contexts and examples to
show its practical use.
 Feedback and Correction: Providing constructive feedback and correction to help
students learn from their mistakes.
2.1 Background to language and language learning
2.1.1 Theories of Second Language Acquisition and learning
Research on Selected Second Language Acquisition Theories
1. Monitor Model by Stephen Krashen
Stephen Krashen's Monitor Model is one of the most influential theories in second language
acquisition. It consists of five main hypotheses:
 Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: This hypothesis differentiates between 'acquisition'
(a subconscious process similar to how children learn their first language) and 'learning'
(a conscious process that involves formal instruction). Krashen argues that acquisition is
more important for developing language proficiency2.
 Monitor Hypothesis: This hypothesis suggests that the learned system acts as a monitor
or editor that checks and corrects the output of the acquired system. It can only be used
when there is enough time, focus on form, and knowledge of the rules.
 Natural Order Hypothesis: According to this hypothesis, language learners acquire
grammatical structures in a predictable order, which is not influenced by explicit
instruction.
 Input Hypothesis: This hypothesis posits that learners progress in their language
proficiency when they are exposed to language input that is slightly above their current
level (i+1). Comprehensible input is crucial for language acquisition.
 Affective Filter Hypothesis: This hypothesis states that emotional factors such as
motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety can influence language acquisition. A low
affective filter facilitates language acquisition, while a high affective filter can hinder it.
2. Mentalist Theory: Universal Grammar by Noam Chomsky
Noam Chomsky's Universal Grammar theory is a cornerstone of the mentalist approach to
language acquisition:
 Universal Grammar (UG): Chomsky proposes that all humans are born with an innate
ability to acquire language, which he calls Universal Grammar. This theory suggests that
there are universal principles underlying the structure of all languages5.
 Language Acquisition Device (LAD): Chomsky introduced the concept of the LAD, a
hypothetical brain mechanism that helps children learn language. The LAD allows
children to generate grammatical sentences from the input they receive.
 Poverty of the Stimulus: This argument supports the idea that the linguistic input
children receive is insufficient to explain their language acquisition. Therefore, some
aspects of language must be innate.
 Critical Period Hypothesis: Chomsky's theory also implies that there is a critical period
during which language acquisition occurs most easily.
3. Behaviourist Theory by Leonard Bloomfield
Leonard Bloomfield's Behaviourist Theory focuses on observable behaviors and the role of the
environment in language learning:
 Stimulus-Response: Bloomfield's theory is based on the idea that language learning is a
result of habit formation through stimulus and response. Language behavior is shaped by
reinforcement and repetition7.
 Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement strengthens correct language use, while negative
reinforcement discourages incorrect use.
 Imitation: Language learning occurs through imitation of others. Learners mimic the
language they hear in their environment.
 Antimentalism: Bloomfield rejected the idea of mental processes in language learning,
focusing instead on observable behaviors.
4. Cognitivist Theory by Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget's Cognitivist Theory emphasizes the role of cognitive development in language
acquisition:
 Stages of Cognitive Development: Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive
development: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, and Formal
Operational. Language acquisition is linked to these stages9.
 Schema: Schemas are mental structures that help individuals organize and interpret
information. Language learning involves the development and modification of schemas.
 Assimilation and Accommodation: These processes describe how individuals integrate
new information into existing schemas (assimilation) or adjust schemas to fit new
information (accommodation).
 Constructivist Approach: Piaget believed that children actively construct their
understanding of the world through exploration and interaction with their environment.
These theories provide different perspectives on how second languages are acquired and
highlight the complexity of the language learning process. Each theory has its own strengths and
limitations, and they collectively contribute to our understanding of language acquisition.
: Krashen’s Monitor Model Theory: A Critical Perspective : [The Monitor Hypothesis:
Definition and Criticism](https://linguisticsgirl
summary
1. Monitor Model by Stephen Krashen
 Tenets:
o Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: Differentiates between 'acquisition'
(subconscious process) and 'learning' (conscious process).
o Monitor Hypothesis: The 'monitor' acts as a planner, editor, and corrector.
o Natural Order Hypothesis: Language learners acquire grammatical structures in
a predictable order.
o Input Hypothesis: Learners progress when they receive 'comprehensible input'
slightly above their current level (i+1).
o Affective Filter Hypothesis: Emotional factors can influence language
acquisition.
2. Mentalist Theory: Universal Grammar by Noam Chomsky
 Tenets:
o Universal Grammar: All humans are born with an innate ability to acquire
language.
o Language Acquisition Device (LAD): A hypothetical brain mechanism that
helps children learn language.
o Critical Period Hypothesis: There is a critical period during which language
acquisition occurs most easily.
3. Behaviourist Theory by Leonard Bloomfield
 Tenets:
o Stimulus-Response: Language learning is a result of habit formation through
stimulus and response.
o Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement strengthens correct language use.
o Imitation: Language learning occurs through imitation of others.
4. Cognitivist Theory by Jean Piaget
 Tenets:
o Stages of Cognitive Development: Language acquisition is linked to cognitive
development stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal
operational).
o Schema: Mental structures that help individuals organize and interpret
information.
o Assimilation and Accommodation: Processes by which individuals integrate
new information into existing schemas or adjust schemas to fit new information.
Fact Storming Activity on Implications of Theories to Language Learning in
CBC
 Monitor Model: Emphasizes the importance of providing comprehensible input and
reducing affective filters in the classroom.
 Universal Grammar: Highlights the need for exposure to rich linguistic input during the
critical period.
 Behaviourist Theory: Suggests the use of repetition, drills, and positive reinforcement in
language teaching.
 Cognitivist Theory: Encourages activities that promote cognitive development and the
use of language in meaningful contexts.
Encouraging Collaborative Learning and Communication in Grade 1
 Group Activities: Use group projects and peer interactions to foster collaboration.
 Interactive Games: Incorporate language games that require teamwork and
communication.
 Storytelling Sessions: Encourage students to tell stories in groups, promoting language
use and creativity.
 Role-Playing: Use role-playing activities to practice language in real-life scenarios.
Integrating Peace During Learning
 Conflict Resolution Activities: Teach students how to resolve conflicts peacefully
through role-playing.
 Collaborative Projects: Assign projects that require cooperation and mutual respect.
 Class Discussions: Facilitate discussions on topics related to peace and harmony.
 Peaceful Classroom Environment: Create a classroom atmosphere that promotes
respect, empathy, and understanding.
Questions to Explore
1. How is language acquired?
o Language is acquired through a combination of innate abilities, environmental
exposure, and cognitive development.
2. What are the advantages of learning a second language?
o Cognitive benefits, cultural awareness, improved communication skills, and better
career opportunities.
3. What factors influence second language acquisition?
o Age, motivation, exposure, cognitive abilities, and emotional factors.
4. What is a theory?
 o A theory is a systematic explanation of an aspect of the natural world, based on a
body of evidence and principles.
2.2 Listening and speaking
2.2.1 Oral skills 2
Describing Form and Meaning, Connotation and Denotation, Collocation, and
Lexical Items
1. Form and Meaning:
o Form: The structure or pattern of a word (e.g., noun, verb, etc.).
o Meaning: The definition or the idea that a word represents.
2. Connotation and Denotation:
o Connotation: The associated or secondary meaning of a word (e.g., "home"
connotes comfort).
o Denotation: The literal or primary meaning of a word (e.g., "home" denotes a
place where one lives).
3. Collocation:
o Collocation: Words that are commonly used together (e.g., "make a decision",
"strong coffee").
4. Lexical Items:
o Single Lexical Items: Single words (e.g., book, run).
o Multiword Lexical Items: Phrases or expressions (e.g., "give up", "in front of").
Creating Word Lists of High and Low Frequency Words
1. High Frequency Words: Words that appear frequently in English texts (e.g., the, and, to,
is, it).
2. Low Frequency Words: Words that are less commonly used (e.g., accoutrement,
labyrinthine).
Strategies for Facilitating the Learning of Oral Skills
1. Pronunciation Drills: Repetitive practice to improve pronunciation.
2. Minimal Pairs: Practicing pairs of words that differ by only one sound (e.g., ship vs.
sheep).
3. Record and Replay: Recording speech and playing it back to analyze and improve.
4. Tongue Twisters: Practicing difficult phrases to improve articulation.
5. Storytelling: Engaging in storytelling to improve fluency and vocabulary.
6. Contextual Clues: Using context to infer the meaning of words.
7. Jumble Games: Rearranging letters or words to form correct words or sentences.
8. Print and E-learning Materials: Using books, apps, and online resources for practice.
9. Matching Games: Matching words to pictures or definitions.
10. Crossword Puzzles and Word Trees: Solving puzzles and creating word trees to expand
vocabulary.
11. Use of Technology: Incorporating apps, software, and online tools in learning.
Factstorming on Assisting Learners Struggling with Oral Skills
1. Individualized Attention: Providing one-on-one support.
2. Using Visual Aids: Employing images and videos to enhance understanding.
3. Peer Support: Encouraging group activities and peer teaching.
 4. Simplified Language: Using simpler language and gradually increasing complexity.
5. Regular Practice: Encouraging frequent practice and repetition.
6. Positive Reinforcement: Offering praise and rewards to motivate learners.
7. Interactive Activities: Engaging learners with fun and interactive exercises.
Procedure of Conducting a Lesson on Oral Skills
1. Introduction: Setting the context and objectives of the lesson.
2. Presentation: Introducing the new material or skill.
3. Imitation: Modeling correct usage for students to imitate.
4. Meaningful Practice: Engaging in exercises that require the use of the new skill in
context.
5. Reinforcement: Reviewing and reinforcing the lesson content.
Comparing Ways of Assessing Oral Skills
1. Questioning: Asking questions to gauge understanding.
2. Sentence Construction: Having students create sentences.
3. Teacher-Made Tests: Designing custom tests for assessment.
4. Sentence Completion: Completing partially given sentences.
5. Matching Exercises: Matching words to their meanings or pictures.
6. Language Games: Using games to make assessment engaging.
General Learning Outcomes for English at Primary Level
1. Reading Skills: Ability to read and comprehend texts.
2. Writing Skills: Ability to write clearly and coherently.
3. Listening Skills: Ability to understand spoken English.
4. Speaking Skills: Ability to communicate effectively.
Specific Learning Outcomes for Oral Skills Lessons
1. Grade 1:
o Outcome 1: Students will be able to pronounce common English words correctly.
o Outcome 2: Students will be able to engage in simple conversations.
2. Grade 3:
o Outcome 1: Students will be able to use context clues to understand unfamiliar
words.
o Outcome 2: Students will be able to retell stories in their own words.
Importance of Building Vocabulary and Language Structures
1. Communication: Enhanced vocabulary and language structures improve overall
communication skills.
2. Academic Success: A strong vocabulary supports academic learning across subjects.
3. Confidence: Knowing more words and structures builds confidence in language use.
4. Understanding Texts: Helps in comprehending and analyzing texts.
5. Expressing Ideas: Allows for clearer and more precise expression of thoughts.
Learning the Meaning of Words
1. Context Clues: Using surrounding text to infer meanings.
2. Dictionaries: Consulting dictionaries for definitions.
3. Flashcards: Using flashcards for memorization and practice.
4. Reading: Extensive reading to encounter and learn new words.
 5. Language Apps: Using apps designed for vocabulary building.
6. Word Lists: Maintaining lists of new words and their meanings.
Assessing Mastery of Oral Skills
1. Observation: Observing students during conversations and activities.
2. Oral Presentations: Evaluating students during presentations.
3. Role-Playing: Assessing through role-playing scenarios.
4. Listening Tests: Using listening comprehension tests.
5. Pronunciation Drills: Evaluating pronunciation through drills.
6. Feedback: Providing constructive feedback on oral performance.
2.3 Reading
2.3.1 Reading for younger children
1. Reasons for Teaching Reading to Young Children
 Language Development: Reading helps children build their vocabulary and understand
how language works.
 Cognitive Skills: It enhances memory, attention, and thinking skills.
 Social-Emotional Development: Reading stories helps children understand emotions
and develop empathy.
 Academic Success: Early reading skills are foundational for later academic achievement.
 Bonding: Reading together strengthens the bond between children and caregivers.
2. Factstorming on Reading Aloud vs. Silent Reading
 Reading Aloud in Lower Grades:
o Phonemic Awareness: Helps children recognize phonemes and sounds.
o Listening Skills: Improves attention and listening skills.
o Engagement: Keeps children engaged and interested in stories.
o Modeling: Demonstrates fluent reading and expression.
 Silent Reading from Grade Four:
o Independence: Encourages independent reading and comprehension.
o Concentration: Helps children focus and concentrate on text.
o Self-Paced Learning: Allows children to read at their own pace.
3. Pre-Reading Skills for Young Children
 Visual Discrimination: Ability to distinguish between different visual stimuli.
 Auditory Skills: Recognizing and differentiating sounds.
 Visual Memory: Remembering visual information.
 Auditory Memory: Remembering auditory information.
 Attentional Skills: Focusing on tasks and maintaining attention.
4. Skills for Starting to Read
 Recognizing Colors: Identifying and naming colors.
 Front-to-Back Orientation: Understanding how to start reading from the front of the
book.
