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UNIT – 4
Thermodynamics
Unit-04/Lecture-01

First law of thermodynamics- [RGPV June 08,09,11April 2009 Dec 08, 11]

First law of thermodynamics

“When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the net heat supplied to the system from the
surroundings is equal to net work done by the system on its surroundings.

The first law of Thermodynamics cannot be proved analytically, but experimental evidence has repeatedly
confirmed its validity, and since no phenomenon has been shown to contradict it, the first law is accepted
as a law of nature. It may be remarked that no restriction was imposed which limited the application of first
law to reversible energy transformation. Hence the first law applies to reversible as well as irreversible
transformations: For non-cyclic process, a more general formulation of first law of thermodynamics is
required. A new concept which involves a term called internal energy fulfills this need.
The First Law of Thermodynamics may also be stated as follows :

“Heat and work are mutually convertible but since energy can neither be created nor destroyed, the total
energy associated with an energy conversion remains constant”.
Or
“No machine can produce energy without corresponding expenditure of energy, i.e., it is impossible to
construct a perpetual motion machine of first kind”.

The work input to the paddle wheel is measured by the fall of weight, while the corresponding temperature
rise of liquid in the insulated container is measured by the thermometer. It is already known to us from
experiments on heat transfer that temperature rise can also be produced by heat transfer. The experiments
show : (i) A definite quantity of work is always required to accomplish the same temperature rise obtained
with a unit amount of heat. (ii) Regardless of returned by heat transfer in opposite direction to the identical
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state from which it started. The above results lead to the inference that work and heat are different forms
of something more

PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINE OF THE FIRST KIND—PMM 1

The first law of thermodynamics states the general principle of the conservation of energy. Energy is neither
created nor destroyed, but only gets transformed from one form to another. There can be no machine
which would continuously supply mechanical work without some form of energy disappearing
simultaneously (Fig. 4.3). Such a fictitious machine is called a perpetual motion machine of the first kind,
or in brief, PMM 1. A PMM 1 is thus impossible.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 State and explain First law of thermodynamics. Jan2008,Dec.200 10
8

Q.2 Explain the first law of thermodynamics with suitable April 2009 10
example.
Q.3 Write down first law of thermodynamics and enlist its June 2009 10
shortcoming.
Q.4 State and explain the frist law of thermodynamics. June 2012 7
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UNIT 4/LECTURE 2

Definition of thermodynamics [RGPV.........]

Thermodynamics may be defined as follows:

Thermodynamics is an axiomatic science which deals with the relations among heat, work and properties
of system which are in equilibrium. It describes state and changes in state of physical systems.
Or
Thermodynamics is the science of the regularities governing processes of energy conversion.
Or
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the interaction between energy and material systems.

THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

System, Boundary and Surroundings

System. A system is a finite quantity of matter or a prescribed region of space

Boundary. The actual or hypothetical envelope enclosing the system is the boundary of the system. The
boundary may be fixed or it may move, as and when a system containing a gas is compressed or
expanded. The boundary may be real or imaginary. It is not difficult to envisage a real boundary but an
example of imaginary boundary would be one drawn around a system consisting of the fresh mixture
about to enter the cylinder of an I.C. engine together with the remnants of the last cylinder charge after
the exhaust process

Closed System
If the boundary of the system is impervious to the flow of matter, it is called a closed system. An example
of this system is mass of gas or vapour contained in an engine cylinder, the boundary of which is drawn
by the cylinder walls, the cylinder head and piston crown. Here the boundary is continuous and no
matter may enter or leave.

Open System
An open system is one in which matter flows into or out of the system. Most of the engineering systems
are open.

Adiabatic System
An adiabatic system is one which is thermally insulated from its surroundings. It can, however, exchange
work with its surroundings. If it does not, it becomes an isolated system.
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THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if the temperature and pressure at all points are same; there
should be no velocity gradient; the chemical equilibrium is also necessary. Systems under temperature
and pressure equilibrium but not under chemical equilibrium are
Sometimes said to be in metastable equilibrium conditions. It is only under thermodynamic equilibrium
conditions that the properties of a system can be fixed.

Thus for attaining a state of thermodynamic equilibrium the following three types of equilibrium states
must be achieved:

1. Thermal equilibrium. The temperature of the system does not change with time and has same value at
all points of the system.

2. Mechanical equilibrium. There are no unbalanced forces within the system or between the
surroundings. The pressure in the system is same at all points and does not change with
Respect to time.

3. Chemical equilibrium. No chemical reaction takes place in the system and the chemical composition
which is same throughout the system does not vary with time.

Properties of systems

Properties of systems

Property of a system is a characteristic of the system which depends upon its state, but not upon how the
state is reached. There are two sorts of property:

1. Intensive properties. These properties do not depend on the mass of the system.
Examples: Temperature and pressure.

2. Extensive properties. These properties depend on the mass of the system. Example:
Volume. Extensive properties are often divided by mass associated with them to obtain the intensive
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properties. For example, if the volume of a system of mass m is V, then the specific volume of matter
within the system is V/ m = v which is an intensive property.

STATE
State is the condition of the system at an instant of time as described or measured by its properties. Or
each unique condition of a system is called a state.

PROCESS

A process occurs when the system undergoes a change in a state or an energy transfer at a steady state. A
process may be non-flow in which a fixed mass within the defined boundary is undergoing a change of
state. Example: A substance which is being heated in a closed cylinder undergoes a non-flow process.
Closed systems undergo non-flow processes. A process may be a flow process in which mass is entering
and leaving through the boundary of an open system. In a steady flow process mass is crossing the
boundary from surroundings at entry, and an equal mass is crossing the boundary at the exit so that the
total mass of the system remains constant. In an open system it is necessary to take account of the work
delivered from the surroundings to the system at entry to cause the mass to enter, and also of the work
delivered from the system at surroundings to cause the mass to leave, as well as any heat or work
crossing the boundary of the system.

Quasi-static process.
Quasi means ‘almost’. A quasi-static process is also called a reversible process. This process is a
succession of equilibrium states and infinite slowness is its characteristic feature.

CYCLE
Any process or series of processes whose end states are identical is termed a cycle. The processes
through which the system has passed can be shown on a state diagram, but a complete section of the
path requires in addition a statement of the heat and work crossing the boundary of the system. Fig. 2.6
shows such a cycle in which a system commencing at condition ‘1’ changes in pressure and volume
through a path 123 and returns to its initial condition ‘1’.

POINT FUNCTION\

When two properties locate a point on the graph (co-ordinate axes) then those properties are called as
point function. Examples. Pressure, temperature, volume etc.
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PATH FUNCTION

There are certain quantities which cannot be located on a graph by a point but are given by the area or
so, on that graph. In that case, the area on the graph, pertaining to the particular process, is a function of
the path of the process. Such quantities are called path functions.
Examples. Heat, work etc.

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

‘Zeroth law of thermodynamics’ states that if two systems are each equal in temperature to a third, they
are equal in temperature to each other.

Example. Refer Fig. 2.7. System ‘1’ may consist of a mass of gas enclosed in a rigid vessel fitted with a
pressure gauge. If there is no change of pressure when this system is brought into contact with system ‘2’
a block of iron, then the two systems are equal in temperature (assuming that the systems 1 and 2 do not
react each other chemically or electrically). Experiment reveals that if system ‘1’ is brought into contact
with a third system ‘3’ again with no change of properties then systems ‘2’ and ‘3’ will show no change in
their properties when brought into contact provided they do not react with each other chemically or
electrically. Therefore, ‘2’ and ‘3’ must be in equilibrium.

This law was enunciated by R.H. Fowler in the year 1931. However, since the first and second laws
already existed at that time, it was designated as zeroth law so that it precedes the first and second laws
to form a logical sequence.

Unit-04/Lecture-03
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APPLICATION OF FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS TO NON-FLOW OR CLOSED SYSTEM

In a constant volume process the working substance is contained in a rigid vessel, hence the
boundaries of the system are immovable and no work can be done on or by the system, other than
paddle-wheel work input. It will be assumed that ‘constant volume’ implies zero work unless stated
otherwise.

