LESSON 2: Limits of Some Transcendental Functions and Some

Indeterminate Forms
LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:

1. Compute the limits of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions using tables
of values and graphs of the functions;
sin t 1 − cos t et − 1
2. Evaluate the limits of expressions involving , , and using tables of
t t t
values; and
“0”
3. Evaluate the limits of expressions resulting in the indeterminate form .
0

43
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TOPIC 2.1: Limits of Exponential, Logarithmic, and Trigono-
metric Functions
Real-world situations can be expressed in terms of functional relationships. These functional
relationships are called mathematical models. In applications of calculus, it is quite important
that one can generate these mathematical models. They sometimes use functions that you en-
countered in precalculus, like the exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions. Hence,
we start this lesson by recalling these functions and their corresponding graphs.

1. If b > 0, b 6= 1, the exponential function with base b is defined by

f (x) = bx , x ∈ R.

2. Let b > 0, b 6= 1. If by = x then y is called the logarithm of x to the base b, denoted

y = logb x.

EVALUATING LIMITS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

First, we consider the natural exponential function f (x) = ex , where e is called the Euler
number, and has value 2.718281....

EXAMPLE 1: Evaluate the lim ex .

x→0

Solution. We will construct the table of values for f (x) = ex . We start by approaching the
number 0 from the left or through the values less than but close to 0.

x f (x)
−1 0.36787944117
−0.5 0.60653065971
−0.1 0.90483741803
−0.01 0.99004983374
−0.001 0.99900049983
−0.0001 0.999900049983
−0.00001 0.99999000005

Intuitively, from the table above, lim ex = 1. Now we consider approaching 0 from its right
x→0−
or through values greater than but close to 0.

44
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 x f (x)
1 2.71828182846
0.5 1.6487212707
0.1 1.10517091808
0.01 1.01005016708
0.001 1.00100050017
0.0001 1.000100005
0.00001 1.00001000005

From the table, as the values of x get closer and closer to 0, the values of f (x) get closer and
closer to 1. So, lim ex = 1. Combining the two one-sided limits allows us to conclude that
x→0+

lim ex = 1.
x→0

We can use the graph of f (x) = ex to determine its limit as x approaches 0. The figure below
is the graph of f (x) = ex .

Looking at Figure 1.1, as the values of x approach 0,

either from the right or the left, the values of f (x) will
get closer and closer to 1. We also have the following:

1. lim ex = e = 2.718...
x→1

2. lim ex = e2 = 7.389... y = ex
x→2

3. lim ex = e−1 = 0.367...

x→−1
1

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x

EVALUATING LIMITS OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Now, consider the natural logarithmic function f (x) = ln x. Recall that ln x = loge x. Moreover,
it is the inverse of the natural exponential function y = ex .

45
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EXAMPLE 2: Evaluate lim ln x.
x→1

Solution. We will construct the table of values for f (x) = ln x. We first approach the number
1 from the left or through values less than but close to 1.

x f (x)
0.1 −2.30258509299
0.5 −0.69314718056
0.9 −0.10536051565
0.99 −0.01005033585
0.999 −0.00100050033
0.9999 −0.000100005
0.99999 −0.00001000005

Intuitively, lim ln x = 0. Now we consider approaching 1 from its right or through values
x→1−
greater than but close to 1.

x f (x)
2 0.69314718056
1.5 0.4054651081
1.1 0.0953101798
1.01 0.00995033085
1.001 0.00099950033
1.0001 0.000099995
1.00001 0.00000999995

Intuitively, lim ln x = 0. As the values of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x) get
x→1+
closer and closer to 0. In symbols,
lim ln x = 0.
x→1

We now consider the common logarithmic function f (x) = log10 x. Recall that f (x) = log10 x =
log x.

46
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 EXAMPLE 3: Evaluate lim log x.
x→1

Solution. We will construct the table of values for f (x) = log x. We first approach the number
1 from the left or through the values less than but close to 1.

x f (x)
0.1 −1
0.5 −0.30102999566
0.9 −0.04575749056
0.99 −0.0043648054
0.999 −0.00043451177
0.9999 −0.00004343161
0.99999 −0.00000434296

Now we consider approaching 1 from its right or through values greater than but close to 1.

x f (x)
2 0.30102999566
1.5 0.17609125905
1.1 0.04139268515
1.01 0.00432137378
1.001 0.00043407747
1.0001 0.00004342727
1.00001 0.00000434292

As the values of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to 0. In
symbols,
lim log x = 0.
x→1

Consider now the graphs of both the natural and common logarithmic functions. We can use
the following graphs to determine their limits as x approaches 1.

