Internet of Things

Topic: Sensors & Actuators

Dr. Ravikiran Y
Assistant Professor
EEE Department
BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus

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 Sensors and Actuators
● A sensor monitors conditions and signals when it detects specific, pre-
determined changes.
● A sensor converts physical energy like heat, sound, strain, pressure,
vibrations and motion into electrical energy.
● A sensor is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of
sensing a physical phenomenon.
● A sensor can sense a change in physical parameters, such as
temperature, pressure, light, metal, smoke and proximity to an
object.
● Sensors can also sense acceleration, orientation, location,
vibrations or smell, organic vapours or gases.

● In the broadest definition, a sensor is a device, module, machine, or

subsystem that detects events or changes in its environment and sends
the information to other electronics, frequently a computer processor.
● Any examples?

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 Sensors and Actuators

Transducer:
Transduce or convert energy from one kind to another (both sensors and
actuators). For eg. In a sound system, A microphone (input device) converts
sound waves into electrical signals for an amplifier to amplify (a process) and a
loudspeaker (output device) converts electrical signals again to sound waves.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

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 Sensors and Actuators
● An actuator receives a signal and performs an action, often in the form of
movement in a mechanism.
● An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving
and controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve.
In simple terms, it is a "mover".

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 Sensors and Actuators
● Analog sensors measure the variations in the parameters with respect to a
reference or normal condition and provide the value of sensed parameter
after appropriate calculations.
● The change of states with respect to a reference or normal condition senses
the states in the form of 0s and 1s in digital sensors.
● A smart sensor includes the electronic circuit within itself, and includes
computing and communication capabilities.

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 Sensors and Actuators
● Types of Sensors –
Resistive
● Wire wound around a coil
whose resistance changes
with temperature
● Wire whose resistance
changes with strain applied
● Resistance of a photo-
conductor shows measurable
drop in the presence of light
● Gas sensor is a metal oxide
coated sensor whose
resistance varies with vapour
adsorption; for example,
Sensor (TGS2620) of Figaro
Company.

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 Sensors and Actuators
Capacitive
● Proximity sensor: when the capacitance of sensing component
shows variation with proximity to a specific object, such as a metal
part or a finger.
● A level sensor capacitor shows variation with level of filler in a
container

Diode
● Reverse saturation current Irev of a p-n junction diode is used as a
temperature sensor when it shows measurable variations within the
temperature range of the study.
● A specially made p-n diode with a window-entry for radiation at the
junction can be used as a photo sensor (photo-diode).

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 Sensors and Actuators
Transistor-based
● A specially made BJT with a window-entry for radiation at the
junction is used as a photo sensor (phototransistor).

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 Sensor Types

Light Light Dependent resistor

Photo diode
Temperature Thermocouple
Thermistor
Force Strain gauge
Pressure switch
Position Potentiometers, Encoders
Opto-couplers
Speed Reflective/Opto-couplers
Doppler effect sensor
Sound Carbon microphone
Piezo electric sensor
Chemical Liquid chemical sensor
Gaseous chemical sensor

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 Sensors and Actuators

● The measurement of analog output from a sensor circuit is performed as

follows —
● the sensor output is given to the input of a signal conditioning-cum-
amplifying circuit (SC).
● The SC output is the input to an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC).
● The ADC gives a digital output; for example, 8 or 12 bits.
● This output is read using a microcontroller.
● Microcontroller reading and computation gives the value of the sensed
parameter value and shows the physical condition around the sensor.
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 Sensor’s Performance Characteristics
• Gives an idea of the capabilities and limitations of the sensor
• Provides quantitative estimates of sensor attributes.
• These details are present in the datasheet.

Which helps to
• Properly and optimally choose a sensor for a particular application.
• Optimize the design of the sensor system.

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 Sensor’s Performance Characteristics

Sensor selection

Form factor is used to describe the physical size and shape

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 Factors/Parameters to be considered
while choosing the right sensor
Measurand of the Sensor:
The sensor is expected to measure a specific parameter.
This parameter serves as the primary or starting factor for the sensor’s
functionality.
Range:
The expected parameter ranges within which the sensor operates effectively.
Resolution:
Refers to the granularity needed for accurate measurements.
For example, the DS1620 sensor requires a resolution greater than or equal to
0.5°C.
Accuracy:
Accuracy is distinct from resolution.
It relates to the tolerance value of the sensor’s measurements or error from
actual value.
Environmental Conditions:
The grade of the sensor needed depends on the environmental conditions it will
encounter. E.g water proof, temperature range

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 Factors/Parameters to be considered
while choosing the right sensor