Considering mass of the working substance unity and applying first law of thermodynamics
to the process

2. Reversible Constant Pressure (or Isobaric) Process (p = constant).

It can be seen from Fig. that when the boundary of the system is inflexible as in a constant volume
process, then the pressure rises when heat is supplied. Hence for a constant
pressure process, the boundary must move against an external resistance as heat is supplied ; for
instance a gas in a cylinder behind a piston can be made to undergo a constant pressure process. Since
the piston is pushed through a certain distance by the force exerted by the gas, then the work is done by
the gas on its surroundings. Fig. shows the system and states before and after the heat addition at
constant pressure.
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3. Reversible Temperature (or Isothermal) Process (pv = constant, T = constant) :

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Reversible Adiabatic Process:

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Relationship between T and v, and T and p :

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Nil Nil Nil
Q.2 Nil Nil Nil

Unit-04/Lecture-04
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Solve Problems :

Question 1 A stationary mass of gas is compressed without friction from an initial state of 0.3m 3 and
0.105 MPa, to a final state of 0.15m 3 and 0.105MPa, during the compression process the pressure
remaining constant. If there is a transfer of 37.6 KJ of heat from the gas during the process, determine
change in the internal energy of the gas?
Solution:
Q=∆U+ W
Or Q1-2 = U2 –U1 +W1-2
Since only expansion work is involved hence W1-2 = pdV
W1-2 = pdV = p(V2 –V1)
= 0.105(0.15 -0.30) MJ
= -15.75 KJ [- ve sign indicates work is done on the system]
Q1-2 = -37.6kJ
Substituting the values of in the following equation
Q=∆U+ W
-37.6 KJ = ∆U -15.75KJ
Therefore ∆U= U2-U1 = -21.85KJ Answer
-ve sign indicates that internal energy of the gas decreases by 21.85 KJ in the process.

Question 2 Twenty people attended a party in a small room of size 6m by 8 m & have a 3m ceiling.
Assuming that each person gives up about 400KJ of heat per hour and the room is completely sealed
off & insulated. Calculate the air temperature rise occurring within 15 minutes. Assume C v of air 0.718
KJ/kg and R = 0.278 KJ/kgK , each person occupies a volume of 0.07m 3 and the initial temperature of
air as 20°C. Give your comment on the result?
Solution:
Refer to the following figure

3m

6m
8m
mmmmm

Consider the room as thermodynamic system and assume that the people are adding heat energy to the
air in a room, as the process is taking place at constant volume. W=0
Volume of room is Vroom =8×6×3=144m3
The volume of air is obtained by subtracting the volume occupied by the people.
Vair =144-0.07×20 =142.6m3
Assuming the standard atmospheric conditions of 1.103bar, the mass of air is
m=pV/RT= (1.013×105×142.6)/(287×293) =171.78Kg
The amount of heat released in one hour =400×20=8000KJ/h.
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In 15 minutes the amount of heat released to the room =Q=8000KJ/h ×15/60 =2000KJ
From first law, Q-W =∆U [W=0]
∆U=m Cv ∆T
∆T = 2000/ (171.78×0.718) =16.31oC Answer
The problem illustrates the importance of adequate ventilation when a large number of people are
occupying a small room. It can be seen from the calculation that the temperature rise is approx. 16°C.

Question 3 A tank containing hot fluid is stirred by a paddle wheel doing 100 kJ of work on the fluid. At
the same time the fluid looses 500 kJ of heat energy. If the initial internal energy of the fluid is 800 kJ,
determine the final internal energy. Neglect the energy stored in the paddle wheel.

Solution:

Consider the contents of the tank as the system. This is the closed system since no mass crosses the
boundary during the process. We observe that the volume of the rigid tank is constant, and thus there is
no boundary work and V2=V1. Also, heat is lost from the system and the shaft work is done on the system.

Assume ∆E=∆U neglecting other forms of energy like PE and KE during the process.
Applying the energy balance on the system gives Ein-Eout=Esystem

Q=-500 kJ

Q=∆U + W [ W= W stirrer = -100 kJ]

-500 = ∆U+(-100)

∆U=U2 –U1 = -400 = U2 -800

U2 =400KJ Answer

Therefore, the final internal energy of the system is 400KJ.

Question 4 An insulated tank contains a gas, a paddle wheel connected to shaft and a resister
connected to a battery. A current of 8 ampere is supplied to the resister while maintaining a potential
difference of 10 volt and at the same time if a paddle wheel is connected to a shaft producing a torque
of 10 Nm at a speed of 600 rpm. Calculate the net power and the net work on the system, if the paddle
work and heating continues for 1 minute. Also sketch the system.

Solution: Refer the following figure. The system is the gas contained inside the tank within the system
boundary.

Given:
Torque = T=10Nm
speed of the shaft = N= 600 rpm
Potential difference =V=10 Volts
Current supplied = I = 8 amp.
Power of paddle = Ppaddle = 2πnT
=2π×(600/60)×10 = 628.57W
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Power of the resister = Pelec =VI = 10×8 = 80 W

Total power = Pnet = Ppaddle + Pelec= 708.57 W
Work done on the system = Pnet ×time= 708.57×60=42514.28 J= 42.5 kJ Answer

Question 5. The properties of a closed system change following the relation between pressure and
volume as pV = 3.0 where p is in bar V is in m3. Calculate the work done when thepressure increases
from 1.5 bar to 7.5 bar.
Solution. Initial pressure, p1 = 1.5 bar
Final pressure, p2 = 7.5 bar
Relation between p and V, pV = 3.0
Work done = ?

Question 6. To a closed system 150 kJ of work is supplied. If the initial volume is 0.6 m3 and pressure
of the system changes as p = 8 – 4V, where p is in bar and V is in m3, determine the final volume and
pressure of the system.

Solution. Amount of work supplied to a closed system = 150 kJ

Initial volume = 0.6 m3
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Pressure-volume relationship, p = 8 – 4V
The work done during the process is given by

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 A perfect gas changes from equilibrium state 1 to Dec2010 10
state 2 by three Quasi static processes A, B, and C as
shown in fig. The internal energy at 1 is 800 J. The
work transfer path A, B, and C are 120, 180,
150Jrespectively.Calculate the internal energy at state
2 and heat energy transfer during these processes.

Unit-04/Lecture-05
Second law of thermodynamics[RGPV June08, 10, 11 April 09, 10 Sept. 09]
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Second law of thermodynamics

Clausius Statement
“It is impossible for a self acting machine working in a cyclic process unaided by any external agency, to
convey heat from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature.”

In other words, heat of, itself, cannot flow from a colder to a hotter body.

For a reversed heat engine above Fig. acting as a refrigerator when the purpose is to achieve the
maximum heat transfer from the cold reservoir, the measure of success is called the co-efficient of
performance (C.O.P.). It is defined by the ratio:

Co-efficient of Performance, (C.O.P.) ref. = Q/W

Where, Q2 = Heat transfer from cold reservoir, and

W = the net work transfer to the refrigerator.

Kelvin-Planck Statement

“It is impossible to construct an engine, which while operating in a cycle produces no other effect except
to extract heat from a single reservoir and do equivalent amount of work”. Although the Clausius and
Kelvin-Planck statements appear to be different, they are really
equivalent in the sense that a violation of either statement implies violation of other.
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A heat engine is used to produce the maximum work transfer from a given positive heat transfer. The
measure of success is called the thermal efficiency of the engine and is defined by the ratio:

Thermal efficiency, ηth =W/Q1

Where, W = Net work transfer from the engine, and

Q1 = Heat transfer to engine.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 State and explain second law of thermodynamics June 2008 10
Q.2 Give the two statements of second law of April 2009 10
thermodynamics
Q.3 Write down Kelvin –Planck and Clausius equation of Sept.2009 10
second law of thermodynamics.
Q.4 State and explain second law of thermodynamics. June 2014 2
Q.5 State and explain second law of thermo dynamics. June 2013 7
Q.5 What is the second law of thermodynamics? Explain Dec 2011 8
the two statement of this law.
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Unit-04/Lecture-06
Steam Generator[RGPV June06, 08, 10, Dec.03, 04, 08 Feb.05,08]

A steam generator or boiler is usually a closed vessel made of steel. Its function is to transfer the heat
produced by the combustion of fuel to water and ultimately to generate steam. Open vessels, generat-
ing steam at atmospheric pressure are not considered to be boiler

Classification of Boilers
[1] Relative position of hot gas and water

• Fire tube boiler

Hot gasses pass through the tubes that are surrounded by water. Horizontal return tubular, vertical tu-
bular, Lancashire, Cochran, Cornish, locomotive fire box, scotch marine etc.