 Letter Recognition: Knowing the letters of the alphabet.
 Print Awareness: Understanding that print carries meaning and is read from left to right.
5. Informal Ways of Introducing Reading
  Name Cards: Using name cards to help children recognize their own names.
 Picture Labels: Labeling pictures around the classroom to build vocabulary.
 Classroom Displays: Using captions and labels on classroom objects and displays.
6. Assessing Reading Readiness
 Reading Readiness Checklist: Tools to evaluate children's readiness for reading,
including their ability to recognize letters, understand phonics, and follow simple stories.
7. Methods of Facilitating Reading Lessons
 Look and Say: Using repetition and visual aids to teach words.
 Phonics: Teaching the relationship between letters and sounds.
 Strengths: Look and Say is good for memorization, while Phonics helps with decoding.
 Weaknesses: Look and Say can be less effective for understanding, while Phonics can be
challenging for some learners.
8. Importance of Oral Work Before Reading and Writing
 Oral Preparation: Helps children develop language skills and understand story
structure.
 Word Recognition Activities: Activities that help children recognize and understand
words.
 Guided Reading: Teacher-led reading sessions to support comprehension.
 Checking Understanding: Ensuring children understand what they have read.
 Practice: Regular practice to reinforce reading skills.
9. Learning Experiences with Technology in Grade 3
 Interactive E-books: Using e-books with interactive features to engage students.
 Reading Apps: Apps that provide practice in phonics and comprehension.
10. Incorporating Self-Efficacy and Love in Reading Lessons
 Self-Efficacy: Encouraging children to believe in their ability to read.
 Love for Reading: Creating a positive and enjoyable reading environment.
11. Why Use Several Methods When Teaching Reading in English?
 Diverse Learning Styles: Different students learn in different ways, so using multiple
methods ensures that all students can benefit.
 Comprehensive Skill Development: Different methods target different reading skills,
providing a well-rounded approach.
 Engagement: Variety keeps students interested and motivated.
12. Why Should the Teaching of Reading Be Systematic?
 Structured Learning: A systematic approach ensures that all necessary skills are taught
in a logical order.
 Progress Tracking: It allows for clear tracking of student progress and identification of
areas needing improvement.
 Consistency: Provides a consistent framework for teaching and learning
2.3 Reading
2.3.2 Reading for older children
Discussing Reading Problems Among Learners and Their Remedies
 1. Dyslexia: A reading disorder characterized by difficulty with accurate and/or fluent word
recognition.
o Remedies: Multisensory instruction, phonics-based approaches, and personalized
support.
2. Limited Vocabulary: Students may struggle with understanding text due to a lack of
vocabulary.
o Remedies: Vocabulary-building exercises, reading diverse texts, and using
flashcards.
3. Poor Comprehension: Difficulty in understanding and interpreting text.
o Remedies: Comprehension strategies like summarizing, questioning, and
predicting.
4. Lack of Motivation: Disinterest in reading activities.
o Remedies: Engaging and relevant reading materials, rewards, and encouraging a
reading culture.
5. Attention Deficit: Difficulty in focusing on reading tasks.
o Remedies: Short, interactive reading sessions and minimizing distractions.
6. Phonemic Awareness: Challenges in recognizing and manipulating sounds in words.
o Remedies: Phonemic awareness activities, rhyming games, and sound blending
exercises.
Word Attack Skills to Assist Struggling Readers
1. Phonics (Sound Clues): Teaching the relationship between sounds and letters.
o Practice: Phonics drills, reading phonetic readers, and sound games.
2. Context Clues: Using surrounding text to infer the meaning of unknown words.
o Practice: Cloze exercises, reading in context, and guided reading sessions.
3. Picture Clues: Using images to understand the meaning of words.
o Practice: Picture books, labeled illustrations, and visual storytelling.
4. Syllabification: Breaking down words into syllables.
o Practice: Syllable splitting exercises, clapping out syllables, and word lists.
5. Comparison with Known Words: Using known words to decode new ones.
o Practice: Analogies, word families, and word ladders.
6. Analyzing Compound Words: Breaking down compound words into their components.
o Practice: Compound word activities, word matching games, and sentence
building.
Procedure for Teaching Reading for Older Children
1. Language Preparation: Building vocabulary and language structures needed for
reading.
2. Motivation for Reading: Engaging students with interesting and relevant reading
materials.
3. Silent and Independent Reading: Encouraging self-paced reading to build fluency.
4. Checking Understanding: Using comprehension questions and discussions to ensure
understanding.
5. Follow-Up: Activities like summaries, projects, and presentations to reinforce learning.
Assessment Methods for Reading
1. Reading Aloud: Assessing fluency and pronunciation.
2. Dictation: Evaluating spelling and listening skills.
 3. Oral Interview/Questioning: Checking comprehension and critical thinking.
4. Teacher-Made Tests: Custom tests to evaluate specific reading skills.
5. Closed Items: Multiple-choice questions for assessing comprehension.
6. Sentence Completion Items: Testing understanding and vocabulary.
7. Peer Assessment: Allowing peers to review each other's reading.
8. Standardised Reading Tests: Using standardized tools to measure reading levels.
Key Inquiry Questions for a Lesson on Reading in Grade 5
1. What strategies can we use to understand unfamiliar words while reading?
2. How can we improve our reading comprehension skills?
3. What are the benefits of regular reading practice?
Benefits of Intensive Reading
1. Improved Comprehension: Deep understanding of complex texts.
2. Vocabulary Expansion: Exposure to new words and phrases.
3. Critical Thinking: Analyzing and interpreting texts.
4. Language Proficiency: Enhanced overall language skills.
5. Better Focus: Improved concentration and attention span.
Activities to Help Learners Understand What They Read
1. Reading Comprehension Questions: Asking questions about the text.
2. Summarizing: Writing or orally summarizing the main points.
3. Prediction Exercises: Predicting what will happen next in the text.
4. Mind Mapping: Creating visual representations of the text.
5. Discussion Groups: Discussing the text with peers.
6. Role-Playing: Acting out parts of the text.
7. Illustrating: Drawing scenes or concepts from the text.
8. Rewriting: Rewriting passages in their own words.
2.4. Grammar
2.4.1 Tense and aspect
Talking About Events that Happen at Different Times
To discuss events happening at different times, it's essential to use the correct tenses and aspects
in sentences. Here’s a detailed look:
Present Tense:
 Simple Present: Used for habits, general truths, and states.
o Example: She writes every day.
 Present Progressive: Describes ongoing actions happening now.
o Example: She is writing a letter right now.
 Present Perfect: Indicates actions completed at some unspecified time or that have an
effect on the present.
o Example: She has written three letters today.
 Present Perfect Progressive: Focuses on the duration of an action that began in the past
and continues in the present.
o Example: She has been writing for three hours.
Past Tense:
 Simple Past: Used for completed actions in the past.
o Example: She wrote a letter yesterday.
 Past Progressive: Describes ongoing past actions or actions interrupted by another event.
o Example: She was writing when I called.
 Past Perfect: Indicates actions completed before another past action.
o Example: She had written the letter before he arrived.
 Past Perfect Progressive: Focuses on the duration of an action that was ongoing in the
past.
o Example: She had been writing for two hours before he arrived.
Expressing Future Time
To express future time, we can use various forms:
Future Tense:
 Simple Future: Indicates actions that will happen.
o Example: She will write a letter tomorrow.
 Future Progressive: Describes ongoing future actions.
o Example: She will be writing a letter at 3 PM.
 Future Perfect: Indicates actions that will be completed before a specific future time.
o Example: She will have written the letter by tomorrow.
 Future Perfect Progressive: Focuses on the duration of an action up to a future point.
o Example: She will have been writing for two hours by the time he arrives.
Teaching Strategies for Grammar (Tense and Aspect)
To teach grammar effectively, especially tenses and aspects, consider these strategies:
1. Sentence Construction Exercises:
o Create exercises where students construct sentences using different tenses.
o Example: Convert the following sentence to the past tense: "She writes a letter."
2. Dialogue Building:
o Have students create dialogues that incorporate different tenses.
o Example: Write a conversation between two friends planning a future trip.
3. Writing Poems and Short Stories:
o Encourage creativity through writing poems or short stories, focusing on
consistent tense use.
o Example: Write a short story about a past event using the past perfect tense.
4. Use of Songs:
o Utilize songs with varied tenses and aspects to teach grammar.
o Example: Analyze lyrics to identify and discuss different tenses.
5. Peer Correction:
o Foster a collaborative learning environment where students correct each other’s
work.
o Example: Swap worksheets and have students identify incorrect tense usage.
6. Creating Meaningful Contexts:
o Develop scenarios that require the use of specific tenses and aspects.
o Example: Role-play different situations (e.g., a job interview, a historical event)
using appropriate tenses.
Developing Online Worksheets
To develop online worksheets on tense and aspect:
 Use platforms like Google Docs, Microsoft Word Online, or specialized worksheet
generators.
 Incorporate varied question types (multiple choice, fill-in-the-blank, short answer).
 Add interactive elements like drag-and-drop activities or clickable options.
Once created, share these worksheets on platforms like Google Classroom, Microsoft Teams, or
educational websites.
2.5 Writing
2.5.1 Writing skills
1. What are Pre-Writing Skills?
Pre-writing skills are foundational abilities that children develop before they learn to write.
These skills prepare children for the task of writing and include a variety of physical and
cognitive abilities.
Physical Skills:
1. Fine Motor Skills: Development of small muscle movements in the hands and fingers.
o Example: Holding a pencil, using scissors.
2. Hand-Eye Coordination: Ability to coordinate visual input with hand movements.
o Example: Tracing shapes, copying patterns.
3. Bilateral Coordination: Using both sides of the body together in a coordinated way.
o Example: Holding paper with one hand while drawing with the other.
Cognitive Skills:
1. Visual Perception: Understanding and interpreting visual information.
o Example: Recognizing shapes, letters, and numbers.
2. Spatial Awareness: Understanding of space and how objects relate to one another.
o Example: Understanding that letters are written on a line.
3. Memory: Recalling shapes and patterns.
o Example: Remembering how to form letters and numbers.
2. How Do We Teach Writing Skills?
Teaching writing skills involves a multi-faceted approach, focusing on different aspects of
writing from basic to advanced levels.
Strategies:
1. Language Preparation: Building vocabulary and understanding sentence structures.
o Activity: Reading stories and discussing new words.
2. Oral Preparation: Encouraging speaking skills to form coherent thoughts.
o Activity: Storytelling and role-playing.
3. Individual Writing Practice: Guided practice of writing.
o Activity: Writing short paragraphs, keeping a daily journal.
4. Follow-Up Activities: Providing feedback and additional practice.
o Activity: Peer review sessions, writing workshops.
Techniques:
1. Gap Filling Exercises: Completing sentences with missing words.
 2. Sentence Completion: Expanding or finishing given sentences.
3. Use of Substitution Tables: Replacing words to create new sentences.
4. Joining Sentences: Combining simple sentences into complex ones.
5. Crossword Puzzles: Enhancing vocabulary and spelling skills.
6. Jumbled Letters: Arranging letters to form words.
7. Rewriting Exercises: Rephrasing sentences or paragraphs.
3. Why Do We Emphasize on Good Handwriting?
Good handwriting is crucial for effective communication and has several benefits that contribute
to a child’s overall development.
Cognitive Benefits:
1. Improved Academic Performance: Neat handwriting can lead to better grades as it
makes reading and understanding content easier for teachers.
2. Enhanced Memory Retention: Writing by hand improves memory and learning because
it engages multiple senses.
Motor Skills Development:
1. Fine Motor Skills: Good handwriting practices enhance coordination and control of
small muscles.
2. Hand-Eye Coordination: Consistent practice improves the ability to coordinate hand
movements with visual input.
Psychological Benefits:
1. Increased Confidence: Children with good handwriting often feel more confident in
their academic abilities.
2. Reduced Stress: Clear and legible handwriting can reduce anxiety and frustration during
exams and assignments.
Factstorming Activities and Teaching Practices
To contribute effectively to a 'Factstorming' activity and other teaching practices, consider the
following:
1. Factstorming Activity:
o Pair students to brainstorm and share knowledge on pre-writing skills.
o Encourage sharing of practical examples and personal experiences.
2. Pre-Writing Skill Activities:
o Use playdough to strengthen hand muscles.
o Practice tracing shapes and lines.
o Engage in arts and crafts to improve fine motor skills.
3. Handwriting Worksheets:
o Create worksheets focusing on individual letters, words, and sentences.
o Include both print and cursive writing exercises.
4. Addressing Handwriting Problems:
o Identify common issues such as letter reversals or spacing problems.
o Provide targeted exercises to correct these issues.
o Use tools like pencil grips and special paper to aid proper writing posture.
5. Learning Activities for Handwriting:
o Use songs and rhymes to make writing fun.
o Incorporate digital tools and apps for interactive writing practice.
 o Provide guidance for left-handed learners to ensure they have a comfortable
writing position.
6. Steps for Teaching Handwriting:
o Revise already learned letters through regular practice.
o Use pattern practice to develop smooth writing motions.
o Demonstrate proper letter formation and encourage imitation.
o Individual practice with regular feedback.
7. Facilitating Writing Exercises:
o Prepare students with relevant language and vocabulary.
o Use oral activities to build coherent writing skills.
o Guide individual writing with constructive feedback.
o Follow-up with exercises that reinforce learning.
8. Sub-Skills of Writing:
o Focus on topic selection, content organization, and proper format.
o Emphasize sentence structure, vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, and handwriting.
9. Digital Integration:
o Design activities that use digital devices to teach values and integrate learning.
o Use educational apps and online resources for interactive learning.