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 Factors/Parameters to be considered
while choosing the right sensor

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 Sensorial Deviations

• Range
• Sensitivity Error
• Offset or Bias
• Non-Linearity
• Hysteresis Error
• Quantization Error
• Aliasing Error

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▪ The sensitivity of a sensor under real conditions may differ from the value
specified. This is called a sensitivity error.
▪ If the output signal differs from the correct value by a constant, the sensor has
an offset error or bias
▪ If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this
is defined as drift. Long term drift over months or years, it is caused by
physical changes in the sensor.
▪ Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time
▪ A hysteresis error causes the sensor output value to vary depending on the
sensor’s previous input values. If a sensor's output is different depending on
whether a specific input value was reached by increasing or decreasing the
input, then the sensor has a hysteresis error. The present reading depends on
the past input values. Typically found in analog sensors, magnetic sensors.

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If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the
measured property. This error is also called quantization error.

If the signal is monitored digitally, the sampling frequency can cause a dynamic error,
or if the input variable or added noise changes periodically at a frequency proportional
to the multiple of the sampling rate, aliasing errors may occur.
https://www.tek.com/en/support/faqs/what-are-aliasing-errors-are-they-hard-detect#

The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being
measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their
environment.

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 Sensor’s performance Characteristics

The set of criteria defined for • Dynamic characteristics describe

the sensors when they measure the behavior of the sensor between
quantities that are slowly the time sensed quantity changes its
varying with time (or) mostly value and the time when the sensor
constant output attains a steady value.
• Describes the behavior of the
After sensor reaches steady system when the input is dynamic in
state value nature.(varying from instant to
instant: before reaching steady
state).

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 Static Characteristics

• Accuracy
• Precision
• Repeatability
• Tolerance
• Range
• Span
• Linearity
• Drift
• Sensitivity
• Resolution

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 Static Characteristics

• Accuracy : Correctness of the output compared to a superior system. Degree of closeness

(exactness) of the sensed value to the desired (expected) value. Expressed as a percentage of
full scale or absolute value.

• Error: Difference between the standard value and value produced by the sensor

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 Static Characteristics
Thermometer 0 to 500 ̊ C, Reading = 50 ̊ C
Error of ± 1 % FSD = True temperature of 50 ̊ C may be read as 45 ̊ C
(or) 55 ̊ C.

FSD = Full Scale Deflection

If a pressure sensor with a full scale range of 100 psi reports a pressure of
77 psi and the actual pressure is 75 psi, then the absolute error is 2 psi,
and when we divide this by the full scale and express it as a percentage
(relative error), accuracy (or error) of the sensor is 2 % .

Most industrial sensors are better than that, with specified accuracies of
+/- 0.25% or +/- 0.1% of full scale (FS). So the error of a 100 psi FS
sensor with an accuracy of +/- 0.1% FS will not exceed + 0.1 psi or - 0.1
psi at any point in the measurement range of the sensor

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 Static Characteristics

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 Static Characteristics

Range: Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within
which the sensor can actually sense. Beyond that there is no sensing or no kind
of response.

HC-SR04 Specifications (https://www.sparkfun.com/products/15569)

• Working Voltage: DC 5V
• Working Current: 15mA
• Working Frequency: 40Hz
• Max Range: 4m
• Min Range: 2cm
• Measuring Angle: 15 degree
• Dimension 45 * 20 * 15mm

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 Static Characteristics
Resolution: Smallest change the sensor can detect in the quantity that it is
sensing
( Ex. In a temperature sensor, the smallest change in temperature that can be
sensed is resolution
• The smallest incremental input quantity a sensor can read or respond to and provide a
readable output without any ambiguity. Resolution is a very important parameter. But
a sensor’s accuracy does not depend upon its resolution

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 Static Characteristics

1. A force sensor has a measuring range of 0 to 2000 N with a resolution of 0.05 % of

full scale. Determine the smallest force which can be measured by sensor.
Ans: 1N
2. 1 A ammeter with a scale of 200 divisions has a resolution of ______
Ans: 5 mA

Resolution of an ADC: Full scale range (FSR)/ 2n where n is the

number of bits in the ADC.

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 Static Characteristics
Sensitivity: Ratio of incremental change in response of the system to incremental
change in input parameter. It can be obtained from the slope of the output
characteristics of the sensor. If a small input change results in large output change,
then highly sensitive.

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Linearity: No deviation of sensor value from the straight line curve.

In many applications, linear behavior is most desirable?