• Water tube boiler

The tubes contain water and the hot gases flow outside Babcock and Wilcox Stirling boiler La mont
boiler

[2]Method of firing

• Internally fired boiler

Lancashire, Locomotive, and Scotch
• Externally fired boiler
Babcock and Wilcox

[3]Pressure of steam

• High pressure (>80 kg/cm2)

Babcock and Wilcox Lamont etc
• Low pressure
(<80 kg/cm2) Cochran, Cornish, Lancashire and Locomotive

[4] Method of firing

• Internally fired boiler

Lancashire, Locomotive, and Scotch
• Externally fired boiler
Babcock and Wilcox

[5] Method of circulation of water

• Natural circulation
• Forced circulation

[6] Heat source

• Combustion of solid, liquid, or gas
• Electrical or nuclear energy
• Hot waste gases of other chemical reactions

Working principal of boiler:

Lancashire boiler
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Theory
A Lancashire boiler is a double fire tube boiler, internally fired, horizontal, natural draught, and natural
circulation type of boiler. This boiler is very popular and reliable because of simplicity of design and ease
of operation. The boiler has good steaming quality, and coal of inferior quality can be used. it has low
maintenance and operating cost. This boiler is widely used in sugar mills and chemical industries. This
boiler is used where large reservoir of water and steam are required.

Its main features and brickwork setting is shown in the figure. Several rings of steel plates we are either
welded or riveted to make the cylindrical shell of suitable dimensions. This boiler has two parallel flue
pipes throughout the length of boiler. Both the flue tubes, which carry hot gases, lay below the water
level. To accommodate a grate of sufficient area and minimum length, these flue tubes are larger in
diameter at the front of the shell. to control the gas flow and to control the amount of air entering the
grate, dampers are used which are placed in path of flue gases.
Coal is fed to the grates through fire doors. Each of the flue tubes has its own furnace with grates where
its combustion takes place and the flue gases rising from the furnaces pass over the fire bridge and
traverse along the horizontal path. the hot gases leaving the grate pass up to the back end of the tubes
and then travel back from the bottom flue passage to the front of boiler, where the gases bifurcate and
pass into the two side flues. Thereafter, the gases in the two side flues enter the common flue and finally
discharged to the atmosphere through chimney.
Babcock &Wilcox boiler.
Theory
This is a horizontal, externally fired, water tube, natural circulation type stationary boiler. This boiler is
the most common type used in thermal power plants for generation of steam in large quantities. It
consists of a high pressure steel drum mounted at the top .from each end of the drum, connections are
made with the uptake header and a down take header. The headers are joined to each other by a large
number of water tubes which are kept inclined at an angle of about 15degree to the horizontal. The
water tubes are straight, solid drawn steel tubes about 10 cm in diameter and are expanded into the
bored holes of the headers.
The furnace is located below the uptake header. The coal is fed to the chain grate stoker through the fire
door baffles are provided across the water tubes to act as deflectors to the flue gases. The hot gases rise
upwards, go down and then rise up again and finally escape to chimney through the smoke chamber. To
maintain a uniform velocity of flue gases throughout their travel, the passage of the gases is decreased
from furnace to exit.
The circulation of water is maintained by convective currents. The cold water flows from the drum to the
rear header and thus cycle is repeated. For getting superheated steam, the steam accumulated in the
steam space is sent to the superheated tubes which are arranged above the water tubes. the super
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heated steam is finally supplied through a steam stop valve and steam pipe.
Evaporative capacity of such boiler rages from20, 000 to 40,000 kg/hour and operating pressures of 11.5
to 17.5 bar are quite common. the inspection of boiler can be carried out even when the boiler is in
operation, draught loss is minimum and replacement of defectives tubes can be made readily.

Locomotive boiler
Theory
A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases from a fire pass through one or more tubes
running through a sealed container of water. The heat energy from the gases passes through the sides of
the tubes by thermal conduction, heating the water and ultimately creating steam.

The fire-tube boiler developed as the second of the three major historical types of boilers: low-pressure
tank or "haystack" this type of boiler was used on virtually all steam locomotives in the horizontal
"locomotive" form. This has a cylindrical barrel containing the fire tubes, but also has an extension at
one end to house the "firebox". This firebox has an open base to provide a large grate area and often
extends beyond the cylindrical barrel to form a rectangular or tapered enclosure.
A fire-tube boiler is sometimes called a "smoke-tube boiler" or "shell boiler" or sometimes just "fire
pipe".
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A locomotive boiler is a fire tube, internally fixed, horizontally, multi tubular boiler. It is mainly employed
in locomotives through it may also be used as a stationary boiler. The hot gasses which are generated
due to burning of the coal are deflected by an arch of a fire bricks, so that walls of the fire box may be
heated properly.
In the locomotive-type boiler, fuel is burnt in a firebox to produce hot combustion gases. The firebox is
surrounded by a cooling jacket of water connected to the long, cylindrical boiler shell. The hot gases are
directed along a series of fire tubes, or flues, that penetrate the boiler and heat the water thereby
generating saturated ("wet") steam.
In the locomotive boiler, the saturated steam is very often passed into a super heater, back through the
larger flues at the top of the boiler, to dry the steam and heat it to superheated steam.
Draught for fire tube boilers, particularly in marine applications, is usually provided by a tall partial
vacuum. Modern industrial boilers use fans to provide forced or induced draughting of the boiler.
Locomotive-type boilers are also used in traction engines, steam rollers, portable engines and some
other steam road vehicles. The inherent strength of the boiler means it is used as the basis for the
vehicle: all the other components, including the wheels, are mounted on brackets attached to the boiler.
it is rare to find super heaters designed into this type of boiler, and they are generally much smaller (and
simpler) than railway locomotive types.

Cochran boiler
It is one of the best types of vertical multi-tubular boiler, and has a number of horizontal fire tubes it also
a low pressure boiler.
Construction:
Cochran boiler consists of a cylindrical shell with a dome shaped top where the space is provided for
steam. The furnace is one piece construction and is seamless. Its crown has a hemispherical shape and
thus provides maximum volume of space. Working: the fuel is burnt on the grate and ash is collected and
disposed of from ash pit. The gases of combustion produced by burning of fuel enter the combustion
chamber through the flue tube and strike against fire brick lining which directs them to pass through
number of horizontal tubes, being surrounded by water. After which the gases escape to the atmosphere
through smoke box and chimney.
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Boilers mountings & accessories

Introduction
The boiler mountings are added on the boiler for its safe working. While accessories are added on the
boiler to improve its performance.

Boiler mountings:-
The boiler mounting are the part of the boiler and are required for proper functioning. in accordance
with the Indian boiler regulations of the boiler mounting is essential fittings for safe working of the
boiler.

1. Safety valve: - 2 numbers.

2. Water level indicator: - 2 numbers.
3. Pressure gauge: - 1 numbers.
4. Steam stop valve:- 1numbers.
5. Feed check valve.
6. Blow off cock
7. Main hole.
8. Mud hole.
9. Fusible plug.
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10. High pressure and low water safety valve on Lancashire and Cornish boiler.
SAFETY VALVE
Safety valves are located on the top the boiler. They guard the boiler against the excessive high pressure
of steam inside the drum. If the pressure of the steam in the boiler drum exceed the working pressure,
then the safety valve allow to blow off certain quantity of steam to atmosphere. Thus the pressure of
steam in the drum falls. The escape of steam makes a audio noise to warn the boiler attendant.

There are 4 types of safety valve.

1. Dead weight safety valve.
2. Spring loaded safety valve.
3. Lever loaded safety valve.
4. High steam& low water safety valve.