2.5 Writing
2.5.2 Types of writing 1
1. Why is Creative Writing Important?
Creative writing plays a pivotal role in personal development, education, and society. Let's break
down its importance:
Personal Development:
1. Self-Expression: It allows individuals to express their thoughts, emotions, and ideas
uniquely.
o Example: Writing poetry or personal essays can help articulate complex feelings.
2. Mental Well-being: Engaging in creative writing can be therapeutic, offering a way to
process emotions and experiences.
o Example: Journaling about personal experiences can be a form of self-reflection
and healing.
3. Cognitive Skills: Enhances imagination, creativity, and critical thinking.
o Example: Crafting a fictional story requires problem-solving and innovation.
Educational Benefits:
1. Language Skills: Improves vocabulary, grammar, and language proficiency.
o Example: Writing narratives and descriptions helps in mastering sentence
structure and word usage.
2. Academic Performance: Strong writing skills contribute to better performance in other
academic areas.
o Example: Writing essays in subjects like history or science improves
comprehension and articulation.
3. Analytical Thinking: Encourages the analysis of characters, plots, and themes.
 o Example: Reviewing and critiquing peers' work fosters critical evaluation skills.
Societal Impact:
1. Cultural Reflection: Creative writing preserves and reflects cultural heritage and societal
values.
o Example: Writing stories about local traditions and histories.
2. Communication: Enhances the ability to communicate effectively and persuasively.
o Example: Writing opinion pieces or persuasive essays on contemporary issues.
3. Empathy and Understanding: Reading and writing from different perspectives fosters
empathy.
o Example: Writing from the viewpoint of diverse characters broadens
understanding of different experiences.
2. How Do We Teach Creative Writing?
Teaching creative writing involves fostering imagination, providing structure, and encouraging
practice. Here’s a detailed approach:
Planning Stage:
1. Generating Ideas: Use brainstorming sessions, prompts, and shared experiences to spark
creativity.
o Activity: Have students share personal stories or discuss a theme to generate ideas.
2. Outlining: Teach students to organize their thoughts and create an outline before writing.
o Activity: Create mind maps or bullet points to structure their narratives or
descriptions.
Writing Process:
1. Drafting: Encourage students to write their first draft without worrying about perfection.
o Activity: Set a timer for free writing sessions to get ideas flowing.
2. Revising and Editing: Teach students to revise their work, focusing on content and
clarity, and then edit for grammar and style.
o Activity: Peer review sessions to provide constructive feedback on each other's
drafts.
3. Publishing: Share final pieces through various platforms, such as class blogs, school
magazines, or digital publications.
o Activity: Use digital tools like Bloom or ePUB to publish students' stories.
Teaching Techniques:
1. Factstorming Activity: Collaborate with students to list characteristics of narrative and
descriptive writing.
o Characteristics of Narrative Writing: plot, characters, setting, conflict, resolution.
o Characteristics of Descriptive Writing: sensory details, vivid imagery, precise
language.
2. Writing Circles: Create groups where students can write, share, and critique each other's
work.
o Activity: Assign roles (writer, editor, critic) within the circle to facilitate
structured feedback.
3. Error Identification: Teach students to identify and correct common writing errors.
o Example: Spelling mistakes, sentence fragments, run-on sentences, misplaced
modifiers, etc.
Practical Activities:
1. Creative Writing Samples: Have students create their own narrative and descriptive
pieces in writing circles.
o Activity: Assign topics or themes for short stories or descriptive essays.
2. Conferences and Critiques: Organize conferences where students present their work
and receive feedback.
o Activity: Schedule regular sessions where students discuss and critique each
other's writing.
3. Digital Storytelling: Use digital tools to enhance and publish creative writing.
o Activity: Create digital stories using software like Bloom and publish them on
ePUB.
Procedural Steps for Composition Writing:
1. Introduction: Discuss the importance and purpose of the composition.
2. Oral Preparation: Engage in discussions to prepare ideas and outline the composition.
3. Individual Writing: Allow time for independent writing and encourage creativity.
4. Marking and Correction: Provide constructive feedback on students' work.
5. Follow-Up: Offer additional practice and revision opportunities.
Importance of Good Handwriting in Creative Writing:
1. Legibility: Ensures that ideas are clearly communicated and understood by readers.
2. Presentation: Good handwriting makes the writing look more professional and polished.
3. Confidence: Students with good handwriting are often more confident in their writing
abilities.
Generating Learning Experiences:
1. Interactive Activities: Incorporate games, storytelling, and role-playing to make learning
engaging.
o Activity: Create stories as a group, with each student adding a sentence.
2. Digital Integration: Use digital tools to create and share writing.
o Activity: Assign digital storytelling projects using apps and software.

