HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Success criteria
Students must be able to:
o describe the factors that influence the breathing mechanism in humans
o explain how tissue respiration takes place
o explain the importance of gaseous exchange
o explain abnormal conditions associated with the respiratory system
Breathing mechanism in human beings
- Breathing involves inspiration and exhalation
Inspiration (Inhalation)
- The internal intercostal muscles relax and the external intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribcage
upwards and outwards
- The diaphragm contracts, pulling downwards
- The volume in the chest cavity (thoracic cavity) increases leading to a reduction in air pressure inside the
lungs
- As a result, air is pushed into the lungs
Page 1 of 15
Expiration (Exhalation)
- The external intercostal muscles relax and the internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribcage
downwards and inwards
- The diaphragm relaxes, moving back upwards
- The volume in the chest cavity reduces leading to an increase in air pressure inside the lungs
- As a result, air is pushed out of the lungs
Role of medulla oblongata in regulating the breathing process
- The breathing mechanism is controlled by the brain in the part called medulla oblongata.
- The process of breathing is determined by the concentration of carbon dioxide in blood.
- Carbon dioxide is carried in blood in blood in form of weak carbonic acid (H2CO3). The chemoreceptors in
the medulla oblongata detect the concentration of hydrogen ions in blood.
- When carbon dioxide concentration in the blood rises above normal, the chemoreceptors in the medulla
oblongata detect this and send impulses to the heart, lungs, ribcage and the diaphragm.
- The diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract rapidly and so increasing the breathing rate.
Breathing rate in humans
- Breathing rate is the number of complete breaths per minute.
- A complete breath consists of one inhalation and one exhalation
Page 2 of 15
Factors that influence breathing rate
1. Carbon dioxide concentration
- High amounts of carbon dioxide in the blood leads to increased breathing rate.
- The increased breathing rate triggers an increase in the uptake of oxygen which results to an increase in the
concentration of oxygen in the blood.
2. Haemoglobin concentration or amount of red blood cells in the body
- When the concentration of haemoglobin or the level of red blood cells is low in the blood, less oxygen
reaches the cells.
- The breathing rate increases to meet the oxygen demand of the body.
3. Atmospheric pressure and oxygen concentration
- As the altitude increases, the atmospheric pressure and the amount of oxygen decreases.
- Breathing rate increases in order to obtain more oxygen necessary for normal functioning of the body.
4. Physical exercises
- During a physical exercise, energy is required by the muscles.
- Therefore, more oxygen is needed for aerobic respiration to produce additional energy required by the
muscles.
- This leads to increase in the breathing rate to remove the increased levels of carbon dioxide in the blood
which arise as a result of increased respiration. The depth of breathing also increases
5. Emotional changes in the body
- When emotional changes such as stress, panicking, fright occur, the body requires more energy than normal
hence increased rate of respiration.
- Therefore, there is a need for more oxygen and the breathing rate is increased.
6. Health condition of the body
- Unhealthy people in some cases breathe faster than normal though some may breathe much slower
depending on the nature and extent of illness.
Investigating the effect of exercise on the rate of breathing
Procedure
- Count the number of breath per minute of a person at rest and record it.
- Let the same person run for a while and count the number of breath per minute immediately after running
- Compare the results obtained at rest and those obtained after exercise.
Page 3 of 15
Expected results
- The breathing rate of the person at rest will be 12 – 20 breaths per minute whereas after running the
breathing rate will increase to about 27 breaths per minute.
Terms used in breathing
Lung capacity
- It is the total volume of air in lungs when they are inflated.
- Lung capacity is measured by an instrument called a spirometer. The average lung capacity of the person is
about 5l.
Tidal volume
- This is the volume of air that is breathed in or out during normal breathing (at rest). The average tidal
volume is about 0.5l.
Complementary air /Inspiratory Reserve Volume
- This is the additional volume of air to tidal air that is taken into the lungs during deeper breathing.
Supplementary air / Expiratory Reserve Volume
- This is the additional volume of air to tidal air that is taken out of the lungs during deeper breathing.
