PARTMENT OF LABORATORY ASSISTANCE

LEVEL ONE

MODULE:

BUILDING SIMPLE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

CODE: LA 104

SIR.BELSON

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
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Current electricity is the study of electric charge in motion or dynamic electric charge.

In order to maintain the motion of electric charge, two things are required;

i. Sources of electric charge

ii. Electric circuit (Closed path around the charge move and returning to the source

Note: The size of electric current (I) in material depends on the number of charges carries taking
part and the speed at which they are moving. In simple electric circuit the charge carries are
electrons

Electric current is the rate of flow of charge.

Mathematically:

I = Q/t

Where:

I=electric current

Q=quantity of charge

t= time taken by a charge to rotate a circuit

Make Q the subject

I=Q/t

Multiply by t, both side

Q=I.t

From the definition

The SI unit of I is coulombs per second=C/S= Ampere=A

The common SI unit of current (I) is Ampere (A)

Ampere: is a unit of electric current equal to a flow of one coulomb per second.

The other units of currents are

Mill ampere (mA), kilo ampere (kA), and micro ampere (µA)

Their equivalence to ampere are as follow:

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1A=103mA

1A=106µA

1kA=1000A

Coulombs is the quantity of electric charge which passes a given point in one second when
steady current of one ampere is flowing in the circuit.

The device used to measure electric current is called Ammeter

Ammeter: Is an instrument used to measure electric current in ampere.

Uses of current electrics

i. Cooking
ii. Communication
iii. Heating
iv. To provide light
Sources of current electricity

All sources of current (I) works by converting some kind of energy into electrical energy

There are two basic sources

i. Batteries
ii. Generators

Batteries: These converts chemical energy into electrical energy

Generators: these converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

Eg; wind energy, HEP (Hydro Electric Power), Solar energy, Ocean waves, and thermal
energy.

A simple circuit is a closed loop of conductor that electrons can travel around, usually
consisting of a power source (battery) and electrical components or devices such as resistor,
light bulb and conducting wire

Components of simple electric circuit

(a) Sources of charge, this includes batteries or generators

(b) Closed path (connecting wire made up of conducting materials)
(c) Electrical devices e.g. bulb, switches, resistors, Ammeter, Voltmeters, etc.

How does simple electric circuit work?

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 The wires in a circuit carries the electric current to various part of an electrical or electronic
system, two wires connect to the light. For electrons to do their jobs in producing light there
must be a complete circuit so they can flow through the light bulb and then back out

Note:

i. In electric circuit the electrons are where the protons are stationary where the electric
current opposes the directions of electrons

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 ii. The potential difference between the positive and negative terminal of a battery cause
current to flow along any conducting path that link them
iii. Potential difference or voltage is a measure of electrical energy.

Example: 01.

An electric current of 0.12A passes a point B along a conducting wire. How much electric charge
is flowing past this point in a minute?

Data given:

Electric current, I=0.12A

Time taken=1 min =60 sec

Electric charge, Q =?

Solution:

From Q= I.t

Q=0.12Ax60sec

Electric charge Q=7.2C

Every cell has voltage commonly known as potential difference (P.d) across its terminals

Potential difference causes the electrons (charges) in a circuit to flow

Voltage is measured by using a device known as Voltmeter

Voltmeter: Is an instrument used for measuring electric potential difference between two points
in an electric circuit.

The SI unit of voltage is volt

The voltage is always connected in parallel to the device whereby you want to measure its
voltage drop across it.

The overall effect on current is most negligible.

Since “energy can not be created or destroyed”

Potential difference across the battery= the sum of p.d around the conducting path.

Note:

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  Wrong connection of ammeter can damage it so the red terminal of the ammeter should
connect to the positive terminal
 Ammeter is always connected in series in a circuitry

Resistance:

Resistance is a measure of opposition to the current flow in an electrical circuit.

It was discovered by George Ohm.

The SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)

Other units of resistance are:

Kilo ohm (KΩ)

Mega ohm (MΩ)

Milliohm (Ωm)

Micro ohm (µΩ)

Equivalence:

1kΩ=1000Ω

1MΩ=1000000Ω

1mΩ=0.001Ω

1µΩ=10-6 Ω

The device which measure the resistance is known as resistor

OHM’S LAW
It state that: “At constant temperature and other physical factors, a current in
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its end”

Mathematically
VαI
V=KI
Where K= constant=R=resistance
Now:
V=IR
R=Resistance

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 V=Voltage
I=Electric current

Graphically:

From the graph above

Slope= change in v/change in I

Change in V= (V2-V1)

Change in I= (I2-I1)

Now slope (m) =Change in V=(V2-V1)

Change in I= (I2-I1)
Slope=V/I = R

Therefore slope = resistance

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT RESISTANCE

i. Length of a conductor.
The longer the wire the higher the resistance and vice versa
RαL
Where;
R=resistance
L=length of a conductor.
ii. Temperature :
The higher the temperature the higher the resistance and vice versa, this is important in
resistance thermometer
a. Constantan wire. (copper alloy)
Changes to a very small extended, that is why is used in a standard resistance.
b. Connecting wire used in a circuit has a very low resistance to prevent energy
wasted in form of heat to maximum
TαR
iii. Types of materials (Nature of materials)
Nichrome wire has more resistance than a copper wire of the same dimension. That is
why
 Nichrome wire is used in heatingelement of electric fire
 Copper wire is mostly used for connecting wires
iv. Cross section area.
A thin wire has more resistance than a thick conductor

R α1/A
But A=πr2
Where A= area of a wire

Combine the relation R αL and R α1/A

Then:
R α L/A
Remove proportionality sign
R=KL/A
Where:

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 K=resistivity (ρ)
R=ρL/A
ρ=AR/A

Resistivity is the ability of material to oppose the flow of an electric current. Its SI unit is Ohm
meter (Ω)

RESISTIVITY OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS AT 20°C

RESISTIVITY (Ωm)
MATERIAL

Aluminium 2.82x10-8

Chromium 1.3x10 -7

Copper 1.68x10 -8

Iron 9.71x10 -8

Gold 2.4x10 -8

Lead 2.1x10-7

Silver 1.6x10 -8

Carbon 3.5x10 -5

Constantan 4.9x10 -7

Manganin 4.8x10-7

Nichrome 1.5x10 -6

Glass 1x10 9-1x10 13

Rubber 1x10 13

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 Quartz 5.0 x1016

Silicon 2.3x10 3

Graphite 8.0x10 -6

Wood 1x108-1x1011

Example:
What is the resistance of copper of length 20m and diameter of 0.080m?
Data given:
Length (L) =20m
Diameter, (d) =0.08m
Radius, (r) =0.04m
Resistivity =1.68x10-8 Ωm
Soln:
Area, (A)=πr2
Area, (A) = π (0.04)2
Area, (A)=5.024x10-7m2
From
Resistance (R)= ρL/A
Resistance (R)= 1.68x10-8 Ωm x 20m
5.024x10-7m2
Resistance (R)=0.67Ω

Example:
A steel bar has a length of 2.3m and diameter of 2x10-5m. What is its resistance?
(Resistivity, ρ=1.05x10-8)
Data given
Length (L) = 2.3m
Diameter (d) = 2x10-5m
Radius(r) =1 x10-5m
Resistivity, ρ=1.05x10-8
Soln:
Area, (A) =πr2
Area, (A) = π (1x10-5m)2
Area, (A) =3.14x10-10m2
R= ρL/A
R=1.05x10-8 x 2.3m
3.14x10-10m2
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 R=76.872Ω

Example:
A battery is 5V has a resistance wire 20Ω connected across it. Calculate the current in the
circuit.
Data given:
Voltage,V=5V
Resistance,R=20Ω
Current, I=?
Solution:
From ohms law
V=IR
Make I the subject
I=V/R
I=5/20
I=0.25A

Example: 02.
An Ohmic conductor has voltage drop of 9V measured across it. The current flowing in a
conductor is 3mA.What is its resistance.
Data given
Voltage drop=9V
Current, I=3mA=3x10-3A
Resistance, R=?
Solution:
From Ohms law
V=IR
Make R the subject
R=V/I
R=9V/3x10-3A
R=3000Ω
R=3KΩ

COMBINATION OF RESISTORS

There are two main methods of connecting circuit components. These are;
 Series connection
 Parallel connection

Series connection

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In this series arrangement, the resistors are connected end to end

From

P.d across the battery the battery= sum of P.d around the connecting path

Therefore Vt=V1+V2

But the current is the same at all points around the circuit

From Ohms law

R=V/I

Now Rt=Vt/I

Substitute Vt=V1+V2 into equation Rt=Vt/I

Rt = (V1+V2)/I

Rt=(V1/I)+(V2/I)

But:

R1=V1/I

R2=V2/I

Substitute into the equation Rt=(V1/I)+(V2/I)

Rt=R1+R2

Rt=R1+R2

Therefore: Total resistance (Rt) for resistor in series is equal to the sum of individual resistance.