Dead weight safety valve

It is very similar to dead weigh (whistle) loaded on pressure cooker& functions in similar way. A gun
metal valve resets on gun metal seat. The gun metal seat is mounted on steel steam pipe. The valve is
fastened to weight carrier. The total weights in the form of cylindrically disc are placed on the carrier.
Therefore the total weight placed on the carrier is acting downward. This is the weight of cast iron carrier
& valve itself.
Spring loaded safety valve
The dead weight safety valve cannot be used on locomotive & marine boiler as the jerks, pitching, rolling
may change the load on the valve & it can open frequently under working pressures. The spring loaded
safety valve is used on locomotive, marine and high pressure boiler.
Lever loaded safety valve
The body of the valve is fattened on the top of the boiler shell. a gun metal is placed in steam passage
formed in the casting. A cast iron lever attached to a fulcrum on one end & loaded by weight on other
end keeps the valve on sheets in closed position.
Water level indicator
Water level indicator is located in front of boiler in such a position that the level of water can easily be
seen by attendant. Two water level indicators are used on all boilers. a water level consists of a metal
tube& a strong glass tube with marking. The upper & lower ends of these tubes are connected to two
gun metal hollow pipes.
Fusible plug
It is very important safety device, which protects the fire tube boiler against overheating. It is located
just above the furnace in the boiler.. During the normal boiler operation, the fusible plug is covered by
water& its temp. Does not rise to its melting state. but when the water level falls too low in the boiler, it
uncovers the fusible plug. The furnace gases heat up the plug & fusible plug melts, the inner plug falls
down.
Feed check valve
The feed check valve is fitted to the boiler, slightly below the working level in the boiler, it is used to
supply high pressure feed water to boiler. It also prevents the returning of feed water from the boiler if
feed pump fails to work. a feed check consists of two valves: feed valve& check valve.
Steam stop valve
The steam stop valve is located on the highest part of the steam space. It regulates the steam supply to
use. The steam stop valve can be operated manually or automatically. A hand operated steam stop valve.

Boiler accessories
The accessories are mounted on the boiler to increase its efficiency. These units are optional on an
efficient boiler. with addition of accessories on the boiler the plant accessories also increases. The
following accessories used on a modern boiler.
1. Super heater
2. Economiser
3. Air preheated
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Super heaterIt is heat exchanger in which heat of combustion products is used to dry the wet steam&
to increase its temp. During superheating the steam, pressure remains constant, its temp & volume
increase. basically a super heater consists of a set of small diameter four tubes in which steam flows &
takes up the heat from the hot flue gases
Economiser
An economiser is a heat exchanger used for heating the feed water before it enter the boiler the
economizer recovers some of waste heat of hot flue gases going to chimney. It helps in improving the
boiler efficiency. it is placed in the path of flue gases at the near end of the boiler just before air
preheater. The most popular economizer is greens economizer.

Air preheater
The function of an air preheater is similar to economizer. it recovers some portion of the waste heat of
hot flue gases going to chimney & transfers same to the fresh air before it enter the combustion
chamber. Due to preheating of air, the furnace temp. Increases. it results in rapid combusting of fuel with
less soot, smoke& ash.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 How the boilers are classified? Dec 2003 10
Q.2 Write short note on-classification of steam boiler. Feb.2005 10
Q.3 How the different types of boilers are classified? June2006 10
Q.4 Write the classification of boilers. June2008 10
Q.5 Explain construction and working of a Cochran boiler Dec 2008 10
with a help of a neat sketch.
Q.6 Describe the classification, construction and working Feb.2008 10
of a Cochran boiler.
Q.7 Name the all mountings and accessories of a steam Dec.2004 06
boiler and describe any one of them.
Q.8 List Boilers mountings and accessories. Dec.2008 10
Q.9 How boilers are classified? Write down few names of June 2014 3
mountings and accessories of a
boiler.
Q.10 With the help of a neat sketch explain the working of Dec 2013 7
a Babcock and Wilcox Boiler.
Q.11 Explain the working of a water tube boiler with the June 2012 7
help of of neat sketch.
Q.12 Differentiate between the following: June 2012 7
Boiler mounting and accessory, natural draught and
force draught, vapour compression and vapour ab-
sorption refrigeration system.

Unit-04/Lecture-07
 24

Comparison between Water Tube and Fire Tube Boilers & Boiler draught[RGPV June06, 08, 10,
Dec.03, 07, 08 Feb.05,08]

Water Tube Boilers Fire Tube Boilers

The water circulates inside the tubes which The hot gases from the furnace pass
are surrounded by hot gases from the through the tubes which are surrounded by
furnace water in the shell

It is a high pressure boiler It cannot handle high pressure

The rate of generation of steam is high The rate of generation of steam is relatively
low

Overall efficiency is up to 90% Overall efficiency is up to 75%

It is preferred for widely fluctuating loads It is not preferable for fluctuating loads for
a longer time period

The operating cost is high The operating cost is less

The bursting chances are higher but The bursting chances are less but bursting
bursting doesn’t produce any destruction to produces greater risk to the damage of the
the whole boiler property

It is generally used for supplying steam on

It is used for large power plants a small scale and is not suitable for large
power plants

Essential of a good boilers

1. The boiler should be capable of generating steam at the required pressure and of the required quality
quickly and with minimum fuel Consumption.
2. The initial cost, installation cost and the maintenance cost of the boiler should not be too high.
3. The boiler should be light in weight, should need the least amount of brick work construction and
should occupy small floor area.
4. The boiler should meet the fluctuating demands or steam supply without being overheated
5. The different parts of the boiler should be easily approachable for repairs.
6. There should be no deposition of mud and other foreign particles on the heated surfaces
7. The boiler should conform to the safety regulations as laid down in the
"Boilers Act".
 25

Boiler Draught:
The rate of steam generation in a boiler depends upon the rate at which the fuel is burnt, To burn the
fuel rapidly, the continuous supply of fresh air through the grate is required which in turn discharges the
products of combustion through the chimney to the atmosphere. Draught is a small pressure difference
that causes the flow of air through the bed of fuel on the furnace grate to the chimney.

Object of draught

1. To supply sufficient air for the combustion of fuel.

2. To push out the hot flue gases from the combustion chamber of the boiler to move through the sys -
tem.
3. To discharge the used (spent) flue gases to the atmosphere through chimney. of fuel burning is very
high, artificial draught is provided. Artificial draught is usually produced by mechanical means such as
fans, blower or steam jet. If the draught is
produced by a fan, it is called mechanical draught or fan draught and if produced by steam jet it is re -
ferred to as steam jet draught. Steam jet draught is used in small
installations and locomotives whereas the mechanical draught is preferred in power stations.

(A) Forced draught

In a forced draught system a fan or blower is installed near the base of the boiler or at the entrance of
air-preheater. The air is forced to pass through the furnace, flue tubes, economiser, airpreheater, and to
the chimney.

Figure: Forced fan draught

This draught system as shown in Fig. (&31) is known as positive draught system or forced draught sys-
tem because the pressure of air throughout the system is above the atmospheric pressure and air is
forced to flow through the system. Chimney used in this system is not for producing draught but just to
dispose off the hot gases into the atmosphere.

(B) Induced draught

In the induced draught system a fan or blower is placed at the outlet of an economiser or air-preheater.
In this draught system, the air pressure in the furnace is reduced below that of the atmosphere by
means of a fan placed at (or near) the bottom of the chimney.
 26

Figure: Induced fan draught

It draws the product of combustion from the furnace and forces them to pass through the chimney The
action of induced draught is similar to the action of the chimney The arrangement of this system is
shown in Fig.

(C) Balanced draught

Balanced draught is a combination of forced and induced draught. It is always better to use a combina-
tion of forced and induced draught instead of using either forced or induced draught alone. Here an air
fan supplies air at a moderate pressure through the grate and also through the air-preheater.

Figure: Balanced draught

An induced draught fan is placed at the bottom of the chimney to draw the flue gases through the flue
tubes, economiser air-preheater and discharges them to atmosphere through chimney.

D) Steam Jet draught

The steam jet draught comes under the category of artificial draught. ¡t can also
be classified in two categories:
. Forced steam jet draught
. Induced steam jet draught

In the forced steam jet draught, the draught is produced by placing the steam jet in the ash pit which is
placed under the lire grate of the furnace. [n this case, the air will be forced into the furnace by the
steam jet and the draught produced will be the forced draught.

The induced steam jet draught is produced when steam jet is directed into chimney from a nozzle placed
in chimney. This causes the flow of gases through the fire tubes, ash pit and grate. Lnduced type steam
jet draught is used in a locomotive boiler in which the exhaust steam from steam engine is passed
 27

through the nozzle to induce the air to pass through the fuel bed, furnace, flues and smoke box, thus
creating a partial vacuum in the smoke box.

In case of forced steam jet draught as shown in Fig. (8.34) steam from boiler is throttled by a valve to a
pressure of two bar and passed through the nozzles connected to a diffuser pipe. The steam comes out
with high velocity from the diffuser and drags the column of air along with it and thus makes way for the
fresh air to come inside the furnace.

