UNIT I:

Concept of Remote Sensing: Introduction, Definition of Remote Sensing, Data,

Remote Sensing Process, Source of Energy, Interaction with Atmosphere,
Interaction with Target, Recording of Energy by Sensor, Transmission-Reception
and Processing, Interpretation and Analysis

Types of Remote Sensing and Sensor Characteristics: Introduction, Types of

remote sensing, Characteristics of images, Remote Sensing Satellites, Sensor
Resolutions, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle based Remote Sensing

Introduction

Remote sensing is a powerful tool that enables scientists, researchers, and

organizations to collect information about the Earth's surface without direct
physical interaction. It plays a critical role in observing, measuring, and monitoring
various natural and man-made phenomena, providing insights for decision-making
in diverse fields like agriculture, urban planning, climate studies, and disaster
management.

Key aspects of remote sensing:

 It relies on detecting and interpreting electromagnetic energy reflected or

emitted by objects.
 It offers the ability to observe large areas repeatedly and systematically.
 It can access remote or inaccessible regions, such as forests, oceans, or
disaster zones.

Definition of Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is defined as the science and art of obtaining information about an
object, area, or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by sensors
without physical contact.

More precisely:

 Remote sensing detects energy across the electromagnetic spectrum, such as

visible light, infrared, or microwaves.
  The data can be used to classify, map, or analyze physical and chemical
properties of objects on Earth.

For example:

 Satellites measure reflected solar radiation to identify vegetation types.

 Thermal sensors detect emitted heat to monitor volcanic activities.

Data in Remote Sensing

Remote sensing data forms the foundation of analysis and decision-making. It

includes different types of measurements that help capture the properties and
dynamics of Earth's surface.

1. Types of Remote Sensing Data:

o Spectral Data: Information about how objects reflect or absorb
energy in specific wavelengths (e.g., vegetation reflects more near-
infrared light).
o Spatial Data: Captures the geometric characteristics of objects, such
as their size, shape, and location.
o Temporal Data: Tracks changes in objects or phenomena over time
by capturing data at regular intervals.
o Radiometric Data: Represents the precision with which the sensor
measures energy, including brightness or intensity levels.
2. Sources of Remote Sensing Data:
o Aerial Platforms: Aircraft or UAVs collect data over smaller areas
with high resolution.
o Spaceborne Platforms: Satellites provide large-scale data over
extensive areas for long-term monitoring.
3. Data Formats:
o Raster Data: Consists of pixels with values corresponding to the
energy detected (used in satellite imagery).
o Vector Data: Includes points, lines, and polygons representing
features like roads, buildings, or rivers.

Advantages of Remote Sensing Data

  Large Area Coverage: Allows global-scale observations, such as
monitoring deforestation or glacier retreat.
 High Temporal Resolution: Frequent revisits by satellites help in detecting
rapid changes, like urban growth or natural disasters.
 Multi-Spectral Insights: Sensors can capture information across different
wavelengths, revealing characteristics invisible to the naked eye (e.g., crop
stress in infrared).
 Accessibility: Enables monitoring of areas that are otherwise difficult or
dangerous to access, such as dense forests or active conflict zones.

Applications of Remote Sensing Data

1. Environmental Monitoring:
o Detecting deforestation and desertification.
o Monitoring air and water pollution.
2. Agriculture:
o Precision farming by analyzing soil moisture, crop health, and nutrient
status.
3. Disaster Management:
o Identifying affected areas during floods, cyclones, or wildfires.
o Assessing damage and planning recovery operations.
4. Urban Planning:
o Mapping urban sprawl and infrastructure development.
o Assessing land-use patterns.
5. Climate Studies:
o Monitoring global warming by tracking sea-level rise and ice sheet
changes.
6. Military and Defense:
o Conducting reconnaissance and surveillance.

Remote Sensing Process

The remote sensing process involves a series of systematic stages that facilitate
data collection, transmission, and interpretation. These stages ensure the accurate
acquisition and analysis of information from Earth's surface.
A. Emission of electromagnetic radiation

 The Sun or an EMR source located on the platform

B. Transmission of energy from the source to the object

 Absorption and scattering of the EMR while transmission

C. Interaction of EMR with the object and subsequent reflection and emission

D. Transmission of energy from the object to the sensor

E. Recording of energy by the sensor

 Photographic or non-photographic sensors

F. Transmission of the recorded information to the ground station

G. Processing of the data into digital or hard copy image

H. Analysis of data

Source of Energy in Remote Sensing

Energy is essential for remote sensing to detect, record, and analyze target
characteristics. The type of energy used determines whether the remote sensing
system is passive or active.