Rt=R1+R2+………+Rn

Where:Rn is the last resistor

Example:

(a) Calculate the total resistance and total current from the circuit below:
(b) Calculate the potential difference across
(i) R1
(ii) R2
(iii) R3

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Data given:

First resistance (R1) = 100Ω

Second resistance (R2) = 300Ω

Third resistance (R3) = 50Ω

Voltage (V) = 9V

Total resistance (Rt) = ?

Total current (I) =?

Solution:

From: Rt =R1+R2+R3

Rt=100Ω+300Ω+50Ω

Rt=450Ω

Therefore total resistance=450Ω

From Ohms law

V=IR

Total current (I) = V/Rt

Total Total current (I) = 9V/450Ω

Total current (I) = 0.02A

b)

Data given:

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First resistance (R1) = 100Ω

Second resistance (R2) = 300Ω

Third resistance (R3) = 50Ω

Current across the circuit=0.02A

Voltage across R1,V1=?

Voltage across R2,V2=?

Voltage across R3=?

Solution:

i) Voltage across R1,V1=?

From Ohms law, V=IR
V1=IR1
V1=0.02Ax100Ω
V1=2V
ii) Voltage across R2,V2=?
From Ohms law, V=IR
V2=IR2
V2=0.02Ax300Ω
V2=6V

iii) Voltage across R3,V3=?

From Ohms law, V=IR
V3=IR3
V3=0.02Ax50Ω
V3=1V

Example:

(a) Calculate the total resistance and total current from the circuit below:

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Data given:

First resistance (R1) = 20Ω

Second resistance (R23) = 19Ω

Third resistance (R4) = 20Ω

Voltage (V) = 10V

Total resistance (Rt) = ?

Total current (I) = ?

Solution:

From: Rt =R1+R23+R4

Rt=20Ω +19Ω +20Ω

Rt=49Ω

Therefore total resistance=450Ω

From Ohms law

V=IR

Total current (I) = V/Rt

Total Total current (I) = 10V/49Ω

Total current (I) = 0.21A

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PARALLEL RESISTOR

Resistors are connected across two common points in a parallel arrangement.

Note:

It=I1+I2

P.d is the same for all branches

From Ohms law

R=V/I

Therefore;

It=V/Rt………………..(1)

It=V/R1………………..(2)

It=V/R2………………..(3)

Substitute into equation It=I1+I2

V/Rt=V/R1+V/R2

Divide by V both sides

1/Rt=1/R1+1/R2

Therefore: total resistance (Rt) for resistor in parallel is equal to the sum of all individual
resistance.

1/Rt=1/R1+1/R2+……..+1/Rn

Where: Rn is the last resistor

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Example:

Calculate the total resistance and total current from the circuit below:

Data given:

First resistance (R1) = 3Ω

Second resistance (R2) = 5Ω

Third resistance (R3) = 6Ω

Voltage (V) = 9V

Total resistance (Rt) = ?

Total current (I) = ?

Solution:

From: 1/Rt =1/R1+1/R2+1/R3

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 1/Rt=1/3Ω +1/5Ω +1/6Ω

1/Rt=7/10Ω…cross multiplication

Rt=1.43Ω

Therefore total resistance=1.43Ω

From Ohms law

V=IR

Total current (I) = V/Rt

Total Total current (I) = 9V/1.43Ω

Total current (I) = 6.3A

INTERNAL RESISTANCE

This refers to the opposition to the flow of current offered by the cell and batteries
themselves resulting in the generation of heat.

It is measured in ohm.

The relationship between internal resistance (r) and the emf (e) of a cell is given by

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E=I(r+R)

Where: E= emf

ie. Electromotive force (volts)

I=current (A)

R= load resistance

r= internal resistance of cell measured in ohm.

On rearranging the above equation we get

E=IR+Ir or

E=V+Ir

Vt=V+V1

Where;

Ir=V1=voltage drop of the cell

IR=V=Voltage across the resistor

On the above equation V is the potential difference (terminal) across the cell when
the current (I) is flowing through the circuit

Note:

The emf of a cell is always greater than potential difference (terminal) across the
cell.