2.6 Theories and Models of Communication

2.6 Conceptualisation, evaluation and roles of models of
communication
discussing Main Ideas in Communication Theories
To distinguish between different communication theories, it's essential to understand their main
ideas. Here are some key theories and their concepts:
Shannon and Weaver Model:
 Main Idea: Focuses on the process of information transfer.
 Key Concepts: Sender, message, channel, receiver, noise, and feedback.
Berlo's SMCR Model:
 Main Idea: Emphasizes the relationship between the source, message, channel, and
receiver.
 Key Concepts: Source (encoder), message, channel, receiver (decoder).
Schramm's Model:
 Main Idea: Highlights the role of shared experience in communication.
 Key Concepts: Encoder, decoder, interpreter, feedback, and field of experience.
Transactional Model:
 Main Idea: Considers communication as a dynamic and simultaneous process.
 Key Concepts: Continuous and reciprocal interaction between sender and receiver.
Lasswell's Model:
 Main Idea: Focuses on the effects of communication.
 Key Concepts: Who (communicator), Says What (message), In Which Channel
(medium), To Whom (receiver), With What Effect (effect).
Importance of Communication Theories in Day-to-Day Interactions
Communication theories are vital in everyday interactions for several reasons:
Enhancing Understanding and Clarity:
1. Preventing Miscommunication: Theories like Shannon and Weaver's model help
identify and mitigate noise, ensuring clear communication.
2. Effective Feedback: Models emphasizing feedback, like the Transactional Model,
improve the accuracy of interactions.
Building Relationships:
1. Context Awareness: Theories highlight the importance of context, which is crucial for
effective communication.
2. Empathy: Humanistic theories stress understanding others' perspectives, fostering
empathy in interactions.
Conflict Resolution:
1. Nonviolent Communication: Theories offer frameworks for resolving conflicts
constructively.
2. Negotiation Skills: Models guide effective negotiation and conflict resolution
techniques.
Relating Theories and Models to Teaching and Learning
Communication theories are highly relevant in teaching and learning processes:
Enhancing Instructional Strategies:
1. Clarity in Teaching: Models like the SMCR emphasize clear messaging, crucial for
effective teaching.
2. Interactive Learning: The Transactional Model supports interactive teaching methods,
enhancing student engagement.
Improving Student Engagement:
1. Feedback Loops: Theories highlight the importance of feedback in learning.
2. Technology Integration: Understanding models helps effectively integrate technology in
teaching.
Supporting Inclusive Education:
1. Cultural Sensitivity: Theories emphasize the need for cultural awareness in education.
2. Tailored Instruction: Models support differentiated instruction to cater to diverse
learning needs.
Strengthening Teacher-Student Relationships:
1. Empathy and Understanding: Humanistic theories foster strong teacher-student
relationships.
2. Active Listening: Essential for understanding and addressing students' needs.
Activities to Relate Theories to Teaching and Learning
To engage in activities that relate theories and models of communication to teaching and learning
processes, consider the following:
1. Research and Presentation:
o Assign students to research different communication theories using print and non-
print resources.
o Have them present their findings in class, highlighting the main ideas and
distinguishing features.
2. Debates:
o Organize debates on the importance of communication theories in day-to-day
interactions.
o Encourage students to argue for or against the relevance of specific theories in
real-life scenarios.
3. Role-Playing:
o Develop role-playing activities where students act as teachers and apply different
communication strategies.
o Use scenarios that require them to implement various communication models in
teaching.
4. Group Discussions:
o Facilitate group discussions on how communication theories can enhance
teaching and learning.
o Encourage students to share personal experiences and examples.
5. Peer Review and Feedback:
o Have students create lesson plans or presentations incorporating communication
theories.
o Engage in peer review sessions to provide feedback and improve understanding.
6. Workshops and Seminars:
o Conduct workshops and seminars where experts discuss the practical implications
of communication theories.
o Encourage students to participate and ask questions to deepen their understanding.

3.1 Background to language and language learning

3.1.1 Approaches and methods to language learning
Researching and Writing a Report on Principles of Selected Language Teaching
Approaches
1. Situational Language Teaching (SLT):
 Principles:
1. Contextual Learning: Language is taught through meaningful contexts and
situations.
2. Oral Practice: Emphasis on oral skills through dialogues and situational practice.
 3. Structure and Vocabulary: Focus on grammar and vocabulary specific to the
situation.
4. Repetition and Drills: Use of repetition and drills to reinforce language
structures.
2. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT):
 Principles:
1. Communication Goal: The primary goal is effective communication.
2. Interactive Learning: Learning through interaction and meaningful
communication.
3. Functional Language Use: Emphasis on language functions and uses rather than
just forms.
4. Learner-Centered: Learners are active participants in the learning process.
3. Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT):
 Principles:
1. Task Completion: Focus on completing meaningful tasks using the target
language.
2. Real-World Relevance: Tasks are designed to reflect real-world language use.
3. Learner Engagement: Tasks encourage active engagement and participation.
4. Outcome-Oriented: Emphasis on achieving specific outcomes through task
completion.
4. Presentation, Practice, Production (PPP):
 Principles:
1. Presentation: Introducing new language concepts through explanations and
demonstrations.
2. Practice: Guided practice through structured exercises and activities.
3. Production: Independent use of the new language in communicative activities.
4. Progressive Learning: A structured approach that progresses from teacher-led to
student-led activities.
5. Competency-Based Language Teaching (CBLT):
 Principles:
1. Skill Mastery: Focus on developing specific competencies and skills.
2. Performance-Based: Emphasis on learners demonstrating their ability to use the
language in real-world scenarios.
3. Learner-Centered: Tailoring instruction to individual learner needs and
competencies.
4. Continuous Assessment: Ongoing assessment and feedback to ensure
competency development.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Selected Approaches in the Context of the
Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC)
Situational Language Teaching:
 Strengths:
1. Real-Life Application: Contextual learning makes language use practical and
relevant.
2. Focused Learning: Clear focus on specific language structures and vocabulary.
  Weaknesses:
1. Limited Scope: May not cover all language skills comprehensively.
2. Repetition: Can become monotonous and may not fully engage learners.
Communicative Language Teaching:
 Strengths:
1. Effective Communication: Focuses on developing communicative competence.
2. Engaging: Interactive and student-centered approach increases motivation.
 Weaknesses:
1. Less Structured: May lack the structure needed for comprehensive grammar
learning.
2. Assessment Challenges: Measuring communicative competence can be complex.
Task-based Language Teaching:
 Strengths:
1. Engagement: Tasks provide meaningful context and engage learners.
2. Practical Application: Focuses on real-world language use.
 Weaknesses:
1. Resource Intensive: Requires careful planning and resources.
2. Complexity: Tasks can be complex and may overwhelm some learners.
Presentation, Practice, Production:
 Strengths:
1. Structured Learning: Provides a clear progression from presentation to
independent use.
2. Versatility: Can be adapted to various language concepts and skills.
 Weaknesses:
1. Teacher-Centered: Initial stages may be too teacher-centered.
2. Repetition: Risk of becoming repetitive and predictable.
Competency-Based Language Teaching:
 Strengths:
1. Personalized Learning: Tailored to individual learner needs and competencies.
2. Practical Application: Focuses on real-world language use and skill mastery.
 Weaknesses:
1. Assessment Intensive: Requires continuous assessment and feedback.
2. Implementation Challenges: May be challenging to implement effectively in
diverse classrooms.
Adapting Approaches and Methods for Different Categories of Learners
1. Beginner Learners:
o Approach: PPP or SLT
o Reason: These methods provide structured and clear instruction, making it easier
for beginners to grasp language concepts.
2. Intermediate Learners:
o Approach: CLT or TBLT
o Reason: These methods encourage communication and real-world language use,
which are suitable for learners with some language proficiency.
3. Advanced Learners:
 o Approach: CBLT or TBLT
o Reason: These methods focus on skill mastery and complex tasks, which
challenge advanced learners and prepare them for real-world language use.
Integrating Pertinent and Contemporary Issues in English Learning
Importance of Integration:
1. Relevance: Makes language learning meaningful and relevant to learners' lives.
2. Critical Thinking: Encourages learners to think critically about contemporary issues.
3. Cultural Awareness: Enhances understanding of global and cultural issues.
Strategies for Integration:
1. Discussion of Current Events: Incorporate discussions on current events and global
issues in language lessons.
2. Project-Based Learning: Assign projects that require research and presentation on
contemporary issues.
3. Literature and Media: Use literature, articles, and media that address pertinent issues.
4. Debates and Role-Plays: Organize debates and role-plays on contemporary topics to
develop communication and critical thinking skills.
Why Use Varied Methods and Approaches in Language Learning?
Catering to Diverse Learning Styles:
1. Multiple Intelligences: Different learners have varied strengths (visual, auditory,
kinesthetic). Using varied methods ensures all learners are engaged.
o Example: Visual learners benefit from videos, auditory learners from discussions,
and kinesthetic learners from hands-on activities.
Addressing Different Language Skills:
1. Holistic Development: Varied methods cover different language skills (listening,
speaking, reading, writing) comprehensively.
o Example: Role-plays for speaking, reading comprehension exercises for reading
skills.
Enhancing Engagement and Motivation:
1. Interest and Motivation: Using different approaches keeps lessons interesting and
prevents monotony.
o Example: Incorporating games, storytelling, and technology makes learning fun
and engaging.
Adapting to Learner Needs:
1. Differentiated Instruction: Varied methods allow for differentiation, addressing
individual learner needs and levels.
o Example: Advanced learners can tackle more complex tasks, while beginners start
with basic exercises.
Fostering Real-World Application:
1. Practical Use: Different approaches provide opportunities for learners to use language in
real-world contexts.
o Example: Task-based learning for real-life problem-solving, communicative
activities for social interactions.
Integrating Contemporary Issues:
1. Relevance: Addressing pertinent and contemporary issues makes language learning
relevant to learners' lives.
o Example: Discussing current events and global issues and integrating cultural
awareness in lessons.
3.2 Listening and speaking
3.2.1 Listening Comprehension
. Listening to and Reviewing Texts on Contemporary Issues
When engaging with texts on contemporary issues like school safety, patriotism, integrity, good
governance, and peace from audio-visual sources or resource persons, consider these steps:
Active Listening:
 Focus on the Speaker: Maintain eye contact and avoid distractions.
 Engage with the Content: Nod, take notes, and ask questions to show interest.
 Summarize Key Points: After listening, summarize the main ideas and issues discussed.
Reviewing Texts:
 Critical Analysis: Assess the credibility of the source and the relevance of the content.
 Reflection: Reflect on how the issues discussed impact your community or school.
 Discussion: Share your insights with peers to foster a deeper understanding.
3. Benefits of Effective Listening in the Learning Process
Effective listening is crucial in the learning process for several reasons:
Enhanced Comprehension:
 Understanding Instructions: Better comprehension of teachers' instructions and
explanations.
 Grasping Concepts: Improved ability to understand and retain new concepts and
information.
Improved Academic Performance:
 Active Participation: Students who listen effectively participate more in class
discussions.
 Better Grades: Enhanced listening skills often lead to better academic performance.
Strengthened Relationships:
 Communication Skills: Effective listeners develop stronger communication skills.
 Peer Interaction: Better listening leads to improved interactions and relationships with
peers.
Critical Thinking:
 Analyzing Information: Listening helps in analyzing and evaluating information
critically.
 Problem-Solving: Enhanced listening skills contribute to better problem-solving
abilities.
5. Activities to Facilitate Listening Comprehension Lessons
Researching activities for listening comprehension lessons involves exploring both print and
online sources. Here are some activities:
Role Play:
 Description: Students act out roles in given scenarios to practice listening and
responding.
 Benefit: Encourages active listening and speaking skills.
Dramatization:
 Description: Students perform scripted or improvised dramas based on texts.
 Benefit: Enhances listening comprehension and creativity.
Storytelling:
 Description: Students listen to stories and retell them in their own words.
 Benefit: Develops listening and narrative skills.
Hot Seating:
 Description: One student sits in the "hot seat" and answers questions from peers about a
character or topic.
 Benefit: Promotes active listening and critical thinking.
Oral Interviews:
 Description: Students conduct interviews with peers or resource persons.
 Benefit: Enhances listening and speaking skills.
Recitation:
 Description: Students listen to and recite poems, speeches, or passages.
 Benefit: Improves listening and memory skills.
News Telling:
 Description: Students listen to news reports and share them with the class.
 Benefit: Develops listening and summarization skills.
Imitation and Miming:
 Description: Students listen to actions described and imitate or mime them.
 Benefit: Encourages active listening and physical coordination.
7. How Do We Listen to People When They Are Talking to Us?
Effective listening involves several key steps:
Pay Full Attention:
1. Focus on the Speaker: Give your undivided attention to the person speaking.
2. Avoid Interruptions: Let the speaker finish before you respond.
Show Engagement:
1. Non-Verbal Cues: Use eye contact, nodding, and facial expressions to show you are
listening.
2. Verbal Encouragement: Use phrases like "I see," "I understand," and "Tell me more."
Clarify and Reflect:
1. Ask Questions: Clarify any points that are unclear by asking questions.
2. Paraphrase: Reflect back what you heard by paraphrasing to ensure understanding.
Provide Feedback:
1. Summarize: Summarize the main points to confirm understanding.
 2. Express Empathy: Show empathy by acknowledging the speaker's feelings and
perspectives.
8. How Can We Assess a Person's Attentiveness?
Assessing a person's attentiveness involves observing both verbal and non-verbal cues:
Non-Verbal Cues:
1. Eye Contact: Attentive listeners maintain eye contact with the speaker.
2. Body Language: Positive body language, such as nodding and leaning forward, indicates
engagement.
3. Facial Expressions: Appropriate facial expressions reflect understanding and interest.
Verbal Cues:
1. Responsive Feedback: Attentive listeners provide relevant feedback and ask questions.
2. Summarization: The ability to summarize or paraphrase what was said indicates
attentiveness.
3. Relevant Comments: Making comments and contributions that are relevant to the topic
shows active listening.
Behavioral Indicators:
1. Avoiding Distractions: Attentive listeners avoid distractions like looking at their phones
or daydreaming.
2. Participation: Active participation in discussions and activities reflects attentiveness.
3. Follow-Up Actions: Following up on discussions or instructions demonstrates that the
listener was attentive and understood the content.