- Normally complementary air is equal to supplementary air (1.5 litres)
Residual volume
- This is the volume of air which is always left in the lungs during deeper breathing. The volume of residual
air is 1.5l
Vital capacity
- This is the total volume of air exhaled and inhaled during exercises. The volume of vital capacity is 3.5l
VC = TV + IRV + ERV
Inspiratory capacity
- This is the maximum volume of air that can be inspired
IC = TV + IRV
Functional Residual capacity
Page 4 of 15
- This is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration
FRC = RV + ERV
Measuring vital capacity and tidal volume of lungs
Procedure
- Inhale normally and then exhale into the first balloon.
- Hold the mouth of the balloon and measure its diameter as shown in the diagram below
- Repeat this for 3 times and find the average of the measurements and record it
- Repeat the procedure using then second balloon but this time take a very deep breath then use a lot of force
to push the exhaled into the balloon. Measure the diameter of the balloon.
Results
- The volume of air is greater when one takes a forced breathed in and breathed out than when air is breathed
in and out normally.
- The forced breathing is the vital capacity of the lung. The normal breathing in and out involves tidal
volume.
Tissue respiration
- Tissue or cellular respiration is the process by which organic food substances are broken down in cells to
release energy.
- It takes place in the mitochondrion
Types of tissue respiration
There are two types of tissue respiration
Page 5 of 15
o Aerobic respiration
o Anaerobic respiration
The first steps of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration involve splitting glucose into pyruvic acid in a process
called glycolysis. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm and does not require the presence of oxygen
Aerobic respiration
- It is the type of respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen.
- It begins when the pyruvic acid formed during glycolysis enters the mitochondrion and undergoes further
breakdown to produce more energy. The breakdown process is known as Krebs cycle.
- It eventually produces carbon dioxide, water and energy.
- Most organisms respire anaerobically because it is efficient and produces large quantities of energy.
- This is because the glucose molecule is completely broken down to release most of its energy.
Anaerobic respiration
- It is the type of respiration that takes place in the absence of oxygen.
- Organisms that respire anaerobically are called anaerobes. Some of these organisms respire anaerobically
only (obligate anaerobes) while other organisms respire both aerobically and anaerobically (facultative
anaerobes)
- Anaerobic respiration produces very little energy because glucose is not completely broken down.
- It takes place in both plants and animals
Anaerobic respiration in plants
- Glucose is broken down to produce energy, alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 𝑶𝟔 → 𝟐𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟓 𝑶𝑯 + 𝟐𝑪𝑶𝟐 + Energy
- This process takes place in living organisms such as yeast and bacteria and it is usually known as
fermentation
Anaerobic respiration in animals
- Glucose is broken down to produce to produce lactic acid and energy
Page 6 of 15
Glucose → Lactic acid + Energy
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 𝑶𝟔 → 𝟐𝑪𝟑 𝑯𝟔 𝑶𝟑 + Energy
- Anaerobically respiration occurs in animal muscles during a strenuous exercise and produces lactic acid
which is a toxic waste product.
- Oxygen is required to remove lactic acid once the exercise stops, and therefore this is called oxygen
debt. This is why an individual breathes heavier after a strenuous exercise so as to supply oxygen to the
muscle cells.
Comparing aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Similarities between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
- Energy is produced in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration
- Glucose is broken down in both processes
- Both do not require oxygen in the first stages of the processes
Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Requires oxygen Does not require oxygen
Produces a lot of energy Only a small amount of energy is produced
Water molecules are not produced Water molecules are not produced
Takes place in the mitochondrion Takes place in the cytoplasm
The by products are water, carbon dioxide The by products are ethanol, carbon dioxide and energy in
and energy plants. In animals, the by products are lactic acid and energy.
Importance of gaseous exchange in organisms
- Organisms are able to obtain useful gases from their environment e.g. oxygen for animals and carbon
dioxide for plants.
- Organisms are able to get rid of waste gases into their environment e.g. carbon dioxide for animals and
oxygen for plants.
How gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs
- Gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs in the alveoli (air sacs) by diffusion along a concentration
gradient.
Page 7 of 15
- Air enters the alveoli during inhalation with a high concentration of oxygen but a low concentration of
carbon dioxide than in the blood capillaries.
- This difference in concentration gradient causes oxygen from the air in the alveoli to diffuse into the blood
in the capillaries. The blood becomes oxygenated which is carried to the heart and then pumped to various
body tissues to supply oxygen to those tissues. On the other hand, carbon dioxide from the blood diffuses
out of the capillaries and into the alveoli and is eventually expelled during exhalation.