Example:

The potential difference across the cell when no current flow through the circuit is
3V.when the current (I)=0.37A is flowing, the terminal potential difference fall to
2.8V.determine the internal resistance (r) of the cell.

Soln:

E=V+Ir
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E-V=Ir

(E-V)/I=r

r = (3.0-2.8)/0.37

r= 0.54 Ohm.

Resistoris the device which offers resistance to the flow of an electric current. It is
used to control the magnitude of current and voltage according to Ohms law.

TYPES OF RESISTOR

It is divided according to the material used to make it and the value of

resistance offered.

Types of resistor due to material used;

i. wire wound resistor

ii. carbon resistor
iii. metal film resistor
iv. metal oxide film resistor

Wire wound resistor

It is made up of winding wires made up of a certain metallic alloys into spool

(used to control amount of resistance)

Diagram:

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Carbon resistor: this is made by mixing carbon granules with varying amount
of clays and molding them into cylinders

Diagram:

Metal film resistor: It is made up of a stable ceramic core coated with metal oxide
such as nickel, chromium. It is more accuracy and more expensive than carbon
resistor

Metal oxide film resistor:

It is made up of stable ceramic core coated with metal alloys such as tin oxide.

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Types of resistor due to value offered

Resistors created from different value may be fixed or variable resistance value

I. fixed resistor
II. variable resistor
Fixed resistor: it has a resistor value which can not change. For example:
2Ω,3Ω,4Ω, and etc. example most carbon resistors are fixed resistors
Variable resistor: it has resistor value which can change example: Rheostat,
thermistors, potentiometer, and photo resistors.

RESISTOR COLOR CODE:

The resistors which are used in electronic devices always are painted in
different color texture called band. The band represents the exact value of
resistance it contain fourth band with different meanings.

Table of color code:

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 Color number color tolerance

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 0 Black
1 Brown ±1%
2 Red ±2%
3 Orange ±3%
4 Yellow ±4%
5 Green ±0.5%
6 Blue ±0.25%
7 purple ±0.10%
8 Grey ±0.05%
9 White
Gold ±5%
Silver ±10%
No color ±20%

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Sir.Belson Jackson
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 CONDUCTOR:

Conductor is a substance which allows electricity to flow through them.

Example; metals like; iron, copper,
In conductors electrons are free to move which conduct charges from one
point to another

INSULATOR
These are materials which do not allow electricity to flow through them.
Examples of insulators are plastic, wood, rubber, mica, ebonite and glass.In
insulators there are no free electrons for conduction

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 CAPACITORS:
Capacitor is a device used to store electric charges.
Note:
The ability to store electric charges is known as capacitance
The SI unit of capacitance is farad
Capacitors are found in all electronic circuits, e.g. Radio, televisions,
alarm system, etc.
The potential difference (voltage produced by cell or battery), V across
the two capacitor plates of the capacitor is directly proportional to the
charge, Q accumulating on its plates.
VαQ
Remove proportionality constant
Q=kV
But k=C=capacitance
Q=CV

CHARGING A CAPACITOR

A capacitor consists of two metal plates arranged in parallel with a

dielectric material between them. The two plates accumulate charges
when a potential difference is applied across them.

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Potential difference is the work done needed to move the charged particles from
one point to another.

Its SI unit is voltage

Also it is calledpotentials

DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR

When the two plates of capacitors are joined, the electrons from negatively charged
plates will flow around the circuit and neutralize the positive charge on the
positively charged plate. This movement of electrons will cause a current to flow
for a short time, and if you are using a wire to connect the two plates you can draw
a spark when the current stop flowing, the capacitor is said to be discharged.

TYPES OF CAPACITORS

There are different types of capacitors depends on the dielectric material used and
the application

1. Paper/plastics filled capacitor

2. Oil filled capacitor
3. Electrolytic capacitor
4. Mica capacitor
5. Variable or air filled capacitor

1. Paper/plastics filled capacitor: This is paper/plastic/polyester

material used as dielectric material and has a metal foil strip as
their conductor.

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 2. Oil filled capacitor:

3. Electrolytic capacitor: it contains paper material soaked in a

chemical as conductor and a thin aluminum oxide is formed on
positive plane. The thinner the layer the higher the capacitance.