Types of Energy Sources

1. Natural Energy (Passive Remote Sensing):

o Energy is derived from natural sources, primarily the Sun.
o The Sun emits electromagnetic radiation across various wavelengths,
including visible, infrared, and ultraviolet bands.
o Examples of passive sensors:
 Optical sensors: Measure reflected sunlight.
 Thermal sensors: Detect heat emitted by objects.

2. Artificial Energy (Active Remote Sensing):

o The system generates its energy, which is directed at the target and
reflected back to the sensor.
o Examples of artificial sources:
 Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging): Emits microwaves for
detecting objects.
 LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): Uses laser pulses to
measure distances and create 3D models.

Energy Interactions with the Atmosphere

Before reaching the target, EMR undergoes:

 Scattering:
o Rayleigh Scattering: By small particles (e.g., molecules); dominant in
the blue sky phenomenon.
o Mie Scattering: By larger particles like dust or smoke.
o Non-selective Scattering: By very large particles like water droplets
(causing white clouds).
  Absorption:
o Gases like ozone, water vapor, and carbon dioxide absorb energy,
creating specific atmospheric "windows" that allow certain
wavelengths to pass through.

Understanding these interactions is crucial for accurate data interpretation, as they

affect the amount and quality of energy reaching the sensors.

Interaction with the Target

The interaction of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with a target is a critical step

in the remote sensing process. It determines how much energy is reflected,
absorbed, or transmitted by the object, which is later captured by sensors.

Types of Interactions

1. Reflection:
o Specular Reflection: Energy reflects in a single direction (e.g., calm
water or a smooth surface).
o Diffuse Reflection: Energy scatters in multiple directions (e.g., rough
surfaces like soil or vegetation).
o The amount of reflected energy depends on:
 Material properties of the target (e.g., vegetation, water,
buildings).
 Wavelength of the incoming radiation.
 Angle of incidence.

2. Absorption:
o Some materials absorb specific wavelengths of EMR, converting it
into heat or storing it internally.
o For example:
 Vegetation absorbs red and blue light for photosynthesis.
 Asphalt absorbs most visible and infrared light, heating up
rapidly.

3. Transmission:
o Certain materials allow EMR to pass through (e.g., glass or water).
o The degree of transmission varies based on material thickness and
composition.
Spectral Signatures

 Every material has a unique spectral signature, which is the pattern of

reflectance or absorption across different wavelengths.
 For example:
o Vegetation reflects highly in the near-infrared band.
o Water strongly absorbs in the infrared and reflects little in visible
light.

Recording of Energy by Sensors

After interacting with the target, the reflected or emitted energy is captured by
sensors mounted on remote sensing platforms.

Types of Sensors

1. Photographic Sensors:
o Capture visible light using traditional film or digital cameras.
o Often used for aerial photography.

2. Non-Photographic Sensors:
o Capture energy outside the visible spectrum, such as infrared,
microwave, or ultraviolet.
o Examples:
 Multispectral Sensors: Record data in multiple wavelengths
simultaneously.
 Thermal Sensors: Detect heat emissions (used for temperature
mapping).
 Radar Sensors: Use microwaves to capture surface features,
even through clouds.

Sensor Placement

 Sensors are mounted on platforms, which vary by their altitude and

purpose:
1. Ground-Based Sensors: Close to the target for detailed
measurements.
 2. Airborne Sensors: Mounted on drones or aircraft for high-resolution
data.
3. Spaceborne Sensors: Mounted on satellites for global or large-area
coverage.

Recording Mechanism

 The sensor detects energy and converts it into electronic signals.

 The intensity of the recorded energy depends on:
o Sensor sensitivity (radiometric resolution).
o Surface properties of the target.
o Atmospheric conditions.

Output Data

 Sensors produce raw data in various formats:

o Images: For visual interpretation.
o Spectral Data: For analyzing wavelength-specific
reflectance/emission.
o Digital Numbers (DNs): Representing energy intensity, which is
processed for visualization and analysis.

Examples

1. Satellite Sensors:
o Landsat satellites use multispectral sensors to monitor vegetation,
water, and urban growth.
o MODIS captures data for climate studies, including ocean color and
atmospheric properties.
2. Thermal Imaging:
o Sensors detect emitted infrared energy to map surface temperatures,
aiding in volcanic monitoring or urban heat island studies.