• Conversion from a scale reading to the corresponding measured value of input quantity is
most convenient
• we merely have to multiply by a fixed constant
• When the instrument is part of a larger data or control system, linear behavior of the parts
often simplifies design and analysis of the whole.

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Drift: When a sensor is kept in a particular reading condition for a sufficiently long duration of time, the
difference in measurements that it will show over a period of time is drift.

Repeatability: Sensor has good repeatability if same value is obtained repeatedly under same conditions of
sensing

Dead band: Range of input over which the sensor may be insensitive.

Selectivity: Ability of the sensor to sense the targeted measurand in presence of other interferences.
An oxygen sensor should detect only oxygen and should not respond to other gases present in the environment.
A temperature sensor does not bother about the light or pressure while sensing the temperature.

Sensor should not influence the measured property

(While measuring temperature it should not reduce or increase the temperature).

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 Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics: time response of the sensor system.

Zero order system:

Output changes with respect to input without any delay. It does not have any energy storage elements
Ex. Potentiometers (linear and rotary displacement measurement)

First order system:

Output approaches final value gradually. Consists of an energy storage element. Ex. thermometer

Second order system:

Complex output response. Input and output are related by second order differential equation.
Output oscillates before it reaches the final value: Mass spring damper system

Rise time, delay time, peak time, settling time percentage error and steady-state error.

Ref: https://ieda.ust.hk/dfaculty/ajay/

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 Rise time - time taken from 10 -> 90 %
Delay time (Td)- time taken to reach 50% for the 1st time
Peak time - max reading for 1st time (Tp)
Settling time -Ts - within a certain % of steady state value ( e.g 1%)
Percentage overshoot - (Mp - ssv) * 100/ssv
Steady state error = |Steady state value - desired(expected) value) |
35

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 Sensor Classification

1. Based on output: Analog and Digital

2. Based on data type: Scalar and Vector/Multimedia

Analog sensors:
1. Produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is proportional to the quantity being
measured.
2. Physical quantities are all analog as they tend to be continuous in nature.
Ex.
Temperature of a liquid measured using thermocouple( in geysers) continuously responds to
temperature changes as the liquid is heated up or cooled down.

Digital sensors:
1. Produce a discrete output signal or voltage that are digital representation of the quantity
being measured.
2. Mostly in the form of logic ‘0’ or ‘1’
3. Overcomes disadvantages of analog sensors. Comes with extra electronics for bit
conversion
Ex. PIR sensor, DS1620 digital temperature sensor
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Scalar sensors:
1. Produce output signal or voltage which is proportional to the magnitude of
the quantity being measured.
2. Physical quantities such as temperature, pressure, gas, smoke, rainfall,
colour etc., are all scalar quantities and magnitude is sufficient to convey
information. (Irrespective of sensor orientation and direction)
Vector sensors:
1. Produce output signal or voltage which is proportional to the magnitude,
direction as well as orientation of the quantity being measured.
2. Physical quantities such as sound, image, velocity, acceleration etc., are all
vector quantities and magnitude alone is not sufficient to convey
information. Ex. Accelerometer, gyroscope, Magnetic field, motion
detection
3. Accelerometer gives the component of acceleration of the body with respect
to the X,Y, Z co-ordinate axes.
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 Analog vs. Digital Signal

• Analog signals:
– Continuous, expressed in decimal system
– No limitation on the maximum/minimum value
– Can not be processed by computer

• Digital signals: binary number system

– All numbers are expressed by a combination of 1
&0
– The maximum value is limited by # of bits
available

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 Analog vs. Digital Signal

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 Data Acquisition System

Analog Signal
Signal Conditioner

ADC

Digital
Processing

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 Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC)

Function: convert analog signals into digital

signals
– Sample & hold
– Quantization

y(t)=f(t) ôyk=f(tk)

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 Sampling

• Sampling: Numerical evaluate the signal at discrete

time slot, yk=y(kΔt)
• Digitized Signal: a sequence of numbers that is an
approximation to an analog signal
• Sampling time/Period: time duration between two
consecutive samples, Δt
• Sampling rate (Hz): 1/Δt
• Nyquist Frequency: 2fmax
• Sampling theory: fs > Nyquist Frequency

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 Sampling Theory

• Shannon-Nyquist sampling theorem

– The maximum frequency component a sampled
data system can accurately handle is its Nyquist
limit (i.e., Nyquist frequency).

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 Quantization
Definition: transformation of a continuous analog
input into a set of discrete output state
– Coding: the assignment of a digital code word or
number to each output states
– # of possible state: N=2n, n is # of bits
– Quantization resolution: Q=(Vmax-Vmin)/N
– Quantization Error:

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