FILE

What is a File?

A File is a collection of related data or information stored together as a

single unit on a storage device, such as a computer hard drive, USB, or cloud
storage.

Files are used to organize and store data for easy access, retrieval, and
management.

Key Features of a File

1. Collection of Records: A file consists of multiple records, where each

record contains data about a specific entity.

Example: A file of student records where each record contains details about
a single student.

2. Permanent Storage: Files are stored on storage media and can be

retrieved whenever needed.

3. Logical Structure: Files are organized logically (e.g., sequentially or

randomly) to make accessing data efficient.

4. Unique Name: Each file is identified by a unique name (filename) and

often has an extension (e.g., .txt, .csv, .docx) that indicates its type.

Examples of Files in Data Processing

1. A text file containing a list of names: students.txt.

2. A spreadsheet file with exam scores: exam_results.xlsx.

3. A database file with records of books in a library: library_records.db.

Types of Files

1. Text Files: Store plain text data, such as .txt or .csv files.

2. Binary Files: Contain data in a format that can only be read by

specific software or programs.

3. Program Files: Contain instructions that can be executed by a

computer.

4. Multimedia Files: Store images, videos, or audio, such as .jpg, .mp4,

or .mp3.
Structure of a File

A file is made up of:

1. Records: A collection of fields that store related information.

2. Fields: The smallest unit of data that holds a single piece of

information.

Example: Student Record File

Student Ag Clas
Name e s

John Doe 15 SS2

Jane Smith 16 SS2

Here:

 Each row is a record (e.g., John Doe's details).

 Each column is a field (e.g., Student Name, Age, Class).

 The entire table is a file.

What is File Organisation?

File organization is a way of organizing the data or records in a file. It does not refer to
how files are organized in folders, but how the contents of a file are added and
accessed.
File organization refers to the way data is stored in a file so it can be
retrieved, updated, and managed efficiently during data processing. In data
processing, a file contains a collection of related records, and file
organization determines the structure and method used to store and access
these records.

Types of File organization

There are many ways records can be organized on disk or tape. The main
methods of file organization used for files are;

 Heap File Organization

 Sequential File Organization

 Hash / Direct File Organization

 Cluster File Organization

  Indexed Sequential Access Methods (ISAM)

SEQUENTIAL FILE ORGANISATION

Sequential File Organization is a way of storing data in which records are arranged in a specific
order based on a key field, such as a student’s name, roll number, or date of birth. Each record is
stored one after the other in a fixed sequence, and accessing the records requires following that
order from the start.

It is like lining up students according to their roll numbers and calling their names in that same
order.

How Does Sequential File Organization Work?

1. Storage: Records are stored in a specific, sorted order based on a key field.
o For example, student records could be stored in order of roll numbers: 001, 002,
003, and so on.
2. Access: To find a record, the system starts from the beginning and checks each record
until the desired one is found.
3. Updating Records:
o Inserting New Records: When a new record is added, it must be inserted at the
correct position to maintain the sequence, which might require shifting other
records.
o Deleting Records: When a record is deleted, the remaining records stay in
sequence, but empty spaces may need to be handled.

Advantages of Sequential File Organization

1. Simplicity: It is simple to implement and easy to understand. Data is arranged in an

orderly way, just like a roll call list.
2. Efficient for Batch Processing: Tasks like generating reports or processing payrolls can
be completed quickly because the data is already sorted.
3. Good for Sequential Access: Reading records one after the other is very efficient and
useful when all records need to be processed.
4. Data Integrity: Maintaining a sequence ensures that data is consistent and structured.

Disadvantages of Sequential File Organization

 1. Slow Random Access: Finding a specific record can be time-consuming because the
system must start at the beginning and check each record until the desired one is found.
2. Inflexibility: Adding or deleting records can be difficult because maintaining the
sequence may require shifting many records.
3. Not Suitable for Real-Time Access: This method is inefficient for applications that
require quick and frequent access to individual records.

3. Indexed File Organization

Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM) is a type of file organization that combines the
features of both sequential access and indexing. It stores records in a sorted order based on a
key field (e.g., student ID or name) and uses an index to locate specific records faster.

With ISAM, the data is organized in two main parts:

1. Data File: Stores the actual records in sequential order.

2. Index File: Contains pointers to the locations of records in the data file.

The index acts like a table of contents in a book, helping the system quickly jump to the required
section instead of scanning through the entire file.

In this method, an index is created, much like a book’s index, to locate records quickly without
scanning the entire file.

 Practical Example
 Imagine a student database where all students are listed alphabetically by their names.
The data file contains their records, while the index file points to the location of each
student’s record. To find the record of “John Doe,” the system uses the index to jump to
the exact location in the data file.
 .

Advantages:

1. Fast searching and retrieval of data.

2. Efficient for systems where specific records need frequent access.
3. Supports sorted order without reorganizing the data.

Disadvantages:

1. Requires additional storage for the index.

2. Creating and maintaining the index can be complex.
3. Performance decreases if the index becomes too large.

Practical Example:
  Library catalog systems where an index helps locate books based on their titles or
authors.
 Application: Database management systems, search engines.
 Index file organization is a method of arranging and accessing data
stored in a file using an index, much like an index in a book. The index
helps to quickly locate the position of a specific record in the file.

Practical Analogy:

Imagine you have a large book with 500 pages about African history. When you want to find
information about "Queen Amina of Zazzau," it would take a lot of time to flip through all the
pages. But, if the book has an index at the back, you can look up "Queen Amina" in the index,
see the page number, and go straight to that page.