Transmission-Reception and Processing

Transmission and Reception

Once energy is recorded by the sensor, the data undergoes transmission to ground
stations for further processing and analysis.

1. Transmission:
o Data captured by the sensor is sent to ground stations via
communication links.
o In the case of spaceborne sensors, satellite signals are transmitted to
Earth using radio waves.
o For aerial or UAV platforms, data might be stored onboard and
downloaded later.

2. Reception:
o Ground stations receive the transmitted data.
o Signal strength, noise, and atmospheric interference can impact the
quality of the received data.

Processing

Raw data from sensors is not directly usable; it must be processed into a readable
and analyzable format. This involves several steps:

1. Pre-Processing:
o Radiometric Corrections: Adjusts for variations in sensor sensitivity
and atmospheric conditions to ensure accurate energy readings.
o Geometric Corrections: Aligns the captured data with real-world
coordinates to correct distortions caused by the sensor's position or
Earth's curvature.
o Cloud Removal: Filters out cloud-covered areas, especially in optical
imagery.

2. Data Conversion:
o Converts raw digital signals into image formats or numerical datasets
(e.g., raster files).
o Spectral data is organized into bands for multispectral or
hyperspectral analysis.

3. Enhancement:
 o Enhances data for better visual interpretation, such as adjusting
contrast or applying false-color composites.
o Example: Displaying vegetation in infrared instead of visible light.

4. Data Integration:
o Combines data from multiple sensors or sources for comprehensive
analysis.
o Example: Combining optical and thermal imagery for agricultural
monitoring.

Interpretation and Analysis

Interpretation

Interpretation involves extracting meaningful information from processed data

using visual and automated methods.

1. Visual Interpretation:
o An analyst examines images to identify patterns, features, and
changes.
o This method is suitable for qualitative analysis, such as recognizing
vegetation cover or water bodies.

2. Automated Interpretation:
o Algorithms and software classify data based on spectral signatures
and spatial patterns.
o Techniques include:
 Supervised Classification: Training the algorithm on known
data points.
 Unsupervised Classification: Allowing the algorithm to group
data into clusters based on similarities.

Analysis

Analysis aims to derive actionable insights by studying processed data and

interpreting trends, patterns, or anomalies.
 1. Spatial Analysis:
o Examines the geographic distribution of features.
o Example: Identifying urban sprawl by comparing satellite images over
time.

2. Temporal Analysis:
o Studies changes over time using time-series data.
o Example: Monitoring deforestation rates annually.

3. Spectral Analysis:
o Uses the reflectance or emission characteristics of objects to identify
their properties.
o Example: Differentiating healthy vegetation from stressed plants
using near-infrared bands.

4. Applications of Interpretation and Analysis:

o Disaster Management: Mapping flood-affected regions for relief
planning.
o Environmental Monitoring: Detecting deforestation or water
pollution.
o Urban Planning: Analyzing land-use changes to guide infrastructure
development.

Types of Remote Sensing and Sensor Characteristics

Introduction

Remote sensing is classified based on the source of energy and the type of sensors
used. Understanding the characteristics of the images captured by sensors is crucial
for interpreting and analyzing data effectively.

Types of Remote Sensing

1. Based on Energy Source

  Passive Remote Sensing:
o Relies on natural energy sources, mainly sunlight.
o Sensors detect energy reflected by the Earth’s surface or emitted as
heat.
o Examples: Optical sensors (Landsat), thermal sensors (for heat
mapping).
o Common applications: Vegetation monitoring, land use classification.

 Active Remote Sensing:

o Uses artificial energy sources to illuminate the target and records the
reflected signal.
o Examples: Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging) and LiDAR (Light
Detection and Ranging).
o Advantages: Operates day or night and penetrates clouds or
vegetation.
o Common applications: Topographic mapping, infrastructure
monitoring.

2. Based on Platform

 Ground-Based Remote Sensing:

o Sensors placed on the ground, often used for calibration and
validation.
o Example: Ground-based LiDAR systems for building surveys.

 Airborne Remote Sensing:

o Sensors mounted on aircraft or UAVs (drones).
o Provides high-resolution data for localized studies.
o Applications: Precision agriculture, forestry, and disaster assessment.

 Spaceborne Remote Sensing:

o Sensors mounted on satellites in space.
o Covers large areas with periodic observations.
o Examples: Polar-orbiting satellites (e.g., Landsat) and geostationary
satellites (e.g., INSAT).
3. Based on Wavelength

 Optical Remote Sensing:

o Uses visible, near-infrared, and shortwave infrared wavelengths.
o Examples: Multispectral sensors (detect multiple wavelengths).