47
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 f (x) = ln x

f (x) = log x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x

The figure helps verify our observations that lim ln x = 0 and lim log x = 0. Also, based on
x→1 x→1
the figure, we have

1. lim ln x = 1 4. lim log x = log 3 = 0.47...

x→e x→3

2. lim log x = 1 5. lim ln x = −∞

x→10 x→0+

3. lim ln x = ln 3 = 1.09... 6. lim log x = −∞

x→3 x→0+

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLE 4: Evaluate lim sin x.

x→0

Solution. We will construct the table of values for f (x) = sin x. We first approach 0 from the
left or through the values less than but close to 0.

x f (x)
−1 −0.8414709848
−0.5 −0.4794255386
−0.1 −0.09983341664
−0.01 −0.00999983333
−0.001 −0.00099999983
−0.0001 −0.00009999999
−0.00001 −0.00000999999

48
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 Now we consider approaching 0 from its right or through values greater than but close to 0.

x f (x)
1 0.8414709848
0.5 0.4794255386
0.1 0.09983341664
0.01 0.00999983333
0.001 0.00099999983
0.0001 0.00009999999
0.00001 0.00000999999

As the values of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to 0. In
symbols,
lim sin x = 0.
x→0

We can also find lim sin x by using the graph of the sine function. Consider the graph of
x→0
f (x) = sin x.

−π − π2 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π
2 2 2
−1

The graph validates our observation in Example 4 that lim sin x = 0. Also, using the graph,
x→0
we have the following:

1. limπ sin x = 1. 3. lim sin x = −1.

x→ 2 x→− π2

2. lim sin x = 0. 4. lim sin x = 0.

x→π x→−π

49
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Solved Examples
EXAMPLE 1: Evaluate lim ex+1 .
x→0

Solution. The following table shows the values of f (x) = ex+1 at values from the left of x = 0.

x f (x)
−1 1
−0.5 1.648721271
−0.1 2.459603111
−0.01 2.691234472
−0.001 2.715564905
−0.0001 2.718010014
−0.00001 2.718254646

Approaching x = 0 from the right,

x f (x)
1 7.389056099
0.5 4.48168907
0.1 3.004166024
0.01 2.745601015
0.001 2.72100147
0.0001 2.71855367
0.00001 2.718309011

Thus, lim ex+1 = 2.71....

x→0

50
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 y

y = ex+1
e

The figure tells us that:

1. lim ex+1 = 7.38905...

x→1

2. lim ex+1 = 20.08553...

x→2

3. lim ex+1 = 1
x→−1

4. lim ex+1 = 0.36787...

x→−2

EXAMPLE 2:

Evaluate lim ex−1 .

x→1

Solution. Approaching x = 1 from the left,

x f (x)
0 0.36787944117
0.5 0.60653065971
0.1 0.90483741803
0.01 0.99004983374
0.001 0.99900049983
0.0001 0.99900049983
0.00001 0.99999000005

51
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Taking values close to x = 1 from the right,

x f (x)
2 2.71828182846
1.5 1.6487212707
1.1 1.10517091808
1.01 1.01005016708
1.001 1.00100050017
1.0001 1.000100005
1.00001 1.00001000005

y = ex−1

From the figure above, we have

1. lim ex−1 = 0.36787...

x→0

2. lim ex−1 = 2.71828...

x→2

3. lim ex−1 = 0.13533...

x→−1

4. lim ex−1 = 0.04978...

x→−2

EXAMPLE 3:

Evaluate lim 2x .
x→1

Solution. Approaching x = 1 from the left,

52
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 x f (x)
0 1
0.5 1.414213562
0.9 1.866065983
0.99 1.986184991
0.999 1.998614186
0.9999 1.999861375
0.99999 1.999986137

Taking values close to x = 1 from the right,

x f (x)
2 4
1.5 2.828427125
1.1 2.143546925
1.01 2.0139111
1.001 2.001386775
1.0001 2.000138634
1.00001 2.000013863

Thus, lim 2x = 2.
x→1

y = 2x

Using the figure above,

1. lim 2x = 1 3. lim 2x = 0.5

x→0 x→−1

2. lim 2x = 4 4. lim 2x = 0.25

x→2 x→−2

53
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 .
EXAMPLE 4: Evaluate lim ln(x + 1).
x→1

Solution. Approaching values from the left of x = 1,

x f (x)
0 0
0.5 0.405465108
0.9 0.641853886
0.99 0.688134638
0.999 0.692647055
0.9999 0.693097179
0.99999 0.69314218

Approaching x = 1 from the right,

x f (x)
2 1.098612289
1.5 0.916290731
1.1 0.741937344
1.01 0.698134722
1.001 0.693647055
1.0001 0.693197179
1.00001 0.69315218

Therefore, lim ln(x + 1) = 0.69....

x→1

f (x) = ln(x + 1)

0 x

54
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 Based on the figure,

1. lim ln(x + 1) = 0
x→0

2. lim ln(x + 1) = 1.09861...

x→2

3. lim ln(x + 1) = 1.38629...

x→3

4. lim ln(x + 1) = 1.60943...

x→4

EXAMPLE 5: Evaluate lim ln(x2 + 1).

x→0

Solution. Approaching values from the left of x = 0,

x f (x)
−1 0.69314718
−0.5 0.223143551
−0.1 0.00995033
−0.01 0.000099995
−0.001 0.000000999
−0.0001 0.000000009
−0.00001 0.0000000009

Approaching x = 0 from the right,

x f (x)
1 0.69314718
0.5 0.223143551
0.1 0.00995033
0.01 0.000099995
0.001 0.000000999
0.0001 0.000000009
0.00001 0.0000000009