How gaseous exchange takes place in the tissues
- The process takes place in the body between blood and the cells facilitated with concentration gradient.
- Tissues are made up of cells. Surrounding the cells is a fluid called tissue fluid. This tissue fluid has a
higher concentration of oxygen than the cells.
- Therefore, oxygen diffuses from the tissue fluid into the cells along the concentration gradient. Similarly,
carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cells into the tissue fluid along its concentration gradient.
Page 8 of 15
Comparing gaseous exchange in lungs and in tissues
Gaseous exchange in lungs and in tissues are both similar and different in various ways
Similarities between gaseous exchange in lungs and tissues
- In both, oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse along their concentration gradients.
- In both, haemoglobin found in red blood cells is the transport agent.
Differences between gaseous exchange in lungs and tissues
In lungs In tissues
Gaseous exchange is between the air and the blood Gaseous exchange is between tissue fluid and tissue
cells cells
Oxygen diffuses into blood cells while carbon Carbon dioxide diffuses into blood cells while
dioxide diffuses out into the air oxygen diffuses out into tissue cells
Gases must first dissolve in the moist linings of the Gases are already in solution form in the plasma
capillary walls
It is a rapid process and takes the duration between There is plenty of time for exchange of gases to take
inhalation and exhalation place as the tissue fluid bathes the cells.
Adaptations of respiratory structures in humans
- The nasal passage has hairs and mucus. The hairs and mucus trap foreign particles coming in with inhaled
air.
- The nasal passage and the trachea are lined with cilia. Cilia sweeps mucus out of the nasal cavity.
- Walls of nasal cavity are lined with a dense network of blood capillaries. The capillaries bring in warm
blood raising the temperature in the nasal cavity. This warms inhaled air before the air enters into the lungs.
- The trachea is made of cartilage rings which prevent the trachea from collapsing when air moves in and out
at high temperature. This keeps the trachea continually open for continuous ventilation
Page 9 of 15
- The epithelium of the nasal passage has smell sensory cells called olfactory cells which detect chemical
substances in the incoming air as smell. This enables the individual to identify different chemical substances
in air to avoid inhalation of toxic gases.
- The larynx has a cartilage called an epiglottis which closes during swallowing to prevent entry of food into
the trachea
Abnormal conditions associated with the respiratory system
1. Asthma
- It is a disorder resulting from inflammation or swelling of the respiratory tract.
- Allergens such as dust, pollen, house mites, animal fur, some types of food, sprays, perfumes may cause
asthma
- It may also be caused by viral infections
- Presence of asthma in the family members like parents increases the probability of the occurrence of the
disease in the family.
- Cold humid weather, car exhausts and industrial waste gases are known to accelerate asthma.
Signs and symptoms of asthma
- Coughing especially at night or when the weather becomes cold
- Wheezing sound when breathing
- Shortness of breath and difficulties in breathing
- A feeling of tightness in the chest
- Chest pains especially when breathing
Prevention, control and treatment of asthma
- Use of medicines that prevent inflammation of air ways. They prevent asthma attacks and work by reducing
swelling and mucus production in the airways. As a result, the airways are less sensitive and less likely to
react to allergens.
- Use of medicines that cause widening of the bronchi (bronchodilators / inhalers). These medicines help to
open the airways. They also relieve the symptoms of asthma.
- Asthmatic patients should avoid possible allergens such as pollen, dust, animal fur etc.
2. Bronchitis
- It is the inflammation of the bronchial tubes due to accumulation of mucus in the lungs as a result of cilia
destruction
Page 10 of 15
- It may be caused by viral infections in the lungs, air pollution and cigarette smoking
Signs and symptoms of bronchitis
- Production of thick (green or yellow) sputum due to pus from respiratory surfaces.
- Dry hacking cough
- Wheezing sound when breathing and shortness of breath
- Fever, sore throat, chills, chest pains and a general feeling of tiredness and being unwell
- Nasal congestion and headaches
Control of bronchitis
- Avoid cigarette smoke to reduce the risk of chronic bronchitis
- Vaccination against influenza and some types of pneumonia
- Washing of hands to reduce catching viral infections
- Wearing surgical masks when working in dusty environments
Treatment of bronchitis
- Use of medications to relieve muscle aches and pains, headaches and to reduce fever.