 Microwave Remote Sensing:

o Uses microwave wavelengths.
o Active systems like SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) are common.

 Thermal Remote Sensing:

o Detects heat emitted from objects.
o Useful for temperature mapping and volcanic studies.

Characteristics of Images

Images captured through remote sensing exhibit unique characteristics, categorized

into resolutions:

1. Spatial Resolution

 Refers to the size of the smallest feature detectable in an image.

 High-resolution imagery (e.g., UAV-based) captures finer details, while low-
resolution (e.g., MODIS) is suitable for large-scale studies.

2. Spectral Resolution

 Defines the sensor's ability to detect different wavelengths of energy.

 Higher spectral resolution means capturing more bands (e.g., hyperspectral
sensors with hundreds of bands).

3. Temporal Resolution

 Refers to the frequency at which a sensor revisits the same location.

 Higher temporal resolution is critical for monitoring dynamic changes, such
as weather patterns or crop growth.

4. Radiometric Resolution
  Represents the sensitivity of a sensor to detect variations in energy
intensity.
 Higher radiometric resolution captures more subtle differences (e.g., 12-bit
data distinguishes 4,096 intensity levels).

Applications of Sensor Characteristics

 Spatial Analysis: Urban planning requires high spatial resolution.

 Spectral Analysis: Identifying minerals or crop stress using spectral
signatures.
 Temporal Monitoring: Tracking floods, forest fires, or seasonal vegetation
changes.
 Radiometric Sensitivity: Detecting slight temperature variations in climate
studies.

Remote Sensing Satellites

Remote sensing satellites are platforms equipped with sensors to collect data about
the Earth's surface from space. They orbit the Earth in specific patterns, enabling
consistent and large-scale observations.

Types of Satellite Orbits

1. Geostationary Satellites:
o Orbit at ~36,000 km above the equator and remain stationary relative
to a point on Earth.
o Provide continuous monitoring of a specific area.
o Commonly used for weather forecasting and communication (e.g.,
INSAT, GOES).

2. Polar-Orbiting Satellites:
o Orbit at lower altitudes (~700–800 km) and pass over the poles.
o Cover the entire Earth as the planet rotates beneath them.
o Examples: Landsat, NOAA satellites.
o Applications: Environmental monitoring, agriculture, and disaster
assessment.

3. Sun-Synchronous Satellites:
 o Maintain a consistent angle with the Sun, ensuring uniform lighting
conditions for images.
o Ideal for comparing data over time (e.g., Sentinel-2, MODIS).

Examples of Remote Sensing Satellites

 Landsat: Multispectral and thermal imaging for land cover and vegetation
analysis.
 Sentinel-2: High-resolution optical imaging for agricultural and forestry
studies.
 RADARSAT: Active radar systems for topography and flood mapping.
 MODIS (on Terra/Aqua): Moderate resolution imaging for global
environmental monitoring.

Sensor Resolutions

Sensor resolution determines the quality and applicability of remote sensing data.
It is categorized into four types:

1. Spatial Resolution

 Refers to the size of the smallest object that a sensor can detect.
 High Spatial Resolution: Small pixels (e.g., 1–5 m), suitable for detailed
mapping (e.g., urban areas).
o Examples: IKONOS, WorldView.
 Low Spatial Resolution: Large pixels (e.g., 250–1,000 m), ideal for large-
scale phenomena like weather patterns.
o Examples: MODIS, AVHRR.

2. Spectral Resolution

 Measures the sensor's ability to detect specific wavelength bands.

 Multispectral Sensors: Capture 3–10 broad spectral bands (e.g., Landsat,
Sentinel-2).
 Hyperspectral Sensors: Capture hundreds of narrow spectral bands,
enabling material differentiation (e.g., Hyperion).
3. Temporal Resolution

 Refers to the frequency of data capture for the same area.

 High Temporal Resolution: Satellites revisit frequently (e.g., daily for
MODIS).
 Low Temporal Resolution: Satellites revisit every few weeks (e.g., Landsat
every 16 days).
 Importance: High temporal resolution is essential for monitoring dynamic
events like floods or vegetation cycles.

4. Radiometric Resolution

 Indicates the sensitivity of the sensor to variations in energy intensity.

 Defined by the number of intensity levels captured (e.g., 8-bit resolution
has 256 levels).
 Higher radiometric resolution provides more detailed brightness
distinctions.