3.3 Reading
3.3.1 Intensive reading 1
an extract from Chinua Achebe's renowned African novel, "Things Fall Apart". Here’s an
excerpt:
"Okonkwo was well known throughout the nine villages and even beyond. His fame rested on
solid personal achievements. As a young man of eighteen, he had brought honor to his village by
throwing Amalinze the Cat. Amalinze was the great wrestler who for seven years was unbeaten,
from Umuofia to Mbaino. He was called the Cat because his back would never touch the earth.
It was this man that Okonkwo threw in a fight which the old men agreed was one of the fiercest
since the founder of their town engaged a spirit of the wild for seven days and seven nights. The
drums beat and the flutes sang and the spectators held their breath. Amalinze was a wily
craftsman, but Okonkwo was as slippery as a fish in water. Every nerve and every muscle stood
out on their arms, on their backs, and their thighs, and one almost heard them stretching to
breaking point. In the end, Okonkwo threw the Cat."
1. Contribute to a brainstorm on the salient features of the novel
 Plot Development: The extract introduces Okonkwo, showcasing his wrestling
achievement, which sets the stage for his character’s prominence and his journey.
 Themes: Themes of honor, tradition, and personal achievement are evident.
 Characterization: Okonkwo is portrayed as strong and determined, his character is
pivotal to the story.
  Setting: The setting in Igbo society is highlighted, with references to traditional wrestling
and village life.
 Writing Style: Achebe’s descriptive language and use of traditional stories make the
narrative vivid and engaging.
2. Engage in active reading and analysis of the selected novel (Novel from Africa)
 Setting: The Igbo village setting and cultural context shape Okonkwo's identity and
actions.
 Plot Development: This extract is part of the exposition, establishing Okonkwo's
reputation.
 Themes: The pursuit of personal honor and societal recognition are central themes.
 Characterization: Okonkwo’s strength and ambition are key traits, setting up his tragic
flaw.
 Style: Achebe’s detailed descriptions and cultural references enrich the narrative.
 Application to Real Life: The themes of personal struggle and societal expectations are
universal and relatable.
3. Use graphic organizer in analysis of themes and characters
 Mind Map: Central node labeled “Okonkwo” with branches for traits (strong,
ambitious), actions (wrestling Amalinze), and themes (honor, tradition).
 Venn Diagram: Compare Okonkwo’s traits with another character, highlighting
similarities and differences.
 Timeline: Key events in Okonkwo's life, starting with the wrestling match.
4. Dramatize sections of the novel
 Scene Selection: Dramatize the wrestling match between Okonkwo and Amalinze.
 Roles: Assign roles for Okonkwo, Amalinze, spectators, and the drummer.
 Discussion: Before dramatization, discuss the significance of the match; after, reflect on
Okonkwo’s character traits and societal values.
5. Discuss the differences and similarities in the literary devices used in the
English novel and any Kiswahili novel
 Language and Syntax: Compare Achebe’s use of English with descriptive and rhythmic
language in a Kiswahili novel.
 Metaphors and Similes: Analyze how figurative language is used to convey themes in
both novels.
 Imagery: Compare the vivid imagery used to describe cultural practices and settings.
 Themes: Explore common themes like tradition and personal honor in both novels.
6. Why are supplementary materials important in language learning?
 Enhanced Understanding: Provide additional context about Igbo culture and traditions.
 Engagement: Make the novel more interesting by relating it to real-life African cultures.
 Skill Development: Help with vocabulary related to traditional practices and character
analysis.
 Cultural Exposure: Introduce learners to diverse African cultures and historical
contexts.
7. What is the difference between a play and a novel?
  Format: Achebe’s novel uses prose to narrate the story, while a play would use dialogue
and stage directions.
 Performance: The novel is meant to be read, while a play is meant to be performed.
 Structure: The novel has chapters; a play would have acts and scenes.
 Narrative Style: The novel uses detailed descriptions and internal monologues, unlike a
play’s reliance on dialogue.
8. What kind of novels do you enjoy reading?
I don't read for pleasure, but popular African novels that readers often enjoy include:
 Historical Fiction: "Half of a Yellow Sun" by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, exploring
Nigeria’s civil war.
 Contemporary Fiction: "Americanah" by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, addressing
themes of identity and migration.
 Classic Literature: "Things Fall Apart" by Chinua Achebe, reflecting on the impact of
colonialism.