- Use of cough suppressants for a dry cough
- Use of expectorants for productive cough to help clear the airways of mucus
- Stopping smoking and avoiding other airborne irritants
- Seeking early medical assistance.
3. Pulmonary Tuberculosis
- It is caused by a bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is transmitted through air droplets, drinking un
boiled milk from infected cows
- The bacteria destroy the lung tissues making it difficult for the infected person to breathe
Signs and symptoms of Pulmonary Tuberculosis
- Cough usually with mucus production
- Coughing blood
- Excessive sweating especially at night
- Fatigue
- Fever
- Drastic weight loss
- Breathing difficulty
- Chest pain
Page 11 of 15
- Persistent diarrhea
Prevention, control and treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis
- Avoiding overcrowded and poorly ventilated places
- Vaccination against TB using BCG vaccine
- Treatment using antibiotics
- Isolation of sick patients to prevent spread of the disease
- Boiling milk unpasteurized milk before use.
Carbon monoxide poisoning
- Carbon monoxide is the poisonous gas that is produced during incomplete combustion of fuels
- Incomplete combustion occurs when fuels are burnt in areas with insufficient oxygen.
- Carbon monoxide is odourless (no smell) as such it is very difficult to detect it during inhalation
- Carbon monoxide poisoning can occur because haemoglobin combines with carbon monoxide more readily
than oxygen to form a compound called carboxyhaemoglobin.
- Carboxyhaemoglobin does not easily split to release oxygen for use by the cells. Carboxyhaemoglobin
continues to circulate in blood depriving body cells of oxygen. Lack of enough oxygen results to less
respiration hence reduced amount of energy.
- Therefore, prolonged exposure to carbon monoxide can cause death due to lack of energy because body
processes stop taking place and a person may die due to suffocation.
Symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning
- Severe headache
- Nausea and in some cases abdominal pains
- A feeling of dizziness and a dry cough
First Aid for carbon monoxide poisoning
- Allow the patient to get plenty of fresh air
- If the person is not breathing, carry out artificial respiration by use of mouth to mouth resuscitation
- Loosen all tight clothing to allow free circulation of blood
- Take the person to the nearest health facility for treatment as soon as possible.
Ways of preventing carbon monoxide poisoning
- Burn gas, charcoal etc in a well ventilated place.
Page 12 of 15
- Allow charcoal to burn to red before it is taken into the house
- Don’t sleep with a burning charcoal burner
- Never run generators or small engines inside a house or enclosed spaces.
Effects of smoking on the lungs
Smoking has the following effects on the human body.
a. Respiratory infections
- Cigarette smoke contains a substance known as tar which irritates the respiratory tract hence increasing
mucus production.
- Cigarette smoke destroys the cilia on the respiratory tract. Therefore, bacteria and harmful particles are not
removed from the respiratory tract, the result is increase in infection incidences.
- Smoke and mucus accumulate in the bronchi resulting to bronchitis.
b. Addiction
- Nicotine is addictive. This leads the person to depend on smoking.
c. Lung cancer
- Cigarette smoke contains tar that contains carcinogens. Carcinogens encourage cancerous cells to develop in
the lungs. This can lead to lung cancer
d. Harm to foetus
e.
Page 13 of 15
Practice questions
1. a. Mention any two effects of smoking on human health. (2 marks)
b. State any two effects of exercise on breathing. (2 marks)
2. Figure shows volume of air in the lungs of a child at rest to the start of an exercise. Use it to answer
the questions that follow.
a. . At what time does the child start the exercise? (1 mark)
b. What is the maximum volume of air inspired during the exercise? (1 mark)
c. Calculate the number of breaths per minute. (4 marks)
i. At rest
ii. After exercise
d. Explain why there is an increased breathing rate between 20 – 40 seconds? (2 marks)
3. Figure is a diagram showing a summary of the process of respiration. Use it to answer the
questions that follow
Page 14 of 15
a. Name the product represented by the letter L. (1 mark)
b. (i). What type of respiration is shown in Figure 4? (1 mark)
(ii) Give a reason for your answer to b.(i). (1 mark)
c. State any two ways in which the stored energy may be used. (2 marks)
Page 15 of 15