Applications of Satellite and Sensor Resolutions

1. High Spatial Resolution: Urban planning and precision agriculture.

2. High Spectral Resolution: Mineral exploration and vegetation stress
analysis.
3. High Temporal Resolution: Disaster management and crop monitoring.
4. High Radiometric Resolution: Subtle temperature variations in climate
studies.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)-Based Remote Sensing

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), also known as drones, have emerged as an

important tool in remote sensing, offering high-resolution data collection and
flexibility in various applications. UAV-based remote sensing provides an
effective solution for obtaining detailed imagery and other types of data for
localized areas, which might be too small or inaccessible for traditional satellite or
airborne platforms.
Advantages of UAV-Based Remote Sensing

1. High Spatial Resolution:

o UAVs can carry high-resolution sensors (e.g., RGB cameras, LiDAR,
multispectral sensors) that capture fine details with pixel sizes often
as small as 1–5 cm, which is much better than satellite-based imagery
(typically in the range of meters).
o This is crucial for applications like precision agriculture, forestry, and
construction where small-scale details are important.

2. Flexibility and Accessibility:

o UAVs can be deployed quickly and can access hard-to-reach or
dangerous areas like mountainous terrain, forests, or disaster zones.
o They can operate at low altitudes (from 50 meters to several
kilometers) and can cover areas as large or as small as needed.

3. Cost-Effective:
o UAVs are generally more affordable than aircraft or satellites, making
them suitable for small- to medium-scale projects.
o They do not require complex infrastructure and can be operated by a
single individual, reducing overall operational costs.

4. Rapid Data Collection and Revisit Time:

o UAVs can be deployed quickly to gather real-time data and revisit the
same location repeatedly, making them ideal for monitoring dynamic
changes, such as crop growth or disaster response.

Types of Sensors on UAVs

1. RGB Cameras:
o Standard cameras that capture high-resolution visible light images.
o Commonly used for photogrammetry and creating orthomosaic
maps, useful in land use/land cover mapping and 3D modeling.

2. Multispectral Sensors:
o Capture data in multiple spectral bands, including near-infrared (NIR)
and red-edge bands.
 o Vital for precision agriculture, where it helps in monitoring plant
health, vegetation stress, and soil properties.

3. Thermal Cameras:
o Capture infrared radiation emitted by objects, allowing for
temperature mapping.
o Useful in applications like fire monitoring, energy audits, and
ecological studies.

4. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging):

o Uses laser pulses to map the 3D structure of the Earth’s surface and
objects.
o Provides highly accurate topographic data, ideal for applications like
forestry management, flood modeling, and infrastructure inspection.

5. Hyperspectral Sensors:
o Capture hundreds of narrow spectral bands across the
electromagnetic spectrum.
o Used for more detailed material identification and classification, such
as mineral exploration, vegetation type mapping, and environmental
monitoring.

Applications of UAV-Based Remote Sensing

1. Agriculture:
o Precision Agriculture: UAVs equipped with multispectral sensors help
monitor crop health, detect nutrient deficiencies, assess irrigation
needs, and optimize pesticide application.
o Field Mapping: Regular monitoring of crop progress, including early
detection of diseases or pests.

2. Forestry:
o Tree Inventory and Health Assessment: UAVs can generate 3D maps
of forests, helping in biomass estimation, tree species identification,
and monitoring forest health.
o Deforestation Monitoring: UAVs can track changes in forest cover
over time, providing real-time data for conservation efforts.
3. Disaster Management:
o Search and Rescue: UAVs can quickly assess disaster sites, such as
flood or earthquake zones, providing real-time imagery for rescue
operations.
o Damage Assessment: UAVs capture high-resolution imagery post-
disaster, helping officials assess the extent of damage and prioritize
recovery efforts.

4. Construction and Infrastructure Monitoring:

o Site Surveys: UAVs provide accurate and detailed topographic maps
for construction planning and progress tracking.
o Inspection of Infrastructure: UAVs equipped with thermal and LiDAR
sensors can inspect critical infrastructure like bridges, power lines,
and pipelines for defects or damages.

5. Environmental Monitoring:
o Habitat Mapping: UAVs can map ecosystems in fine detail, identifying
habitats of endangered species and assessing biodiversity.
o Pollution Monitoring: UAVs can detect air or water pollutants,
providing data for environmental protection and remediation efforts.

6. Urban Planning:
o Urban Growth Monitoring: UAVs can help urban planners track land
development, zoning changes, and urban sprawl over time.
o 3D Modeling: UAVs create detailed 3D models of urban landscapes,
which can be used for infrastructure planning, traffic management,
and city development.