Therefore, lim ln(x2 + 1) = 0.

x→0

55
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 f (x) = ln(x2 + 1)

0 x

The figure above gives us:

1. lim ln(x2 + 1) = 0.69314...

x→1

2. lim ln(x2 + 1) = 1.60943...

x→2

3. lim ln(x2 + 1) = 0.69314...

x→−1

4. lim ln(x2 + 1) = 1.60943...

x→−2

EXAMPLE 6: Evaluate lim log(x + 1).

x→1

Solution. Approaching values from the left of x = 1,

x f (x)
0 0
0.5 0.176091259
0.9 0.278753601
0.99 0.298853076
0.999 0.300812794
0.9999 0.30100828
0.99999 0.301027824

Approaching x = 1 from the right,

56
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 x f (x)
2 0.477121254
1.5 0.397940008
1.1 0.322219294
1.01 0.303196057
1.001 0.301247088
1.0001 0.301051709
1.00001 0.301032167

Hence, lim log(x + 1) = 0.301....

x→1

f (x) = log(x + 1)

0 x

From the figure above,

1. lim log(x + 1) = 0.47712...

x→2

2. lim log(x + 1) = 0.60205...

x→3

3. lim log(x + 1) = 0.69897...

x→4

4. lim log(x + 1) = 0.77815...

x→5

EXAMPLE 7:

Evaluate lim log(x2 ).

x→−1

Solution. Approaching values from the left of x = −1,

57
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 x f (x)
−2 0.603059991
−1.5 0.352182518
−1.1 0.08278537
−1.01 0.008642747
−1.001 0.00868154
−1.0001 0.000086854
−1.00001 0.000008685

Approaching x = −1 from the right,

x f (x)
−0.1 −2
−0.5 −0.602059991
−0.9 −0.091514981
−0.99 −0.00872961
−0.999 −0.000869023
−0.9999 −0.000086863
−0.99999 −0.000008685

Hence, lim log(x2 ) = 0.

x→−1

f (x) = log(x2 )

0 x

Using the figure, we have

1. lim log(x2 ) = 0.60205... 3. lim log(x2 ) = 1.20411...

x→2 x→4

2. lim log(x2 ) = 0.95424... 4. lim log(x2 ) = 1.39794...

x→3 x→5

58
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 EXAMPLE 8: Evaluate lim cos x.
x→0

Solution. Approaching values from the left of x = 0,

x f (x)
−1 0.999847695
−0.5 0.999961923
−0.1 0.999998476
−0.01 0.999999984
−0.001 0.999999999
−0.0001 0.9999999999
−0.00001 0.99999999999

Approaching x = 0 from the right,

x f (x)
1 0.999847695
0.5 0.999961923
0.1 0.999998476
0.01 0.999999984
0.001 0.999999999
0.0001 0.9999999999
0.00001 0.99999999999

Hence, lim cos x = 1.

x→0

−π − π2 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π
2 2 2
−1

59
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Based on the figure,

1. limπ cos x = 0 3. limπ cos x = 0.5

x→ 2 x→ 3

2. limπ cos x = 0.70710... 4. lim cos x = −1

x→ 4 x→π

 π
EXAMPLE 9: Evaluate lim cos x + .
x→0 2

Solution. Approaching values from the left of x = 0,

x f (x)
−1 0.841470984
−0.5 0.479425538
−0.1 0.099833416
−0.01 0.009999833
−0.001 0.000999999
−0.0001 0.000099999
−0.00001 0.000009999

Approaching x = 0 from the right,

x f (x)
1 −0.841470984
0.5 −0.479425538
0.1 −0.099833416
0.01 −0.009999833
0.001 −0.000999999
0.0001 −0.000099999
0.00001 −0.000009999

 π
Hence, lim cos x + = 0.
x→0 2

60
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 1

−π − π2 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π
2 2 2
−1

Using the graph above,

 π  π
1. limπ cos x + = −1 3. limπ cos x + = −0.86602...
x→ 2 2 x→ 3 2
 π  π
2. limπ cos x + = −0.70710... 4. lim cos x + = 0.
x→ 4 2 x→π 2

.
Supplementary Problems
Evaluate the following limits.

1. lim ex 12. lim ln(x + 2)

x→−1 x→−1
x
2. lim e 13. lim sin x
x→2 x→ 3π
2

3. lim ex−2
x→1 14. limπ sin x
x→ 4
4. lim ex−1
x→3
 π
15. limπ sin x +
5. lim 2x x→ 4 2
x→0
π 
6. lim 3x 16. limπ sin −x
x→0 x→ 2 4
7. lim 3x+1 17. limπ cos x
x→−1 x→ 4

8. lim 2x−1 18. limπ cos x

x→0
x→ 2
2
9. lim ln(x + x − 1)
x→1
 π
19. lim cos x +
x→ 3π 2
10. lim ln(x2 − 2) 2
x→2 π 
11. lim ln(x2 − x + 1) 20. lim cos −x
x→0 x→ 3π
4
2

61
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