Topic 3: Atoms, Molecules, Elements and Compounds

Atoms: are the smallest particles of matter that cannot be broken down further by chemical
reaction e.g. sodium is made up of tiny particles called sodium atoms.

Molecules: made up of two or more atoms joined together chemically.

Elements: substance made of one type of atom e.g. sodium element is made up of sodium
atoms only, each element has a symbol.

Compound: two or more different elements chemically combined. The symbol of a

compound is called a formula. The compound has different properties from those of its
elements.

Mixtures: made of two or more elements or compounds joined physically not chemically
and their composition can vary, the mixture has the same properties of the substances in it.

 There are over 100 elements which are represented in a table called periodic table.
Each element has a symbol which identifies it together with its name.
 Periodic table is divided into columns and rows.
 Columns numbers I to VIII are called groups each group has similar properties.
 Rows 1 to 7 are called periods.
 Most of the elements are classified as metals and the remaining 22 are non-metals.
 Metalloids: are elements having some metallic & non-metallic properties
(Silicon,Arsenic,Germanium)

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 Atomic structure

 Atoms consist of a nucleus and clouds of electrons that moves around the nucleus.
Nucleus contains two types of particles; protons and neutrons. The Electrons orbits
around the nucleus in shells (energy shells) ;( atoms contains three subatomic
particles).
 All particles in an atom are very light so there mass is measured in atomic mass units
rather than in grams.
Particle Mass Charge
+)
Proton (p 1 unit Positive (+1)
Neutron (n) 1 unit None
Electron (e) (1/2000 or 1/1840) Negative (-1)
How particles are arranged?
11
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 Proton number /Atomic number: (11)

It is the number pf protons inside the nucleus of an atom.

 Nucleon number/ mass number: (23)

- The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom (heavy
part an atom), so the number of neutrons =23-11=12 neutrons.
- As the atoms is electrically neutral (no charge) so the number of protons
(+ve) equal number of electrons (-ve), so the number of electrons =11.
- Nucleus represent the mass of atom since electrons mass are negligible
protons and neutrons are called Nucleons.
- You can identify an atom by its proton number (not mass number) since
periodic table is arranged according to atomic number it is the ID for any
atom.
- Number of neutrons= Mass number (Nucleon number) -- Atomic number.

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 How Electrons are arranged?

Electrons shells:
1) Electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus ( energy levels)
2) The first shell closer to the nucleus is the lowest energy level.
3) The further shell is from the nucleus is the higher the energy level.
 Each shell can hold only a certain number of electrons, when the first energy shell is
full the electrons go to fill the next shell and so on.

This is The 3rd shell can hold up to 18 electrons

called the but it fills 8 electrons the rest goes to
electronic the fourth
structure The 2nd shell can hold 8 electrons the
it fills the next

The 1st shell can hold 2 electrons then it

fills the next

This is called (2, 8, 8) electronic configuration/distribution.

 In The periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing the proton
number and the number of electrons increases each time too. (It is the same as the
proton number in neutral atoms).
Patterns in the periodic table:
1. Periods number gives the number of shells e.g: potassium 39K19 (2,8,8,1 ) ͢ number
of shells is 4 so it is present in period 4.
2. Potassium is in group 1 (ǀ) this gives indication to the outer shell electron (1electron)
so it is in group 1. Outer shell is called valency shell containing valency electrons &
the group number gives the properties of the element in their groups which are
similar.
3. Group 8/0 (VIII): ( Noble gases/ Inert gases):
 All elements of this group have stable arrangements of electrons.
 Their atoms all have 8 electrons in the outer shell except helium has 2 electrons just
one shell
 Noble gases are stable (unreactive) as they have full outer shells.

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Note :
After the 20th element Calcium, the electron shells fill in a complete way that you don’t have
to draw but you should answer questions about electron distribution, proton number &
number of neutrons by using the periodic table.

e.g.: Give the name, group number, period number, number of neutrons of 37Rb?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Isotope and Radioactivity:

 First atoms are identified by their proton number/atomic number

e.g.: (6C) Carbon known as proton number ⑥.
However there are 3 atoms of carbon that exist in nature:
6 6 6
12C 13C 14C
(6 neutrons) (7 neutrons) (8 neutrons)
What differs here is the mass number (number of neutrons) this is what we call
isotope, isotopes of carbon.
 Isotopes: are atoms of the same element which have the same proton number but
different nucleon number (different number of neutrons). So carbon has 3 isotopes;
most elements have isotopes.
 Isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties as both have the
same electronic distribution (same outermost electrons, but they differ in physical
properties.
1
e.g.: isotopes of hydrogen 1H Hydrogen (no neutron)
1
2D Deuterium (1 neutron)
1
3T Tritium (2 neutrons)

Radioactive Isotopes:
 Some isotopes are radioactive having unstable nuclei that break down to emit
radiation in form of rays and particles (alpha, beta and gamma) to be more stable.
e.g.: C14 & 13T.
 Although these radiations cause sickness, we try to make use of them.