Similarly, in data processing:

 The main data file is like the book with all the details.
 The index file is like the index at the back of the book that tells you where to find
specific records.

Advantages of Index File Organization:

1. Faster Access:
Searching through the index is much quicker than scanning the entire data file.
2. Efficient Sorting:
Data doesn't need to be physically arranged in order in the data file. The index can
logically order it.
3. Supports Large Files:
Managing large files becomes easier because the index reduces the need to access the full
file.
4. Flexibility:
Indexes can be created for multiple fields (e.g., name, ID, or subject), offering versatile
search options.

Disadvantages of Index File Organization:

1. Extra Storage Space:

Maintaining the index file requires additional storage.
2. Index Maintenance:
Every time new data is added or deleted, the index needs to be updated, which can be
time-consuming.
3. Corruption Risks:
If the index file gets corrupted, accessing data becomes difficult.
 

3. Direct (Random) File Organization

Direct file organization, also known as random file organization, is a

method of storing data in such a way that records can be accessed directly
without searching sequentially through the file. Each record is assigned a
unique address (location) based on a mathematical formula called a hash
function.

Practical Analogy:

Think of a large library with thousands of books. If you want to find a book, instead of searching
shelf by shelf, you use a catalog that tells you the exact shelf and position of the book based on
its title or ID.

Similarly, in direct file organization:

 Data is stored at specific locations in the file based on a unique identifier (e.g., a student
ID).
 The system calculates the storage location using a hash function, allowing immediate
access.

Advantages:

1. Very fast retrieval and update of data.

2. Ideal for real-time systems where quick access is critical.
3. Eliminates the need for sequential searching.

Disadvantages:

1. Collisions (two records being assigned the same location) require extra handling.
2. Inefficient for processing large amounts of data sequentially.
3. Hash functions must be carefully designed for efficient performance.

Practical Example:

 ATM systems where a customer's account is accessed using their account number.
 Application: Banking systems, airline reservation systems.
4. Clustered File Organization

This method groups similar records together in the same block or physical location to enhance
access speed. Clustered file organization is not considered good for large databases. In
this mechanism, related records from one or more relations are kept in the same disk
block, that is ordering of records is not based on primary key or search key.
Clustered File Organization is a way of storing data in groups or "clusters" based on a
common attribute. For example, in a school database, records of students from the
same class (like SS1, SS2, or SS3) c2an be grouped together. Each group is stored in
a block, so all data related to the same attribute is found in one place.
This method is designed to improve data access speed when related records are
needed together. Instead of searching the entire file, the system only looks in the
relevant cluster.

 How It Works: Records with related data are stored together based on a clustering field,
making it easier to retrieve grouped data.

Advantages:

1. Improves the efficiency of retrieving related data.

2. Reduces the time required for queries that access multiple related records.
3. Useful in applications that frequently access related data.

Disadvantages:

1. May lead to inefficient storage if records are not evenly distributed.

2. Requires careful design to avoid excessive data movement during updates.
3. Performance decreases as the file grows beyond a certain limit.

Practical Example:

 Sales records grouped by region or product category.

 Application: Data warehousing, business analytics, and inventory management systems.

Heap File Organization

 Heap File Organization is a method of storing records in a database where records are
placed randomly, without any specific order. New data is added wherever there is space
available, usually at the end of the file. This means the data is not sorted by any field,
such as name, date, or student ID.
 This type of organization is commonly used when the priority is to store data quickly, and
frequent searches or updates are not required.
  How It Works: Data is stored wherever there is free space. It does not follow any
specific sequence.

Advantages:

1. Easy to implement.
2. Fast for inserting new records.
3. Requires no sorting or indexing.

Disadvantages:

1. Searching for specific records is slow because it requires scanning the entire file.
2. Unsuitable for scenarios where frequent updates and deletions occur.
3. Difficult to handle large files efficiently.

Practical Example:

 Storing log files where records are simply appended as they are generated.
 Application: Temporary or small datasets that require frequent inserts.
 Scan: Fetch all records in the file. The pages in the file must be fetched from the
disk into the buffer pool. There is also a CPU overhead per record for locating the
record on the page.

 Search with equality selection: Fetch all records that satisfy an equality
selection, for example, find the student record for the student with sid 23. Pages
that contain qualifying records must be fetched from the disk, and qualifying
records must be located within retrieved pages.

 Search with range selection:Fetch all records that satisfy a range selection. For
example, find all students records with name alphabetically after smith.

 Insert:Insert a given record into the file. We must identify the page in the file into
which the new record must be inserted, fetch that page from the disk, modify it to
include the new record and then write back the modified page.

 Delete:Delete a record that is specified using its record id. We must identify the
page in the file into which the new record must be inserted, fetch that page from
the disk, modify and then write it back.
 Locate: Every file has a file pointer, which tells the current position where the
data is to be read or written.

 Write: User can select to open a file in write mode, the file enables them to edit
its contents. It can be deletion, insertion or modification.

 Read: By default, when file are opened in read mode, the file pointer points to
the beginning of the file.

 Comparison among Three Files Organization
 - A hashed file does not utilize space quite as well as a sorted file, but
insertions and deletions are fast, and equality selections are very fast.
 - A heap file has good storage efficiency and supports fast scan, insertion
and deletion or records. However, it is slow for searching.
 - A sorted file also offers good storage efficiency, but insertion and deletion
of records are slow. It is quite fast for searching, and it is the best structure for
range selections.