Figure: Steam Jet draught

Advantages of stcam jet draught

. Simple and economical
. Occupies little space
. Permits burning of inferior fuel
. No maintenance

Disadvantages
It can not start until steam at pressure is available

Advantages of Artificial Draught Over the Natural Draught

The artificial draught has the following advantages over the natural draught:

1.. Effective control over the combustion

2. High rate of combustion
3. Permits burning of low grade fuel
4. Improves overall thermal efficiency of the plant
5. Reduces the height of chimney as it is only required to discharge the gases
high in the atmosphere
6. Low consumption of fuel
7. Prevents smoke formation
8. Independent of atmospheric temperature
9. Enhances the evaporative capacity of boiler
10. lt can be regulated as per the requirement of the furnace.

Disadvantage.

1. High installation cost

 28

2. High running arid maintenance cost.

3. Permits burning of low grade fuel
4. Improves overall thermal efficiency of the plant
5. Reduces the height of chimney as it is only required to discharge the gases
high in the atmosphere

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 What is the difference between fire tube and water Dec2006 5
tube boilers?
Q.2 Give the comparison between the fire tube and water June2006 6
tube boiler.
Q.3 What is the natural and artificial draught? Dec.2005 6
Q.4 Dec 2013 7
4. State the differences between the following boil-
ers.
a) Stationary and portable boiler
b) Forced circulation and Natural circulation boiler.
c) Externally and internally fired boiler.
d) Single tube and multi tube boiler.
Q.5 Define the boiler efficiency and cop of a refrigeration Dec 2011 Dec 2011
system.

Unit-04/Lecture-08
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS [RGPV Jan 2008, june2012]
 29

Refrigeration means the cooling of or removal of heat from a system. Refrigerators work mainly on two
processes :
1. Vapour compression, and
2. Vapour absorption.
Simple Vapour Compression System :
In a simple vapour compression system the following fundamental processes are completed
in one cycle :
1. Expansion 2. Vaporization 3. Compression 4. Condensation.
The flow diagram of such a cycle

The vapour at low temperature and pressure (state ‘2’) enters the “compressor” where it is compressed
isentropically and subsequently its temperature and pressure increase considerably (state ‘3’). This
vapour after leaving the compressor enters the ‘‘condenser” where it is condensed into high pressure
liquid (state ‘4’) and is collected in a “receiver tank”. From receiver tank it passes through the “expansion
valve”, here it is throttled down to a lower pressure and has a low temperature (state ‘1’). After finding
its way through expansion “valve” it finally passes on to “evaporator” where it extracts heat from the
surroundings or circulating fluid being refrigerated and vaporises to low pressure vapour (state ‘2’).

VAPOUR ABSORPTION SYSTEM

(Introduction)
In a vapour absorption system the refrigerant is absorbed on leaving the evaporator, the absorbing
medium being a solid or liquid. In order that the sequence of events should be continuous it is necessary
for the refrigerant to be separated from the absorbent and subsequently condensed before being
returned to the evaporator. The separation is accomplished by the application of direct heat in a
‘generator’. The solubility of the refrigerant and absorbent must be suitable and the plant which uses
ammonia as the refrigerant and water as absorbent will be described.

Simple Vapour Absorption System

 30

In Fig. for a simple absorption system. The solubility of ammonia in water at low Temperatures and
pressures is higher than it is at higher temperatures and pressures. The ammonia vapour leaving the
evaporator at point 2 is readily absorbed in the low temperature hot solution in the absorber. This
process is accompanied by the rejection of heat. The ammonia in water solution is pumped to the higher
pressure and is heated in the generator. Due to reduced solubility of ammonia in water at the higher
pressure and temperature, the vapour is removed from the solution. The vapour then passes to the
condenser and the weakened ammonia in water solution is returned to the absorber.

In this system the work done on compression is less than in vapour compression cycle (since pumping a
liquid requires much less work than compressing a vapour between the same
Pressures) but a heat input to the generator is required. The heat may be supplied by any convenient
form e.g. steam or gas heating.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Explain vapour absorption system with a neat sketch. Jan.2008 10
Q.2 Explain the working principal of VCRS. June2012 7
Explain the working of a vapour compression June 2013 7
Q.3 refrigeration system with the help of a neat diagram.
Q.4 Explain the working of a simple vapour compression June 2012 7
refrigeration cycle.
Q.5 Differentiate between the vapour absorption systems June 2011 7
and vapour compression system.

Unit-04/Lecture-09
Steam (pure substance) [RGPV June 2008, Feb.2006]
A pure substance is a system which is (i) homogeneous in composition, (ii) homogeneous in
 31

chemical aggregation, and (iii) invariable in chemical aggregation.

“Homogeneous in composition” means that the composition of each part of the system is the same as
the composition of every other part. “Composition means the relative proportions of the chemical
elements into which the sample can be analysed. It does not matter how these elements are combined.

“Homogeneous in chemical aggregation” means that the chemical elements must becombined
chemically in the same way in all parts of the system. Consideration of Fig. again shows that the system
(a) satisfies this condition also ; for steam and water consist of identical molecules. System (b) on the
other hand is not homogeneous in chemical aggregation since in the upper part of the system the
hydrogen and oxygen are not combined chemically (individual atoms of H and O are not uniquely
associated), whereas in the lower part of the system the hydrogen and oxygen are combined to form
water.

“Invariable in chemical aggregation” means that the state of chemical combination of the system does
not change with time (condition (ii) referred to variation with position). Thus a mixture of hydrogen and
oxygen, which changed into steam during the time that the system was under consideration, would not
be a pure substance.
FORMATION OF STEAM

Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston which can move freely upwards and downwards in it. Let, for the
sake of simplicity, there be 1 kg of water at 0°C with volume vf m3 under the piston Fig. Further let the
piston is loaded with load W to ensure heating at constant pressure. Now if the heat is imparted to wa -
ter, a rise in temperature will be noticed and this rise will continue till boiling point is reached. The tem -
perature at which water starts boiling depends upon the pressure and as such for each pressure (under
which water is heated) there is a different boiling point. This boiling temperature is known as the tem-
perature of formation of steam or saturation temperature.

It may be noted during heating up to boiling point that there will be slight increase in volume of water
due to which piston moves up and hence work is obtained as shown in Fig. This work, however, is so
small that is can be neglected. Now, if supply of heat to water is continued it will be noticed that rise of
temperature after the boiling point is reached nil but piston starts moving upwards which indicates that
there is increase is volume which is only possible if steam formation occurs. The heat being supplied
does not show any rise of temperature but changes water into vapour state (steam) and is known as lat-
 32

ent heat or hidden heat. So long as the steam is in contact with water, it is called wet steam Fig. and if
heating of steam is further progressed as shown in Fig such that all the water particles associated with
steam are evaporated, the steam so obtained is called dry and saturated steam. If vg m3 is the volume
of 1 kg of dry and saturated steam then work done on the piston will be p(vg – vf) ... where p is the con-
stant pressure (due to weight ‘W’ on the piston). Again, if supply of heat to the dry and saturated steam
is continued at constant pressure there will be increase in temperature and volume of steam. The steam
so obtained is called superheated steam and it behaves like a perfect gas. This phase of steam formation
is illustrated in Fig. Fig. shows the graphical representation of formation of steam.

T-s Diagram for a pure substance:

Consider the heating of 1 kg of ice at–50C to steam at 2500C. The pressure being maintained at 1 atm. It
is observed that the entropy of steam increases in different regimes of heating namely
1)Entropy increase of ice to saturated freezing temperature
2) Entropy increase of ice as it melts into water.
3) Entropy increase of water as it is heated from 00c to 1000C.
4) Entropy increase of water as it is vaporized at 1000C absorbing latent heat of vaporization.
5)Entropy increase of vapour as it is heated from 1000C to 2500C

P-T (Pressure-Temperature) DIAGRAM FOR A PURE SUBSTANCE

If the vapour pressure of a solid is measured at various temperatures until the triple point is reached and
then that of the liquid is measured until the critical point is reached, the result when plotted on a p-T
diagram appears as in Fig.

If the substance at the triple point is compressed until there is no vapour left and the pressure on the
resulting mixture of liquid and solid is increased, the temperature will have to be
 33

changed for equilibrium to exist between the solid and the liquid. Measurements of these pressures and
temperatures give rise to a third curve on the p-T diagram, starting at the triple point and continuing
indefinitely.