3.4 Grammar
3.4.1 Phrases
1. Identifying Various Phrases
consider each type of phrase with more detailed examples:
i) Noun Phrase:
 Example: The tall building with glass windows
o Noun: building
o Modifiers: The tall, with glass windows
 Explanation: A noun phrase can include a noun (the main word) and any words that
modify or describe the noun. These modifiers can include determiners (e.g., the, a, an),
adjectives (e.g., tall), and additional descriptive elements (e.g., with glass windows).
ii) Adverb Phrase:
 Example: Very quickly indeed
o Adverb: quickly
o Modifiers: Very, indeed
 Explanation: An adverb phrase includes an adverb and any modifiers that describe the
adverb. These modifiers can intensify the meaning of the adverb (e.g., very) or add
emphasis (e.g., indeed).
iii) Adjective Phrase:
 Example: Extremely kind and generous
o Adjective: kind
o Modifiers: Extremely, and generous
 Explanation: An adjective phrase consists of an adjective and its modifiers. These
modifiers can intensify the adjective (e.g., extremely) or add additional descriptive
adjectives (e.g., and generous).
iv) Verb Phrase:
 Example: Might have been working diligently
o Main verb: working
 o Auxiliary verbs: Might have been
o Adverb: diligently
 Explanation: A verb phrase includes the main verb and any auxiliary (helping) verbs. It
can also include adverbs that modify the verb.
v) Prepositional Phrase:
 Example: In the beautiful garden full of flowers
o Preposition: In
o Object of the preposition: the beautiful garden
o Modifiers: full of flowers
 Explanation: A prepositional phrase includes a preposition and its object, which is often
a noun or noun phrase. The object can have its own modifiers.
2. Constituents of Phrases
Here’s a breakdown of the constituent parts of each type of phrase:
 Noun Phrases: Comprise a noun and its modifiers.
o Example: The quick brown fox (Noun: fox, Modifiers: The quick brown)
 Adverb Phrases: Comprise an adverb and its modifiers.
o Example: Quite rapidly (Adverb: rapidly, Modifier: Quite)
 Adjective Phrases: Comprise an adjective and its modifiers.
o Example: Very beautiful indeed (Adjective: beautiful, Modifiers: Very, indeed)
 Verb Phrases: Comprise a main verb and its auxiliary verbs.
o Example: Has been working (Main verb: working, Auxiliary verbs: Has been)
 Prepositional Phrases: Comprise a preposition and its object.
o Example: Under the table (Preposition: Under, Object: the table)
3. Constructing Sentences on Social Cohesion and Peace
Let's construct sentences addressing social cohesion and peace using different types of phrases:
 Noun Phrase: The dedicated community leaders initiated a peace project.
o Explanation: The dedicated community leaders (noun phrase) serves as the
subject of the sentence.
 Adverb Phrase: They worked extremely hard to resolve conflicts.
o Explanation: Extremely hard (adverb phrase) modifies the verb worked.
 Adjective Phrase: Their incredibly thoughtful gestures promoted harmony.
o Explanation: Incredibly thoughtful (adjective phrase) modifies the noun
gestures.
 Verb Phrase: People have been collaborating to build a peaceful society.
o Explanation: Have been collaborating (verb phrase) forms the predicate of the
sentence.
 Prepositional Phrase: The event was held in the community center for peace talks.
o Explanation: In the community center (prepositional phrase) provides a location,
and for peace talks adds purpose.
4. Exercises with Phrases
Let's tackle some exercises using different types of phrases:
 Gap Filling:
o Sentence: The children played _________.
o Answer: in the park (Prepositional Phrase)
 o Explanation: In the park provides the location where the children played.
 Sentence Completion:
o Sentence: The committee decided to _____________________.
o Answer: focus on community building (Verb Phrase)
o Explanation: Focus on community building (verb phrase) completes the idea of
what the committee decided to do.
5. Integrating Community Service Learning in Grade 2 English
To integrate Community Service Learning (CSL) into Grade 2 English, you can employ various
strategies:
 Reading and Writing: Students can read stories related to community service and write
reflections or summaries, enhancing both literacy and civic awareness.
 Group Projects: Engage students in group projects addressing community issues. For
example, they could create posters promoting recycling or write letters to local leaders
advocating for environmental conservation.
 Class Discussions: Facilitate class discussions about the importance of helping others,
encouraging students to share their thoughts and experiences.
 Role-Playing: Students can participate in role-playing activities to understand different
community roles and responsibilities.
7. Importance of Using Phrases Correctly in English
Using phrases correctly in English is vital for several reasons:
 Clarity: Correct usage ensures your message is clear and easily understood. Misplaced or
incorrect phrases can lead to confusion.
 Coherence: Well-structured phrases help create coherent sentences and paragraphs,
making your writing and speech more logical and understandable.
 Engagement: Varied and precise phrasing makes your communication more engaging
and interesting, capturing the listener's or reader's attention.
 Professionalism: Accurate use of phrases demonstrates language proficiency, which is
important in academic, professional, and social contexts.
 Cultural Sensitivity: Proper phrasing can help convey respect and sensitivity in
communication, which is crucial for maintaining positive relationships and promoting
social cohesion.
3.4 Grammar
3.4.2 Clauses
1. Types and Functions of Clauses
i) Noun Clauses
Noun clauses function as nouns within sentences and can serve as subjects, objects, or
complements. There are two main types:
 That-Clause: Begins with "that" and functions as a noun.
o Example: She said that she would come.
o Function: Serves as the object of the verb "said."
 Wh-Clause: Begins with a wh-word (e.g., what, why, who, which).
o Example: I wonder what he is doing.
o Function: Serves as the object of the verb "wonder."
ii) Relative Clauses
Relative clauses provide additional information about a noun. They are introduced by relative
pronouns like "who," "whom," "whose," "which," and "that."
 Defining Relative Clauses: Essential to the meaning of the sentence.
o Example: The book that I borrowed was fascinating.
o Function: Specifies which book is being referred to.
 Non-defining Relative Clauses: Provide extra information, not essential to the meaning.
o Example: My brother, who lives in Nairobi, visited us.
o Function: Adds additional information about "my brother."
iii) Adverbial Clauses
Adverbial clauses function as adverbs, modifying verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They can
express various relationships:
 Time: When she arrived, the party started.
 Place: Wherever you go, I will follow.
 Manner: He acts as if he knows everything.
 Reason: She left because she was,.,,,,,,./
 tired.
 Purpose: We study so that we can succeed.
 Degree: He is as tall as his father.
 Concession: Although it was raining, they went out.
 Condition: If you study hard, you will pass.
2. Joining Clauses to Construct Compound and Complex Sentences
 Compound Sentences: Combine two or more independent clauses using coordinating
conjunctions (e.g., and, but, or).
o Example: I wanted to go for a walk, but it started raining.
 Complex Sentences: Combine an independent clause with one or more dependent
clauses using subordinating conjunctions (e.g., because, although, since).
o Example: Although it was raining, we decided to go for a walk.
3. Practicing Using Various Types of Clauses in Speech and Writing
 Noun Clauses: I believe that honesty is the best policy.
 Relative Clauses: The teacher who teaches math is very strict.
 Adverbial Clauses: If you work hard, you will achieve your goals.
4. Applying Knowledge and Skills on Clauses to General Learning of Grammar
Understanding clauses helps in:
 Sentence Variety: Creating varied and complex sentence structures.
 Clarity and Precision: Expressing ideas clearly and precisely.
 Effective Writing: Enhancing writing skills by using different types of clauses
appropriately.
5. Constructing Compound and Complex Sentences
To construct compound and complex sentences:
 Identify the independent and dependent clauses you want to connect.
 Use appropriate coordinating or subordinating conjunctions.
 Ensure the sentence is coherent and correctly punctuated.
 o Compound Sentence: She loves to read, and she also enjoys writing.
o Complex Sentence: While I was reading, my friend called.
6. Activities for Grade 6 Learners to Promote Correct Use of Grammar
 Creating Poems: Encourage students to write poems that include different types of
clauses.
 Story Writing: Have students write short stories incorporating noun, relative, and
adverbial clauses.
 Grammar Games: Organize games where students form sentences using different
clauses.
 Role-Playing: Conduct role-playing activities where students use complex sentences in
dialogues.
 Peer Review: Let students review and provide feedback on each other’s writing, focusing
on the correct use of clauses.
3.5 Writing
3.5.1 Types of writing 2
1. Participate in a jigsaw group activity to discuss the characteristics of
expository and argumentative writing
A jigsaw activity is a collaborative learning technique where each group member becomes an
expert on a specific part of a topic and then shares their knowledge with the group.
Example:
 Group A researches the structure of expository writing (introduction, body paragraphs,
conclusion).
 Group B explores the structure of argumentative writing (introduction, thesis statement,
supporting arguments, counterarguments, conclusion).
 Group C examines the purpose of expository writing (to inform, explain, or describe)
with examples like news articles or instructional guides.
 Group D delves into the purpose of argumentative writing (to persuade the reader) with
examples like opinion editorials or debate essays.
Expository Writing
Expository writing aims to inform, explain, or describe a topic to the reader. It's all about
presenting facts and information clearly and logically. Here are some key characteristics:
1. Purpose: The primary goal is to inform or explain something. For example, a how-to
guide on baking a cake or a textbook chapter on photosynthesis.
2. Structure: Expository writing typically follows a structured format with an introduction,
body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
o Introduction: Presents the main topic or idea.
o Body Paragraphs: Each paragraph covers a specific aspect of the topic, often
with supporting evidence like facts, statistics, or examples.
o Conclusion: Summarizes the main points and reinforces the information
presented.
3. Tone: Neutral and objective. The writer's opinion is not the focus; instead, the emphasis
is on providing clear and unbiased information.
 4. Clarity and Conciseness: The writing should be straightforward, clear, and free of
unnecessary jargon or complex language.
5. Examples: Instruction manuals, scientific articles, encyclopedia entries, and news
reports.
Argumentative Writing
Argumentative writing aims to persuade the reader to adopt a certain viewpoint or take a specific
action. It's about presenting arguments and counterarguments logically and convincingly. Here
are the key characteristics:
1. Purpose: The primary goal is to persuade the reader. For example, an opinion editorial
arguing for renewable energy adoption or a debate essay on the benefits of school
uniforms.
2. Structure: Argumentative writing also follows a structured format but focuses on
presenting and supporting an argument.
o Introduction: Introduces the main argument or thesis statement.
o Body Paragraphs: Each paragraph presents a point supporting the main
argument, often with evidence like facts, statistics, or expert opinions.
o Counterarguments: Acknowledges opposing viewpoints and refutes them with
logical reasoning and evidence.
o Conclusion: Restates the main argument and summarizes key points, often with a
call to action or final thought.
3. Tone: Persuasive and assertive. The writer's opinion is central, and they aim to convince
the reader of their viewpoint.
4. Evidence: Uses strong evidence and logical reasoning to support the argument. This can
include data, quotes from experts, historical examples, and personal anecdotes.
5. Examples: Opinion pieces, persuasive essays, political speeches, and advertisements.
Illustrative Example
Let's compare expository and argumentative writing on the topic of climate change:
Expository Writing Example: "Climate change refers to significant changes in global
temperatures and weather patterns over time. While climate change is a natural phenomenon,
recent trends have been largely attributed to human activities. The burning of fossil fuels,
deforestation, and industrial processes have increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere, leading to global warming."
Argumentative Writing Example: "Climate change is a pressing issue that requires immediate
action. The overwhelming scientific consensus is that human activities are driving global
warming. Governments must implement stricter environmental regulations to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions. Failure to act will result in catastrophic consequences for our planet, including
more frequent natural disasters, loss of biodiversity, and severe economic impacts."
In summary, expository writing focuses on presenting information clearly and objectively, while
argumentative writing aims to persuade the reader with well-supported arguments. Both styles
are essential for effective communication, each serving a unique purpose.