 Radiations may combine: - Alpha particles (2 protons & 2 neutrons)

- Beta particles (electrons)
- Neutron
- Gamma rays (high energy rays)

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Medical Use:

1. Cancer treatment: destroying tumors by gamma radiation of cobalt 60.

2. Sterilizing medical equipment: gamma rays kill bacteria & germs.
3. Industrial use: detection of leaks in water and gas pipes (tracers isotopes) & checking
thickness of paper and plastic sheets.
4. Nuclear power use (source of energy): some radioactive isotopes used in nuclear fuel
as Uranium 235 when they are bombarded by neutrons they split into smaller atoms.
The splitting called Nuclear Fission. Fission of uranium produces huge amount of
energy (nuclear energy) which can be used for generation of electricity and nuclear
235 92
power stations. U Kr (Krypton 92)
141
Ba (Barium 141)
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar):
Relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of element’s isotopes taking
into account their proportions compared to the mass of 12C atom having exactly 12
units.
e.g.: 35.5Cl Chlorine exits in nature
37Cl (25%) 35Cl (75%) (work out by proportions)

Metals and Non-metals:

Metals lie on the left Non-metals lie on the right except hydrogen

General properties of metals General properties of non-metals

1. Good conductor of heat and 1. Bad conductor(except graphite)
electricity
2. High melting and boiling point 2. Low melting and boiling point
except group 1&2. (ALL are mainly solid and gases, only
solids)except mercury Hg liquid bromine liquid Physical
3. Hard, strong, can be hammered 3. Break easily, brittle properties
into shape(malleable) & make Not malleable or ductile and (non ss
wires(ductile) and sonorous sonorous)

4. Shiny,silvery grey except 4. Dull

copper reddish brown &Gold is
yellow
5. High density(heavy) except 1&2 5. Solids low density
+
6. Form positive ions (Na ) 6. Form negative ions (O2-) Chemical
7. React with O2 forming basic 7. React with O2 forming acidic properties
oxides oxides

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Exceptions:

 All metals are solid except mercury is liquid.

 All non-metals are solids and gases except Bromine liquid.
 Carbon non-metal is a bad conductor of electricity but when in form of graphite it is
a good conductor.
 All metals are hard except group 1 can be cut with a knife.
 Hydrogen is a non-metal but form positive ions.

Draw the atomic structure for the following:(write down the group number, period
number ,symbol and electronic distribution)

 Calcium
 Aluminium
 Magnesium
 Argon
 Sulphur

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 Topic 4: Chemical Bonding and Compounds
Compound: made up of atoms of different elements bonded together. Compound is
described by a formula made from symbol of atoms in it.

e.g.: Carbon dioxide made of carbon and oxygen Formula: CO2

Mixture: contain different substances that are not bonded together.(ex:Air )

What is the difference between chemical and physical change?

Chemical change Physical change

1. One or more new chemical 1. No new chemical substances formed
substances are formed
e.g.: iron + sulfur iron (II) sulfide
silvery grey yellow black
2. Energy is taken in or out during 2. Physical change is usually easy to
reaction reverse
3. The change is usually difficult to e.g.: mixing iron with sulfur without
reverse (chemical change involves heating, no chemical reaction occurs
chemical reaction) and they can by separated again by
dissolving sulfur in mercury and
benzene and filtering the iron off
Chemical Bonding
Why do atoms form bonds?