The points representing the coexistence of

(i) Solid and vapour lie on the ‘sublimation curve’,
(ii) Liquid and vapour lie on the ‘vaporization curve’,
(iii) Liquid and solid lie on the ‘fusion curve’.
In the particular case of water, the sublimation curve is called the frost line, the vaporization curve is
called the steam line, and the fusion curve is called the ice line. The slopes of sublimation and the
vaporization curves for all substances are positive. The slope of the fusion curve however may be
positive or negative. The fusion curve of most substances has a positive slope. Water is one of the
important exceptions.
Triple point
The triple point is merely the point of intersection of sublimation and vaporization curves. It must be
understood that only on p-T diagram is the triple point represented by appoint.

On p-V diagram it is a line, and on a U-V diagram it is a triangle.

The pressure and temperature at which all three phases of a pure substance coexist may be measured
with the apparatus that is used to measure vapour pressure.

Important terms relating steam formation

1. Sensible heat of water (hf ). It is defined as the quantity of heat absorbed by 1 kg of water when it is
heated from 0°C (freezing point) to boiling point. It is also called total heat (or enthalpy) of water or
liquid heat invariably.

2. Latent heat or hidden heat (hfg).

It is the amount of heat required to convert water at a given temperature and pressure into steam at the
same temperature and pressure. It is expressed by the symbol hfg and its value is available from steam
tables. The value of latent heat is not constant and varies according to pressure variation.

3. Dryness fraction (x).

 34

The term dryness fraction is related with wet steam. It is defined as the ratio of the mass of actual dry
steam to the mass of steam containing it. It is usually expressed by the symbol ‘x’ or ‘q’.
If ms = Mass of dry steam contained in steam considered, and
mw = Weight of water particles in suspension in the steam considered,
Then,

4. Total heat or enthalpy of wet steam (h).

It is defined as the quantity of heat required to convert 1 kg of water at 0°C into wet steam at constant
pressure. It is the sum of total heat of water and the latent heat and this sum is also called enthalpy.
h = hf + xhfg
If steam is dry and saturated, then x = 1
Then hg = hf + hfg.
5. Superheated steam.
When steam is heated after it has become dry and saturated, it iscalled superheated steam and the
process of heating is called superheating. Superheating is always carried out at constant pressure. The
additional amount of heat supplied to the steam during superheating is called as ‘Heat of superheat’ and
can be calculated by using the specific heat of superheated steam at constant pressure (cps), the value of
which varies from 2.0 to 2.1 kJ/ kg K depending upon pressure and temperature. The total heat of
superheated steam is given by

hsup = hf + hfg + cps (Tsup – Ts)

6. Volume of wet and dry steam.
If the steam has dryness fraction of x, then 1 kg of this steam will contain x kg of dry steam and (1 – x) kg
of water. If vf is the volume of 1 kg of water and vg is the volume of 1 kg of perfect dry steam (also
known as specific volume), then volume of 1 kg of wet steam = volume of dry steam + volume of water.
= xvg + (1 – x)vf

Note. The volume of vf at low pressures is very small and is generally neglected. Thus is general, the
volume of 1 kg of wet steam is given by, xvg and density1 /xvg kg/m3.

7. Volume of superheated steam. As superheated steam behaves like a perfect gas its volume can be
found out in the same way as the gases.

External work done during evaporation

When water is evaporated to form saturated steam, its volume increases from vf to vg at a constant
pressure, and thus external work is done by steam due to increase in volume. The energy for doing the
work is obtained during the absorption of latent heat. This work is called external work of evaporation
and is given by p (vg – vf). i.e., External work of evaporation = p (vg – vf) As at low pressure vf is very
small and hence neglected, work of evaporation is
P. vg
In case of wet steam with dryness fraction x, work of evaporation will be
Pxvg

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

 35

Q.1 Define sensible heat , latent heat , enthalpy and June2008 7

dryness fraction.
Q.2 Define the following terms- Feb2006 4
(i)Sensible heat of water
(ii) dryness fraction of steam
(iii)latent heat of vaporisation
(iv)specific volume of steam
Q.3 Show the various process of steam in a T-S diagram. June 2014 2
Q.4 Calculate the internal energy of 1 kg of steam at a June 2014 7
pressure of 10 bar, when the steam is
(i) 0.9 dry (ii) dry saturated (iii) super heated to 250 ˚C
Q.4 Define the following term: June 2012 7
Sensible heat of water, latent heat of steam, dryness
fraction of steam, saturation temperature of steam.

Unit-04/Lecture-10
 36

Some solve example on Properties of steam

Q.1 Calculate the internal energy per kg of superheated steam at a pressure of 10 bar and a
temperature of of 3000C Also find the change internal energy in this steam if expanded to 1.4 bar and
dryness fraction 0.8. [RGPV, June 2008 (10)]

Sol. Given, p1 = 10 bar, tsup 300°C. P2 = 1.4

From steam tables corresponding to a pressure of 10 bar,
hf = 7616 kJ/kg
hfg = 2013,6 kJ/kg
vg = 0.19430 m3/kg
t = 179.90C
Enthalpy of 1 kg of superheated steam,
hsup = hf+ hfg + cp(tsup— t)
= 762.6 + 2013.6 + 2.1 (300 — 179.9) (cp = 2.1 kJ/kg for steam)
= 3028.41 kJ/kg

= 0.2458 m3/kg

Internal energy of superheated steam

Vsup = hsup — 100 p1 Vsup
= 3028.41 — 100 x 10 x 0.2458
= 2782.61 kJ/kg Ans

The superheated steam now expands to a pressure of 1.4 bar. From steam tables corresponding to a
pressure of 1.4 bar, we find that
hf= 458.4 kJ/kg,
hfg = 2231.9 kJ/kg,
Vg = 1.2363 m3/kg

Internal energy of the expanded steam,

Ue = hf + Xhfg 100P2 X Vg
= 458.4 + 0.8 x 2231.9 — 100 x 1. 4 x 0.8 x 1.2363
= 2105.45 kJ/kg

Change in internal energy

= Usup — Ue
= 2782.61 — 2105A5
= 677.16 kJ/kg Ans.

Q.2 Calculate the internal energy of 1 kg of steam at a pressure of 10 bar when steam is
(i) 0.8 dry
(ii) dry and saturated
(iii) Superheated to 250°C. [RGPV, Nov./Dec. 2007 (10)]

Sol. Given, p = 10 bar,

Tsup = 250 + 273 = 523 K.
From steam tables, corresponding to a pressure of 10 bar, we find that
 37

hf = 762.6 kJ/kg,
hfg = 2013.6 kJ/kg
vg = 0.1943 m3/kg,
tg = 179.88°C, Tg = 179.88 + 273 = 452.88 K
(1) Internal energy of I kg of steam when it is 0.8 dry
Internal energy for wet steam
Uwet = hf + xhfg — 100 p x vg
= 762.6 + 0.8 x 2013.6 — 100 x 10 x 0.8 x 0.1943
= 2218.04 kJ Ans.
(ii) Internal energy of l kg of steam when it is dry and saturated

Internal energy for dry saturated steam Udry = hf + hfg — 100 Pvg
= 762.6 + 2013.6 — 100 x 10 x 0.1943
= 2581.9 kJ Ans.

(iii) Internal energy of I kg of steam when it is superheated to 250°C

Volume of superheated steam

Vsup = 0.2244 m3/kg

Enthalpy of 1 kg of superheated steam
hsup = hf + hfg + cp (tsup — tg)
= 762.6 + 2013.6 + 2.1 (250 — 179.88)
= 2923.452 kJ ( cp for superheated steam = 2.1
kJ/kgK)

Internal energy of superheated steam

Usup = hsup — 100 p Vsup
= 2923.452 - 100 x 10 x 0.2244
= 2699.052 kJ Ans.