2. Discuss the process of facilitating expository and argumentative writing

Planning:
  Expository: Generate ideas by discussing a shared experience, like a field trip to a
historical site. Students brainstorm topics they found interesting.
 Argumentative: Discuss a current issue, like the impact of plastic pollution. Students
take sides and generate arguments for their position.
Drafting:
 Expository: Create an outline with main points and supporting details about the
historical site.
 Argumentative: Outline the main argument, supporting evidence, and a rebuttal for the
plastic pollution topic.
Editing:
 Both styles involve checking for grammar, punctuation, and clarity.
Revising:
 Expository: Ensure that the information is logically organized and clearly explains the
topic.
 Argumentative: Check that the arguments are convincing and the counterarguments are
effectively addressed.
Publishing:
 Share the final drafts on a classroom blog or present them in a class discussion.
4. Create samples of expository and argumentative writing in writing circles
In writing circles, students work together to create writing samples and provide feedback.
Example of Expository Writing:
 Topic: The Benefits of Exercise
 Sample Paragraph: "Exercise has numerous benefits for both physical and mental
health. Physically, regular exercise helps to maintain a healthy weight, strengthen
muscles, and improve cardiovascular health. Mentally, exercise can reduce stress,
improve mood, and enhance cognitive function."
Example of Argumentative Writing:
 Topic: School Uniforms Should Be Mandatory
 Sample Paragraph: "School uniforms should be mandatory because they promote a
sense of equality among students. Uniforms reduce peer pressure to wear the latest
fashion trends, which can be a distraction in the learning environment. Furthermore,
uniforms can foster a sense of school pride and community."
5. Edit peer's expository and argumentative writing to identify common errors
When editing peers' work, focus on common errors such as:
 Clarity: Ensure sentences are clear and concise.
 Coherence: Check that ideas flow logically.
 Grammar: Correct any grammatical errors.
 Respectful Guidance: "I noticed that some of your sentences are a bit long and complex.
Breaking them into shorter sentences might make your points clearer. You're doing great
—just a little adjustment needed!"
6. Design a task that can be undertaken in the college environment to
complement the learning of expository writing
Here's an engaging task that students can undertake in a college environment to enhance their
expository writing skills:
Task Title: Expository Writing Workshop: The Art of Explaining
Objective: To develop students' ability to explain complex ideas clearly and concisely through
expository writing.
Task Description:
1. Topic Selection: Each student selects a topic related to their field of study or a subject
they are passionate about. Topics should be complex enough to require explanation and
clarification. Examples include:
o The impact of climate change on agriculture
o The process of DNA replication
o The history and significance of a particular art movement
2. Research: Students conduct thorough research on their chosen topic, gathering
information from credible sources such as academic journals, books, and reputable
websites.
3. Outline Creation: Students create a detailed outline for their expository essay, including
an introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion. The outline should clearly indicate the
main points and subpoints they plan to discuss.
4. Drafting: Students write the first draft of their expository essay, focusing on explaining
the topic in a clear and logical manner. They should use evidence and examples to
support their points and ensure their writing is well-organized.
5. Peer Review: Students exchange essays with a partner for peer review. Each student
provides constructive feedback on their partner's essay, focusing on clarity, coherence,
and the effectiveness of explanations.
6. Revising: Based on peer feedback, students revise their essays, improving the clarity of
their explanations and addressing any weaknesses or gaps in their writing.
7. Final Submission: Students submit the final version of their expository essays. The
instructor evaluates the essays based on criteria such as clarity, organization, depth of
research, and the quality of explanations.
8. Presentation (Optional): To further enhance their communication skills, students can
present their topics to the class, explaining their key points and answering questions from
their peers.
Outcome: Through this task, students will improve their ability to research, organize, and clearly
explain complex ideas, enhancing their expository writing skills and preparing them for future
academic and professional writing tasks.
What do you think? Is there anything specific you'd like to adjust or add to this task?
give an example
Absolutely! Here's an example of an expository essay based on the task described:
Title: The Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture
Introduction: Climate change is one of the most pressing issues facing the world today, with
far-reaching consequences for various sectors, including agriculture. As the global temperature
rises and weather patterns become more unpredictable, the agricultural industry faces significant
challenges. This essay aims to explain how climate change affects agriculture, the consequences
of these impacts, and potential solutions to mitigate the effects.
Body Paragraph 1: One of the primary ways climate change affects agriculture is through
changes in temperature and precipitation patterns. Higher temperatures can lead to heat stress in
crops, reducing their growth and yield. Additionally, altered precipitation patterns can cause
droughts or excessive rainfall, both of which can negatively impact crop production. For
example, in regions that rely on consistent rainfall, prolonged droughts can lead to water
shortages and reduced crop yields. Conversely, excessive rainfall can cause soil erosion and
flooding, damaging crops and reducing productivity.
Body Paragraph 2: Another significant impact of climate change on agriculture is the increased
frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. Hurricanes, tornadoes, and severe storms can
devastate agricultural lands, destroying crops and infrastructure. For instance, hurricanes can
cause widespread flooding, leading to soil degradation and loss of arable land. These extreme
weather events also disrupt supply chains, making it difficult for farmers to transport their
products to market and causing economic losses.
Body Paragraph 3: Climate change also exacerbates the spread of pests and diseases that affect
crops. Warmer temperatures and altered weather conditions create favorable environments for
pests and pathogens to thrive. This increased prevalence of pests and diseases can lead to
significant crop losses and reduced food security. For example, the spread of the fall armyworm
in Africa has been linked to changing climate conditions, resulting in severe damage to maize
crops.
Conclusion: In conclusion, climate change poses significant challenges to the agricultural
industry, affecting crop growth, increasing the frequency of extreme weather events, and
exacerbating pest and disease outbreaks. To address these challenges, it is essential to implement
sustainable agricultural practices, invest in research and development, and promote policies that
support climate resilience. By taking proactive measures, we can mitigate the impact of climate
change on agriculture and ensure food security for future generations.
7. Qualities of creative writing
Creative writing involves elements that make the writing unique and engaging:
 Originality: Writing a short story about an imaginary world with its own rules and
culture.
 Imagination: Using vivid imagery to describe a fantasy landscape, like "The sky was a
deep, swirling purple, dotted with glittering stars that twinkled like diamonds."
 Emotion: Crafting a poem that evokes feelings of love, loss, or joy.
 Voice: Developing a unique narrative style, like using a conversational tone in a blog
post.
 Flexibility: Experimenting with different genres, such as writing a mystery novel and
then trying your hand at a humorous short story.
8. How do you learn how to manipulate a new device?
Example: Learning to Use a New Smartphone
 Read the Manual: Start by reading the user guide to understand the basic functions.
 Watch Tutorials: Find video tutorials online that demonstrate how to use specific
features, like setting up email or using the camera.
 Practice: Spend time exploring the device. Try out different settings, install apps, and
use the features.
 Ask for Help: If you're stuck, ask a friend who is tech-savvy or contact customer
support.
  Join Forums: Participate in online communities where users share tips and tricks. For
example, forums like Reddit or specific smartphone user groups.
3.6 Communication skills
3.6.1 The communication process
1. Discuss the Meaning of the Terms "Morphology" and "Morphemes"
Morphology is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the structure and form of
words in a language, including the rules for word formation and the relationships between words.
It examines how words are constructed from smaller units called morphemes.
Morphemes are the smallest grammatical units in a language that carry meaning. They can be
free morphemes, which can stand alone as words (e.g., "book," "run"), or bound morphemes,
which cannot stand alone and must be attached to other morphemes (e.g., "un-" in "undo," "-s" in
"books").
2. Select Complex English Words from a Passage and Segregate the Morphemes
Let's take the sentence: "The redevelopment of the neighborhood significantly improved living
conditions."
Complex words and their morphemes:
 Redevelopment: re- (prefix) + develop (root) + -ment (suffix)
 Neighborhood: neighbor (root) + -hood (suffix)
 Significantly: significant (root) + -ly (suffix)
 Improved: improve (root) + -ed (suffix)
 Conditions: condition (root) + -s (suffix)
3. Differentiate Between Free and Bound Morphemes
 Free Morphemes: Morphemes that can stand alone as independent words. Examples
include "book," "run," and "happy."
 Bound Morphemes: Morphemes that cannot stand alone and must be attached to other
morphemes. Examples include prefixes like "un-" (as in "unhappy") and suffixes like "-s"
(as in "books").
4. Contribute to a Brainstorm on Ways Through Which Words Are Formed
 Affixation (prefixes, suffixes, infixes)
 Compounding (combining two or more words)
 Clipping (shortening a word)
 Blending (combining parts of two words)
 Acronym (using initial letters of words)
 Back-formation (removing a perceived affix)
 Conversion (changing the word class without changing the form)
5. Identify Different Ways in Which Words Are Formed
Here are some common word-formation processes:
 Affixation: Adding prefixes or suffixes to a base word (e.g., "happiness," "unusual").
 Compounding: Combining two or more words to create a new word (e.g., "toothbrush,"
"sunflower").
 Clipping: Shortening a longer word (e.g., "gym" from "gymnasium").
  Blending: Combining parts of two words to form a new word (e.g., "brunch" from
"breakfast" + "lunch").
6. Examples of Word Formation Processes in English
i) Affixation
 Educate -> Educative
 Good -> Goodness
 Befriend
ii) Compounding
 Mother-in-law
 Classroom
iii) Clipping
 Gym -> Gymnasium
iv) Blending
 Brunch = Breakfast + Lunch
 Smog = Smoke + Fog
Additional Questions
1. What is a word? A word is a single distinct meaningful element of speech or writing,
used to form sentences and phrases. It can be a standalone unit or composed of
morphemes.
2. What makes up a word? A word is made up of one or more morphemes, which can
include a root morpheme (the main meaning-carrying part) and affixes (prefixes,
suffixes) that modify its meaning or grammatical function.
3. How are words formed in the English language? Words in the English language are
formed through various processes, including affixation, compounding, clipping, blending,
acronym formation, back-formation, and conversion.
4.2 Listening and speaking
4.2.1 Speaking fluency skills
1. Watch and Discuss a Video to Distinguish a Fluent Speaker from a Non-Fluent
Speaker
Find a video where both a fluent and a non-fluent speaker are speaking on the same topic. After
watching, discuss the differences:
 Fluent Speaker: Smooth flow, accurate grammar, appropriate vocabulary, natural speech
rate, clear pronunciation, and expressive intonation.
 Non-Fluent Speaker: Hesitations, grammatical errors, limited vocabulary, inconsistent
speech rate, unclear pronunciation, and flat intonation.
2. Research on Speaking Fluency Skills (Indicators) and Make a Presentation to
the Class
Research the following indicators of speaking fluency and prepare a presentation:
i) Coherence: The ability to organize speech logically and clearly. ii) Grammatical Accuracy:
Correct use of grammar. iii) Appropriate Vocabulary: Using words that fit the context and
audience. iv) Speech Rate: Maintaining a natural pace, not too fast or too slow. v) Intelligibility
in Pronunciation: Clear and understandable pronunciation. vi) Supra-segmental Features:
Elements like loudness, tonal variation, and stress. vii) Relevance to Topic: Staying on-topic
and providing relevant information.
3. Model Speaking Fluency Using Texts Featuring a Variety of Pertinent Issues
Select texts on topics such as health, integrity, terrorism, animal welfare, and gender. Use these
texts to model fluent speaking by:
 Reading aloud with appropriate intonation and stress.
 Practicing clear pronunciation and natural speech rate.
 Emphasizing key points and maintaining coherence.
4. Engage in Activities to Facilitate Speaking Fluency
Participate in activities that promote speaking fluency:
 Hot Seating: Take on a character and answer questions in role.
 Role Play: Act out scenarios to practice conversational skills.
 Storytelling: Tell stories to develop narrative skills and coherence.
 Debates: Engage in debates to practice argumentation and critical thinking.
 Poetry Recitation: Recite poems to enhance pronunciation and intonation.
 Dialogues: Practice dialogues to improve conversational flow.
 Sentence Pile On: Build sentences collaboratively to practice grammatical accuracy.
 Drama: Perform short plays to develop expressive speaking skills.
 Running Dictation: A fun activity to practice listening and speaking simultaneously.
5. Participate in a Brainstorm on Challenges Learners Face in Speaking Fluently
and Suggest Possible Remedies
Common challenges and remedies include:
 Fear of Making Mistakes: Encourage a supportive environment and practice regularly.
 Limited Vocabulary: Read widely and use new words in context.
 Pronunciation Issues: Practice with native speakers or use language learning apps.
 Lack of Confidence: Engage in public speaking activities and receive constructive
feedback.
6. Assess Speaking Fluency Using Varied Methods
 Developing a Checklist: Create a checklist to evaluate fluency aspects such as
coherence, grammar, vocabulary, speech rate, pronunciation, and expressiveness.
 Giving Feedback: Provide constructive feedback on performance to help learners
improve.
 Evaluating an Oral Text: Assess an oral text for accuracy, speed, and expressiveness,
highlighting strengths and areas for improvement.
7. What is Speaking Fluency?
Speaking fluency refers to the ability to speak smoothly and effortlessly, with clear
pronunciation, appropriate grammar, and a natural flow. A fluent speaker can communicate ideas
effectively without frequent hesitations or errors.
8. What Can We Do to Improve Our Speaking Fluency?
 Practice Regularly: Engage in conversations, debates, and public speaking.
 Expand Vocabulary: Read widely and learn new words.
 Listen Actively: Pay attention to fluent speakers and mimic their speech patterns.
 Receive Feedback: Seek constructive feedback from peers or instructors.
  Use Technology: Utilize language learning apps and online resources.