The clue is group 8/0 noble gases. The elements in this group are unreactive because
atoms have a very stable arrangement of electrons in the outer shell.
e.g.: Helium (2) & Argon (2, 8,8 )
so atoms bond with each other in order to gain stable arrangement of outer shell
electrons, like atoms of group 8, they bond in order to gain 8 electrons in the outer
shell (or 2 if they have only one shell) Octet rule

Types of Bonding:
1- Ions and ionic bonding: (1st type of bonding)
- Ionic bond is formed when one or more electrons are completely transferred
from an atom of metal to an atom of non-metal.
- Metals lose electrons to become positively charged (Cation) and their ions have
the same name of the atoms while non-metals (except hydrogen) gain electrons
to be negatively charged ions (Anion), with names ending in (ide).
e.g.: Chlorine Chloride ion / Sulfur Sulfide ion

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 - The number of positive charges on a metal is equal to the number of electrons
lost while the number of the negative charges on non-metal is equal to the
number of electrons gained.
- Elements of group IV/V don’t usually form ions because their atoms would have
to gain or lose some electrons that take too much energy.
- Outer shell electrons called valency electrons and the shell called valency shell

e.g.: how can sodium and chlorine reach stable outer shell configuration?

Sodium: (metal, group 1)

In this case sodium ions has 11 protons (+ve) but 10 electrons (-ve) so the number of
positive › number of negative so overall charge is positive +ve(+) (positive ion).

Chlorine: (non-metal, group 7)

Chloride ion is a negative ion as it has 17 protons (+ve) but 18 electrons (-ve) so the number
of the negative is › the number of the positive so the overall charge is negative –ve(-)
(negative ion)

An ion: is a charged particle because it has unequal number of protons and electrons; ions
have a more stable electronic configuration similar to the nearest noble gas.

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Dot and cross diagram:

1- Draw Dot and Cross Diagram of sodium chloride:

Ionic bond is the bond that forms between ions of opposite charge forming giant ionic
lattice (NaCl) formula.

Giant ionic lattice: it is a regular arrangement of positive and negative ions; these ions are
held together by strong electrostatic attraction forces between oppositely charged ions.

-
- This ionic compound is called
sodium chloride formula NaCl
- Ionic compound has no overall
charge

2- Draw Dot and Cross Diagram of magnesium oxide:

Formula: MgO

 Draw Ionic lattice

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 3- Draw Dot and Cross Diagram of magnesium chloride:

Formula: MgCl2

In dot and cross diagrams you just show the electrons in the outer shell which is called
valency shell and the final formula of ionic compound has no overall charge.

Hint:
 Most transition metals form more than one type of ion. e.g.: (Fe2+, Fe3+), (Cu+,
Cu2+)
 Compound ion (polyatomic ion) is a group of atoms that are combined together
and carry a charge behave like ions. e.g.: NO-3 / SO2-4 / NH+4

Properties of ionic compounds:

Combined
1- Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points. e.g.: NaCl has a
melting point 801°C and boiling point 1413°C as ionic bonds are very strong it
takes a lot of heat energy to break up the lattice so ionic compounds are solid
at room temperature.
2- Soluble in water (but insoluble in organic solvents as ethanol).
3- Solid ionic compounds don’t conduct electricity (ions cannot move) but when
melted (molten) or dissolved in water, the ions are free to move and carry
electric current.

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 2- Covalent bonding :(2nd type of bonding)
- Covalent bond occurs when two non-metals react together. Both need to gain
electrons to become stable, they manage this by the sharing of outer shell
electrons
Three types of covalent bond

A. Single covalent bond: one pair of electrons (2 electrons) are shared between two
atoms (non-metals)
e.g.: 1) Hydrogen (H2)

 So the sharing of electrons lead to a noble gas configuration, Helium

(2).
 Molecule: group of atoms held together by covalent bond.

2) Chlorine (Cl2) & Similarly I2, Br2, F2

e.g.:

Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) Water (H2O) Methane (CH4) Phosphorous

Trichloride (PCl3)

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- Draw a diagram showing valency electrons in ammonia (NH3), tetra-chloromethane (CCl4)

B. Double covalent bond: two pairs of electrons (4 electrons) are shared between 2
atoms.
e.g.: 1) Oxygen (O2)

2) Carbon dioxide (CO2)

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 C. Triple covalent bond: three pairs of electrons (6 electrons) shared between two
atoms.
e.g.: Nitrogen (N2)

Draw Ethyne (Acetylene) Organic

Properties of covalent compounds: (simple molecules)

1. Made up of molecules not ions.
2. Don’t conduct electricity. There are no charged particles so they cannot conduct.
3. Most covalent substances are gases and liquids, few are solids.
4. Covalent substances are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as
ethanol/acetone.
5. Usually have lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds (molecules are
held together by weak forces).
N.B:
 Only carbon (and group IV elements) and (hydrogen) share all their valency
electrons. All of their outermost electrons are involved in covalent bonding.
 Diatomic molecules are molecules consisting of 2 atoms. e.g.: H2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2,
O2
Ionic bonding (strong) Covalent bonding/Weaker
 Strong electrostatic attraction  Strong attraction between the
between oppositely charged ions bonding pair of electrons and nucleus
of atoms involved in the bond as
nuclei of atoms are positive
 Intermolecular forces (IMF): Forces which mediate interaction
(including forces of attraction and repulsion) between molecules
generally it is a weak force of attraction.