Question. 3. A sperical shell of capacity 0.10 m 3 contains steam and water in equal volume. If the
temperature of the steam is 300°C. Determine the mass of water and steam in the container. Also
calculate the dryness fraction of the wet steam.
Solution
Total volume of the shell is 0.1 m3
Volume occupied by steam =Vs= 0.05 m3
Volume occupied bywater =Vw= 0.05 m3
From steam tables, at saturation temperature of 300 °C
vf=0.0014 m3/kg; vg=0.0217m3/kg
mass of water = Vw/ vf = 0.05/0.0014 =35.71kg
mass of steam = Vs/ vg = 0.05/0.0217 =2.30 kg
dryness fraction = mass of steam/ (mass of steam + mass of water)
= 2.30/35.71= 0.06 Answer
 38

Question 4. Determine the quantity of heat energy required to produce 50 kg of steam at a pressure of
10 bar and dryness fraction 0.8 from water at 35° C. Also calculate the heat added in superheater if the
steam is passed through superheater where its temperature is raised to 250 °C. Assume no pressure
loss takes place in the superheater. Cps=2.3 kJ/kgK.
Solution

50 kg Water 35oC x =0.8 Superheated steam

250oC
Boiler Superheater

From steam tables, at saturation pressure of 10 bar

Ts=179.9 °C; hf=762.8 kJ/kg; hfg=2015.3 kJ/kg; hg=2778.1kJ/kg
Dryness fraction of steam produced in the boiler = = 0.8
Specific enthalpy of wet steam
h= hf + hfg
h=762.8 + 0.8×2015.3 kJ/kg= 2375.04 kJ/kg
Heat energy added per kg of steam produced = h-enthalpy of water at 35°C
Assume specific heat of water = 4.18 kJ/kg K
2375.04-4.18×35=2228.74kJ/kg;
Hence heat energy required to produce 50 kg of the steam = m×h
= 50 ×2228.74=111437 kJ Answer

Specific enthalpy of superheated steam = hg+Cps(Tsup-Ts)

Substituting the values hsup= 2778.1 + 2.3(250-179.9) = 2939.33kJ/kg
Heat energy added in the superheater per kg of steam = hsup-h
= 2939.33-2375.04= 564.29 kJ/kgK
Total heat energy added in the superheater for 50 kg
= 50×564.29=28214.5 kJ. Answer

Question 5. A pressure cooker contains 1 kg of saturated steam at a pressure of 0.4 MPa. Determine
the quantity of heat that must be rejected so that the final condition of steam in the cooker is 0.5 dry.
Solution
From steam tables, at saturation pressure of 0.4 MPa = 4 bar
Ts=143.6 °C; hf=604.7 kJ/kg; hfg = 2133.8 kJ/kg ; hg1= 2738.5kJ/kg ; vf = 0.001084; vg1= 0.463;
v1 = vg1= 0.463; h1=hg1
Neglecting the volume occupied by water
v1 = vg1 is the initial volume as the steam is saturated, let v2 be the volume after the heat is removed.
v1= v2 as the process of cooling is taking place at constant volume.
Since the dryness fraction of steam after cooling = = 0.6 where vg2 is the specific volume of steam at
condition 2
v2 = vg2= 0.5 vg2 since v1=v2
v1=0.5 vg2 ; vg2 = 0.926m3/kg
from steam tables corresponding to the value of vg2 ( taking the nearest values )
Ts=118.6 °C; hf2=497.8 kJ/kg; hfg2=2206.5 kJ/kg ; hg2=2704.3kJ/kg
h2 = hf2 + hfg2= 497.8 +0.5×2206.5 = 1601 kJ/kg;
heat energy removed = h1-h2
 39

2738.5-1601= 1137.5 kJ Answer

Question 6. A vessel of 1 m3 contains wet steam at a pressure of 8 bar and dryness fraction of 0.9.
Steam is blown off from the vessel until the pressure drops to 4 bar. Assume that the enthalpy of
steam per kg remains constant in the vessel during the blow off. Determine the mass of the steam
blown off.
Solution :
Given volume of the vessel v1 = 1.0 m3; = 0.9;
From steam tables, at saturation pressure of 8 bar
Ts=170.4 °C; hf1=721.1 kJ/kg; hfg1=2048 kJ/kg ; hg1= 2769.1kJ/kg ; vf = 0.001115; vg1= 0.240;
From steam tables, at saturation pressure of 4 bar
Ts2=143.6 °C; hf2=604.7 kJ/kg; hfg2=2133.8 kJ/kg ; hg2=2738.5kJ/kg ; vf2 =0.001084; vg2=0.463;
Neglecting the volume occupied by water
The mass of the steam in the vessel = m1 = v1 / vg1= 1.0/(0.9Х0.24)=4.629 kg
Since the enthalpy in the vessel remains same before and after the blow off of the steam
h1=h2
hf1 + hfg1 = hf2 + hfg2
= 0.918
Mass of steam present in the vessel after blowing off of the steam = m2=v1 /x2 vg2 =
1/0.918×0.463 = 2.352 kg
Mass of steam blown off = m1- m2= 4.629-2.352=2.277 kg Answer

Question 7. A sample of steam at a pressure of 10 bar is passed through a throttling calorimeter for
measuring the dryness fraction. If the pressure and temperaure recorded after the throttling is found
to be 1 bar and 120°C. Determine the dryness fraction of steam. Take the value of specific heat of
steam =2.3 kJ/kgK.
Solution:
From steam tables, at saturation pressure of 10 bar
Ts1=179.9 °C; hf1=762.8 kJ/kg; hfg1=2015.3 kJ/kg ; hg1=2778.1kJ/kg ;
At saturation pressure of 1 bar
Ts2 = 99.6 °C; hg2=2675.5 kJ/kg ;
Let be the dryness fraction of steam before thrrottling and h1 the enthaly before throttling
h1 = hf1 + hfg1 =762.8 + 2015.3 kJ/kg;
as the temperature after throttling (T2 = 120°C) is more than the saturation temperature of steam at
outlet pressure i.e. Ts2 steam is superheated. The enthalpy at outlet h2
h2 = hg2 + Cps(T2-Ts2)
h2 = 2675.5 +2.3(120-99.6) =
h1=h2 for throttling process i.e. enthalpy remains constant
762.8 + 2015.3= 2722.42
The dryness fraction of steam = 0.97 Answer

Ques. 8 In the above example what is the maximum possible moisture that could be measured in
percentage, if minimum 5 degree of superheat is required after throttling for the above set setup.
Solution:
Since 5 degree of superheat is required the outlet temperature recorded should be 5°C more than the
saturation temperature (Ts2) corresponding to the outlet pressure.
T2 = Ts2 + 5 = 99.6 + 5 = 104.6°C;
h2 = hg2 + Cps(T2-Ts2)
h2 = 2675.5 +2.3(104.6-99.6)= 2687
as h1=h2 for throttling process
762.8 + × 2015.3= 2687;
= 0.95.
 40

The maximum moisture content which can be measured with the given setup is 5%

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Calculate the internal energy per kg of superheated [June2008 ] 10
steam at a pressure of 10 bar and a temperature of of
3000C Also find the change internal energy in this
steam if expanded to 1.4 bar and dryness fraction
0.8.
Q.2 Calculate the internal energy of 1 kg of steam at a [Nov./ 10
pressure of 10 bar when steam is Dec.2007]
(i) 0.8 dry
(ii) dry and saturated
(iii) Superheated to 250°C.

Q.3 Write down properties of an ideal refrigerant. Dec.2011 7

Q.4 Discuss between the eco-friendly refrigerant .State June 2011 7
their properties .why are they more important in
present time.
Q.5 What is the eco-friendly refrigerant? Name any Dec 2011 5
refrigerant and its properties.

Unit-04/Lecture-11

REFRIGERANTS[RGPV june 2012]

 41

A ‘refrigerant’ is defined as any substance that absorbs heat through expansion or vaporisation and loses
it through condensation in a refrigeration system. The term ‘refrigerant’ in the broadest sense is also
applied to such secondary cooling mediums as cold water or brine, solutions. Usually refrigerants include
only those working mediums which pass through the cycle of evaporation, recovery, compression,
condensation and liquefaction. These substances absorb heat at one place at low temperature level and
reject the same at some other place having higher temperature and pressure. The rejection of heat takes
place at the cost of some mechanical work. Thus circulating cold mediums and cooling mediums (such as
ice and solid carbon dioxide) are not primary refrigerants. In the early days only four refrigerants, Air,
ammonia (NH3), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Sulphur dioxide (SO2), possessing chemical, physical and
thermodynamic properties permitting their efficient application and service in the practical design of
refrigeration equipment were used. All the refrigerants change from liquid state to vapour state during
the process.

Classification of Refrigerants
The refrigerants are classified as follows:
1. Primary refrigerants.
2. Secondary refrigerants.