4.3 Reading
4.3.1 Intensive reading 2
 Components of Reading Fluency:
 Accuracy: Correctly reading the words in a text.
 Prosody: The rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech.
 Speed: The rate at which a person reads.
 Responding to a Video on Reading Comprehension Strategies:
 Reflect on how the strategies are demonstrated.
 Discuss their effectiveness and practicality.
 Comprehension Strategies:
 Making Connections: Linking the text to personal experiences, other texts, or the world.
 Prediction: Anticipating what will happen next in the text.
 Questioning: Asking questions about the text to deepen understanding.
 Monitoring/Inference: Checking understanding and making logical guesses.
 Visualising: Creating mental images based on the text.
 Summarising: Condensing the main ideas into a concise summary.
 Reading Games and Competitions:
 Engage in activities that challenge critical thinking and comprehension.
 Develop skills in clarification, selecting important information, and organizing thoughts.
 Comparing and Contrasting Reading Fluency Strategies:
 Modelled Reading: Teacher reads aloud to demonstrate fluent reading.
 Use of Audio Recordings: Listening to fluent reading to understand pace and expression.
 Sight Words: Practicing common words to increase reading speed.
 Readers Theatre: Performing a script to practice expressive reading.
 Paired Reading: Reading with a partner for support and feedback.
 Echo Reading: Repeating after a fluent reader to practice accuracy and prosody.
 Choral Reading: Reading together as a group to build confidence.
 Repeated Reading: Reading the same text multiple times to improve fluency.
 Timed Reading: Practicing reading within a set time to increase speed.
 Phrased Reading: Practicing reading in chunks to enhance comprehension and flow.
 Designing a Reading Fluency Checklist:
 Create criteria to assess accuracy, prosody, and speed.
 Use it for peer assessment and self-evaluation.
 Reading Fluency Checklist

Criteria Description Yes/No Co

Accuracy
Correctly reads words Reads words without errors.
Self-corrects errors Notices and corrects mistakes while reading.
Prosody
 Criteria Description Yes/No Co
Expression Uses appropriate intonation and expression based on punctuation and context.
Pacing Reads at a smooth and even pace, without frequent pauses or rushing.
Pauses at punctuation Pauses correctly at commas, periods, etc.
Speed
Appropriate speed Reads at a speed that is neither too slow nor too fast.
Comprehension
Understands text Can answer questions and discuss the content of the reading passage.
Makes connections Relates text to personal experiences, other texts, or world events.
Engagement
Interest in reading Shows enthusiasm and interest while reading.
Focused and attentive Maintains focus and attention throughout the reading session.

 Importance of Reading at a Reasonable Speed:

 Helps maintain comprehension.
 Ensures that readers can enjoy and understand the text without feeling rushed or losing
meaning.
 Importance of Reading Accurately and with Expression:
 Accuracy: Ensures correct understanding of the text.
 Expression: Enhances engagement and helps convey the text's emotions and nuances.

'4.3 Reading
4.3.2 Intensive reading 3
1. Detailed Analysis of Poems
When analyzing poems, focus on the following elements:
 Persona: The voice or speaker in the poem. Determine who is speaking and their
perspective.
 Message: The central idea or theme the poem conveys.
 Tone: The poet's attitude towards the subject, detected through word choice and stylistic
elements.
 Style: This encompasses the poet's unique way of writing, including diction, syntax,
figurative language, and structure.
The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost (Excerpt)
> Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;
Analysis
Persona
The persona in the poem is a traveler who is reflecting on a choice made in the past. The speaker
is thoughtful and contemplative, grappling with the consequences of their decision.
Message
The poem explores the theme of choices and their impact on life's journey. It suggests that the
decisions we make shape our path and that sometimes the less conventional choices can lead to
unique outcomes.
Tone
The tone of the poem is reflective and somewhat wistful. There's a sense of pondering over what
might have been had the other path been chosen.
Style
Frost's style is characterized by a simple yet profound use of language. He employs vivid
imagery, such as the "yellow wood" and "undergrowth," to paint a clear picture. The poem
follows a traditional rhyme scheme (ABAAB), which adds to its musical quality.
Recitation Tips
When reciting this poem:
 Emphasize the contrast between the two paths.
 Pause at the end of each line to let the imagery sink in.
 Use a reflective tone to convey the speaker's contemplation and sense of nostalgia.
Using "The Road Not Taken" in Teaching
For Grades 1-6, this poem can be used to:
 Build vocabulary: Introduce words like "diverged," "undergrowth," and "sigh."
 Teach comprehension: Discuss the meaning of choices and how they affect life.
 Encourage creativity: Have students write their own short poems about choices they've
made.
2. Reciting Selected Poems
Recitation helps in appreciating the rhythm, rhyme, and the emotional impact of the poem. To do
so effectively:
 Read Aloud: Focus on the natural flow of the words.
 Express Emotions: Convey the emotions and moods present in the poem.
 Pace and Pauses: Use pacing and pauses to enhance meaning and impact.
3. Methods to Assess Comprehension During Intensive Reading
There are several methods to assess comprehension:
 Oral Question and Answer: Engaging students in oral Q&A sessions.
 Written Responses: Have students write summaries, responses, or essays.
 Gap Filling: Create exercises where students fill in blanks within the text.
 Paraphrasing: Ask students to rewrite the poem in their own words.
4. Developing Questions for Assessing Intensive Reading
Create a mix of recall and inferential questions to assess students' comprehension:
 Recall Questions: What happens in the poem? Who is the speaker?
 Inferential Questions: What is the deeper meaning behind the poem? How does the tone
affect the message?
5. Analyzing Poems
To analyze poems:
 Read Multiple Times: Read the poem multiple times to grasp its nuances.
 Identify Literary Devices: Look for metaphors, similes, personification, etc.
 Understand the Context: Consider the historical and cultural context of the poem.
 Interpret Meaning: Think about the underlying themes and messages.
6. Using Poems to Teach English from Grades 1-6
Poems are fantastic tools for teaching English:
 Vocabulary Building: Introduce new words and phrases through poems.
 Phonemic Awareness: Use poems to teach sounds, rhymes, and rhythms.
 Comprehension Skills: Encourage students to discuss and analyze poems.
 Creative Expression: Let students write their own poems to express ideas and emotion

4.4 Grammar
4.4.1 Functional classification of sentences
1. Detailed Discussion of Different Types of Sentences
Declarative Sentences
 Definition: These are statements that provide information or express an idea.
 Example: The sun is shining.
 Purpose: To convey information or assert something as a fact.
Imperative Sentences
 Definition: These are commands or requests.
 Example: Please close the door.
 Purpose: To instruct someone to do something.
Interrogative Sentences
 Definition: These are questions that seek information.
 Example: Are you coming to the party?
 Purpose: To inquire or ask about something.
Exclamatory Sentences
 Definition: These express strong emotion or surprise.
 Example: What a beautiful view!
 Purpose: To express strong feelings or emotions.
2. Information on the Different Types of Sentences
I'll search for detailed information on the different types of sentences and share my findings.
3. Language Games to Practice Different Sentence Types
Here are a few games:
 Sentence Bingo: Create bingo cards with different types of sentences. Students mark the
type called out.
 Sentence Scramble: Provide scrambled words and ask students to form different types of
sentences.
 Role-Playing: Have students act out scenes using different types of sentences.
4. Example of Dialogue, Short Story, and Poster Using the Four Types of
Sentences
Dialogue
 Person A: Did you see the new movie? (Interrogative)
 Person B: Yes, it was amazing! (Exclamatory)
 Person A: Tell me all about it. (Imperative)
 Person B: The plot was full of twists and turns. (Declarative)
Short Story
Once upon a time, in a small village, there was a wise old man. (Declarative) One day, a young
boy asked him, "Can you tell me the secret to happiness?" (Interrogative) The old man smiled
and said, "Always be kind and grateful." (Imperative) The boy exclaimed, "That's it?!"
(Exclamatory) The old man nodded, and from that day on, the boy followed his advice and lived
a happy life. (Declarative)
Poster
 Headline: Join Us for the Annual Festival! (Exclamatory)
 Details: The festival will be held at Central Park on Saturday. (Declarative) Don't miss
the fun activities and delicious food! (Imperative) Will you be there? (Interrogative)
5. Lesson Plan for Teaching Sentence Types
Objective: To teach students about different sentence types and integrate core competencies of
communication, collaboration, and unity.
Lesson Outline:
1. Introduction (10 mins):
o Explain the four types of sentences with examples.
o Discuss the importance of using each type correctly.
2. Activity 1: Sentence Sorting (15 mins):
o Provide sentence strips and have students sort them into categories.
3. Activity 2: Language Games (20 mins):
o Play sentence bingo and sentence scramble games.
4. Activity 3: Writing Exercise (25 mins):
o Students write short dialogues or stories using all four types of sentences.
5. Discussion and Reflection (10 mins):
o Discuss the importance of using sentences correctly in communication.
o Reflect on how different sentence types can enhance writing and speaking skills.
6. Collaboration and Unity:
o Pair students for activities to promote teamwork.
o Encourage respectful listening and sharing of ideas.
6. Types of Sentences
 Declarative
 Imperative
 Interrogative
 Exclamatory
7. Importance of Using Sentences for the Correct Function
 Clarity: Using sentences correctly ensures clear and effective communication.
 Purpose: Different sentence types help convey the intended message, tone, and emotion.
 Engagement: It enhances both written and spoken language skills, making interactions
more meaningful and engaging.