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Giant Covalent Structures (Macromolecules):

Allotropes of Carbon:

 Macromolecules: are covalent molecules formed of millions of atoms sharing

electrons in giant structure.
 Allotropes: when an element exists in more than one structure form (different
structure of same element). Carbon occurs in two solid forms: diamond and
graphite; they are very different though they contain carbon atoms so these are
allotropes of carbon and both are giant covalent structures of carbon atoms.

Diamond Graphite
Diagram

www.fourstnng
Arrangement Each carbon atom is bonded to Carbon atoms are arranged in
of atoms four carbon atoms in a hexagons in parallel layers. The

Ifning
tetrahedral arrangement layers are held together by weak
forces
Property & 1. Colorless crystal that 1. Very soft solid with a dull
use sparkles in the light shine used in pencils
jewelry 2. Soft and slippery as layers
2. Hardest substance on slide over each other due to
earth. Each carbon atom weak forces between layers
held in place by four used as lubricant
strong bonds with four
atoms used in cutting
& drilling tools.

Electricity Cannot conduct electricity. No Good conductor of electricity (used

conduction free electrons or ions to carry as electrodes in electrolysis) this is
charge because each carbon atom has
four electrons but forms only three
bonds, the fourth electron is free
to move throughÉ graphite carrying
the charge

Melting & Both have high melting and boiling points. This is because both consist
boiling points of giant structure of atoms with strong bonds between them.

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 Silicon dioxide/ Silicon (IV) oxide (SiO2) is similar to diamond:
 It has giant covalent structure. Each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen
atoms and each oxygen atom is bonded to two silicon atoms in a tetrahedral
arrangement.
 Same physical properties as diamonds. It is hard, has high melting point and
doesn’t conduct electricity.

O O

Si
Si

O O O
O O

Property Use
Hard, can scratch things Used in sand paper
Hard, lets light through Making glass and lenses
High melting point Bricks for lining furnace
i i
 Sand paper used in removing impurities from surfaces

Germanium oxide/ germanium (IV) oxide/ Germania/ GeO2 macromolecule is similar to

silicon dioxide.

Properties of macromolecules/Giant molecules:

1. High melting and boiling point
2. Hard except graphite is soft
3. Don’t conduct electricity except graphite
4. Insoluble in water

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 Melting point

Low High

In case of molecular substances ionic compounds and giant covalent

(simple covalent molecules) structures as bonds between ions or
as forces between particles are weak within giant structures are very strong

Describe
3- Metallic bonding in metals: (3rd type of bonding)

 Giant metallic lattice consist of positive ions surrounded by a sea of free

mobile electrons (electrons of outer shell) that are delocalized.
 Metallic bond: attraction between metal positive ions and free electrons.

veneration
in 3d
forms regular arrangement
f Ée
byfree
mobile
electrons

between
ofattraction elections is
themetalion and dfrenobide
called metallicbond
Properties of metals linked to metallic bonding:

1. Metallic bonding is very strong in transition metals such as Cu/ Fe but weaker in
group one (Na & K) and that is why transition metals have higher melting point
than group 1(as the number of electrons in the outer shell increase the metallic
bond become stronger )
2. Metals are malleable (pressed into shapes) and ductile (wires) as layers of
positive ions can slide past each other without breaking.
3. Good conductor of heat and electricity. Heat and current are carried by free
moving electrons.

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 Summary

Bonding Ionic Simple Giant covalent Metallic

covalent
Types of Metal and Non-metals and non-metals Metals
elements non-metal
State of RT. Solid Gases or Solid Solid
It liquids, few
solids
except(Hg)

Structure Giant ionic Simple Macromolecular Giant

lattice molecular metallic
Melting point High Low(weak Very high Usually high
intermolecular
forces)
Electric Molten No No (except Yes
conductivity ( only free graphite) Free
moving ions) electrons
Example NaCl, MgO Cl2, N2, H2O SiO2 Fe, Mg, Zn

 Carbon dioxide and silicon (IV) oxide have similar formula but different
physical properties. State the formula & physical properties of each?

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