1. Primary refrigerants are those working mediums or heat carriers which directly take part in the
refrigeration system and cool the substance by the absorption of latent heat e.g. Ammonia, Carbon
dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, Methyl chloride, Methylene chloride, Ethyl chloride and Freon group etc.
2. Secondary refrigerants are those circulating substances which are first cooled with the help of the
primary refrigerants and are then employed for cooling purposes, e.g. ice, solid carbon dioxide etc.
These refrigerants cool substances by absorption of their sensible heat.

The primary refrigerants are grouped as follows:

(i) Halocarbon compounds. In 1928, Charles Kettening and Dr. Thomas Mighey invented and developed
this group of refrigerant. In this group are included refrigerants which contain one or more of three
halogens, chlorine and bromine and they are sold in the market under the names as Freon, Genetron,
Isotron, and Areton. Since the refrigerants belonging to this group have outstanding merits over the
other group’s refrigerants, therefore they find wide field of application in domestic, commercial and
industrial purposes.
The list of the halocarbon-refrigerants commonly used is given below:
R-10 — Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)
R-11 — Trichloro-monofluoro methane (CCl3F)
R-12 — Dichloro-difluoro methane (CCl2F2)
R-13 — Mono-bromotrifluoro methane (CBrF3)
(ii) Azeotropes. The refrigerants belonging to this group consists of mixtures of different substances.
These substances cannot be separated into components by distillations. They possess fixed
thermodynamic properties and do not undergo any separation with changes in temperature and
pressure. An azeotrope behaves like a simple substance.

Example. R-500. It contains 73.8% of (R-12) and 26.2% of (R-152).

(iii) Hydrocarbons. Most of the refrigerants of this group are organic compounds. Several hydrocarbons
are used successfully in commercial and industrial installations. Most of them possess satisfactory
thermodynamic properties but are highly inflammable. Some of the important refrigerants of this group
are:

R-50 — Methane (CH4)

R-170— Ethane (C2H6)
R-290— Propane (C2H8)
 42

(iv) Inorganic compounds. Before the introduction of hydrocarbon group these refrigerants were most
commonly used for all purposes.
The important refrigerants of this group are :
R-717— Ammonia (NH3)
R-718— Water (H2O)
R-729— Air (mixture of O2, N2, CO2 etc.)

(v) Unsaturated organic compound. The refrigerants belonging to this group possess ethylene or
propylene as their constituents. They are:
R-1120 — Trichloroethylene (C3H4Cl3)
Properties of an ideal refrigerant

1. Thermodynamic properties:
(i) Low boiling point
(ii) Low freezing point
(iii) Positive pressures (but not very high) in condenser and evaporator.
(iv) High saturation temperature
(v) High latent heat of vaporization.

2. Chemical Properties:
(i) Non-toxicity
(ii) Non-flammable and non-explosive
(iii) Non-corrosiveness
(iv) Chemical stability in reacting
(v) No effect on the quality of stored (food and other) products like flowers, with other materials i.e., furs
and fabrics.
(vi) Non-irritating and odourless.
3. Physical Properties:
(i) Low specific volume of vapour
(ii) Low specific heat
(iii) High thermal conductivity
(iv) Low viscosity
(v) High electrical insulation.

Eco-friendly refrigerant
Refrigeration applications at the domestic, commercial and industrial levels are becoming an integral
part of the present day living. The demand and supply of refrigeration systems is increasing day by day
with the changing lifestyle. The existing compressor-based refrigeration (Le. mechanical refrigeration)
system has reached the maximum level of innovation. For the last few decades, there has not been any
significant increase in the efficiency (Le., coefficient of performance, COP) of the system. Moreover, with
the increasing awareness of environmental degradation, the production, use and disposal of Chloro-
Fluoro Carbons (CFCs) and Hydro Chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) as re-frigerants in mechanical refrigera-
tion system has become a subject of great concern. However, such systems are being developed using
more ecofriendaly refrigerants viz., air, CO2, NH3, etc. Besides, efforts are being directed to develop
other types of refrigeration technologies e.g., magnetic refrigeration, thermoelectric refrigeration (dis-
cussed in Part 1) and thermo acoustic refrigeration (discussed in Part 2), which will be more ecofriendly,
cost effective, efficient, simple in design, convenient and reliable.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 Write down properties of an ideal refrigerant. Dec.2011 7
 43

Q.2 Discuss between the eco-friendly refrigerant .State June 2011 7

their properties .why are they more important in
present time.
Q.3 What is the eco-friendly refrigerant? Name any Dec 2011 5
refrigerant and its properties.

UNIT – 4/ Lecture 12

Height of chimney
 44

The natural draught produced in a boiler depends on the height of the chimney and the difference between
the temperature of the hot flue gases leaving the boiler and that of the outside cold air.
An expression showing the relationship between the chimney height and draught
produced by it in terms of temperature of outside air and temperature of the flue gases
is deduced below:
let
m = mass of air in kg per kg of fuel (or mass of air used in kg to burn 1 kg of fuel)
T= absolute temperature of the flue gases inside the chimney in K
T1 absolute temperature of air outside the chimney in K
Therefore
Mass of chimney gases = (m+1) kg per kg of fuel,
The volume of flue gases produced may be taken equal to the volume of air supplied

Volume per kg of flue gases at 0°C (273K) volume per kg of air at 273 K
As we know
PV= m RT where value of R (for air) = 287 kJ/kg K
V=

V=

V = 0.7734 m3/kg.
The pressure difference being very small, the pressure can be treated as constant at furnace and chimney
base for the purpose of volume calculation at higher temperature.

As we know from Charles's law -

Volume of a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature”

V  T

=
 45

Substituting ρ from equation 1 and 2

Thus mass of hot gases discharged in a given time i proportional to the product of its density and velocity of
its discharge.
 46

Le., Mass of hot gases discharged (M,) x velocity (V) x density ρ)

 47

Q.1 A boiler is provided with a chimney of 24 m height. The ambient temperature is 25 0C. The temperature
of flue gases passing through the chimney is 300 0C. If the air flow the combustion chamber is 20 kg/kg of
fuel burnt, find (1) the theoretical draught in cm of water (2) velocity of flue gases passing through the
chimney if 50% of theoretical draught is lost in friction at grate and passage. [RGPV, June 2005 (10)]
n
Sol :

Given : Height of chimney ,H = 24 m

Ambient temperature ,Ta = 250C 25+273 = 298 k
Amount of air flow, m = 20 kg/kg of fuel
Theoretical draught in the cm of water

h = 353 H

h = 353 x 24

h = 12.9 mm of water Or 1.29 cm of water. Ans.

The equivalent gas head is given by

H’ = H
 48

= 24

= 19.5 m
Velocity of the flue gases passing through the chimney if 50% of the theoretical draught is lost in friction at
the grate and passage
Available head = H’ x friction loss
= 19.5 x 0.5 = 9.975 m.

Velocity of flue gases V = 4.43

= 19.95 x 0.5 = 9.975

Q.2 Calculate the height of chimney required to produce a draught equivalent to 1.7 cm of water if the flue
gas temperature is 2700C and ambient temperature is 22 0C and minimum amount of air per kg of fuel is 17
kg. [RGPV, Dec. 2003 (5)]
Sol.
Given m = 17 kg
H = 1.7 cm of water = 17 mm of water
Flue gas temperature, Tg = 2700C = 270 + 273 = 543 k
Ambient temperature Tg = 220C = 22 + 273 = 295 k

Draught h = 353 H

h = 353 H

H=
= 33.44m Ans.

S.NO RGPV QUESTIONS Year Marks

Q.1 A boiler is provided with a chimney of 24 m height. The June 2005 10
ambient temperature is 250C. The temperature of flue gases
passing through the chimney is 300 0C. If the air flow the
combustion chamber is 20 kg/kg of fuel burnt, find (1) the
theoretical draught in cm of water (2) velocity of flue gases
passing through the chimney if 50% of theoretical draught is
lost in friction at grate and passage.
Q.2 Calculate the height of chimney required to produce a Dec.2003 5
draught equivalent to 1.7 cm of water if the flue gas
temperature is 2700C and ambient temperature is 220C and
minimum amount of air per kg of fuel is 17 kg.

REFERENCCE

BOOK AUTHOR
 49

PRIORITY

Basic mechanical engineering P.K. Nag 1

Basic mechanical engineering D.K. Gupta 2