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 4. Mica capacitor: In mica capacitor a sheet of metal foil are
separated by strips of mica. Mica is preferred because it is a natural
mineral and splits easily into thin sheet.

5. Variable capacitor: Conductors and semiconductor plates are

separated by air and dielectric material.one set of plates isfixed and
other is rotate by means of knobs. The rotation changes the area of
a plate.

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 ARRANGEMENT OF CAPACITORS
Capacitors can be arranged in series or in parallel to get the desired
effect

Capacitor in series:

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From the diagram above

Vt=V1+V2

But ,Q=CV

Make V the subject

V=C/Q

Therefore;

Vt=Qt/Ct

V1=Q1/C1

V2=Q2/C2

But charge store is equal for each capacitor

Qt=Q1=Q2=Q

Therefore:

Vt=Q/Ct

V1=Q/C1

V2=Q/C2

Where:

C1=first capacitance

C2=second capacitance

Ct=effective capacitance

Charge from capacitance, C1=Q1

Charge from capacitance, C2=Q2

Total capacitance, Ct = Qt

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Voltage across capacitance, C1=V1

Voltage across capacitance, C2=V2

Total voltage across capacitance, Ct=Vt

From: Vt=V1+V2…………Substitute each

Q/Ct=Q/C1+Q/C2

Q/Ct=Q(1/C1+1/C2)……….divide by Q both sides

1/Ct=1/C1+1/C2

Therefore:

For capacitor in series their total capacitance is obtained by formula

1/Ct=1/C1+1/C2

Capacitor in parallel

From the diagram above

Qt=Q1+Q2

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But Q=CV

Therefore:

Qt=CtVt

Q1=C1V1

Q2=C2V2

But, Voltage across each capacitor is equal

Qt=CtV

Q1=C1V

Q2=C2V

From:

Qt=Q1+Q2

Substitute each

CtV=Q(C1V+C2V)

CtV=V(C1+C2)…divide by V both sides

Ct=C1+C2
Therefore for the capacitor in series their total capacitance is obtained by the formular

Ct=C1+C2

Example:
Two capacitors of 20µF and 25µF are connected in
i. Series
ii. Parallel
What is the effective capacitance for (i) and (ii)
Data given

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First capacitance, C1=20 µF
Second capacitance, C2=25µF
Effective capacitance, Ct=?
Solution:
i. Series
From: 1/Ct=1/C1+1/C2
1/Ct=1/20+1/25
1/Ct=(5+4)/100
1/Ct=9/100
Ct=100/9
Ct=11.11µF

ii. Parallel
From: Ct=C1+C2
Ct=20+25
Ct=45 µF

Example: 02

Determine the effective capacitance obtained when two capacitors each of 10µF are
connected first in parallel and then in series
Data given:
First capacitance, C1=10µF
Second capacitance, C2=10µF
Effective capacitance, Ct=?
Solution:
(i) Series:
From: 1/Ct=1/C1+1/C2
1/Ct=1/10+1/10
1/Ct=(1+1)/10
1/Ct=2/10
Ct=10/2
Ct=5µF

(ii) Parallel:
From: Ct=C1+C2
Ct=10+10
Ct=20 µF

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 Example: 03
It is required to obtain effective capacitance of 3µF, there are two capacitors; the first is
12 µ, what will be the value of the other capacitor. State the way it will be connected to
the first.
Data given:
First capacitance, C1=20 µF
Second capacitance, C2=?
Effective capacitance, Ct=3µF
Solution:
From: 1/Ct=1/C1+1/C2
1/3=1/12+1/C2
1/C2=1/3-1/12
1/C2=(4-1)/12
1/C2=3/12
C2=4µF
It will be connected in series to the first one and its value will be 4µF

FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE:

Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is affected by three factors,
namely
i. The area of plate
ii. The dielectric material
iii. The distance between the plates
i. The area of plate
An increase in the area of the plate causes a decrease in potential
difference between the plate, hence an increase in capacitance.
Cα1/V
ii. The dielectric material
Dielectric material will cause the capacitance to increase or
decrease depending on the material,
Example: capacitance to increase if we use dielectric material such
as glass, book or polythene between the plates rather than air.

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iii. Distance between the plates.
A decrease in the distance between the plates causes a decrease in
potential difference between the plates hence an increase in capacitance.
Cαd

Cell has internal resistance that opposes flow of electric current results potential drop

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