DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
LAB
III B.Tech. I Semester (R22)
 CE505PC: TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING LABORATORY
B.Tech. III Year I Sem. L T P C
0 0 2 1
Pre-Requisites: Building Materials, Highway Materials
Course Objectives: The objectives of the course are to
• To learn laboratory tests and their procedures cement, fine aggregate,
course aggregates and bitumen
• To Evaluate fresh concrete properties
• To Understand the test procedures for characterization of Concrete and
bituminous mixes
Course Outcomes: Student shall be able to
• Categorize the test on materials used for Bituminous constructions.
• Evaluate the tests performed for Bitumen and mixes.
• To prepare a laboratory report

Tests on Aggregates
2. Impact test
3. Crushing value test
4. Los Angeles Abrasion test
5. Shape test
Tests on Bitumen
6. Penetration and softening point
7. Ductility and Elastic recovery
8. Viscosity
9. Flash and Fire points (Demo)
Mix preparation (Demo)
10. Marshall’s Stability sample preparation
11. Marshall’s Stability sample testing
Traffic Lab
12. Volume Studies at Mid blocks
13. Volume Studies at Intersections
14. Speed Studies using Spot speeds
15. Speed Studies using Moving car method
16. Parking Studies
17. Road safety Audit with respect to Geometric design (video demonstration
only)
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Highway Material Testing manual, Khanna, Justo and Veeraraghavan,
Nemchand Brothers
IS CODES:
1. IS 1201 -1220 (1978) “Methods for testing tars and bituminous materials”
2. IRC SP 53 -2010 “Guidelines on use of modified bitumen”
3. MS-2 Manual for Marshalls Mix design 2002
TESTS ON AGGREGATES

Experiment No: 1 Date:

IMPACT TEST
AIM:
To determine aggregate impact value of given aggregate.

THEORY:
Toughness is the property of a material to resist impact. Due to traffic loads, the road stones
are subjected to the pounding action or impact and there is possibility of stones breaking into
smaller pieces. The road stones should therefore be tough enough to resist fracture under impact.
A test designed to evaluate the toughness of stones i.e., the resistance of the stones to fracture
under repeated impacts may be called an impact test for road stones impact test may either be
carried out on cylindrical stone specimens as in Page Impact test or on stone aggregates as in
aggregate impact test. The Page Impact test is not carried out now- a-days and has also been
omitted from the revised British Standards for testing mineral aggregates. The aggregate impact
test has been standardized by the British standards institution and the Indian Standards Institution.
The aggregate impact value indicates a relative measure of the resistance of an aggregate
to a sudden shock or an impact, which in some aggregates differs from its resistance to a slow
compressive load. The method of test covers the procedure for determining the aggregate impact
value of coarse aggregates.
APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of an impact testing machine, a cylindrical measure, tamping rod,
IS sieves, balance and oven.
Impact testing machine: The machine consists of a metal base with a plane lower surface
supported well on a firm floor, without rocking. A detachable cylindrical steel cup of internal
diameter 10cm and depth of 5cm is rigidly fastened centrally to the base plate. A metal hammer of
weight between 13.5 and 14.0kg having the lower end cylindrical in shape, 10cm in diameter and
5 cm long, with 2 mm chamber at the lower edge is capable of sliding freely between vertical
guide and fall concentric over the cup. There is an arrangement for raising the hammer and
allowing it to fall freely between vertical guides from a height of 38 cm on the test sample in the
cup, the height of fall being adjustable up to 0.5cm. A key is provided for supporting the hammer
while fastening or removing the cup. Refer Figure.
Measure: A cylindrical metal measure having internal diameter 7.5 cm and depth 5cm for
 measuring at one end.
Tamping rod: A straight metal tamping rod of circular cross section, 1cm in diameter and 23cm
long, rounded at one end.
Sieve: IS sieve of sizes 12.5mm,10 mm and 2.36 mm for sieving the aggregates.
Balance: A balance of capacity not less than 500 g to weigh accurate up to 0.1 gm.
Oven: A thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining constant temperature
between 100°C and 110°C.
PROCEDURE:

1. The test sample consists of aggregates passing 12.5mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve and dried
in an oven for four hours at a temperature 1000 C to 1100 C and cooled.
2. Test aggregates are filled up to about one-third full in the cylindrical measure and tamped 25 times.
The surplus aggregates are struck off using the tamping rod as straight edge.
3. The net weight of the aggregates in the measure is determined to the nearest gram and this weight of
the aggregates is used for carrying out duplicate test on the same material.
4. The impact machine is placed with its bottom plate fiat on the floor so that the hammer guide columns
are vertical.
5. The cup is fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine and the whole of the test sample from
the cylindrical measure is transferred to the cup and compacted by tamping with 25 strokes.

6. The hammer is raised until its lower face is 38cm above the upper surface of the aggregates in the
cup, and allowed to fall freely on the aggregates. The test sample is subjected to a total of 15 such
blows, each being delivered at an interval of not less than one second.
7. The crushed aggregate is then removed from the cup and the whole of it sieved on the 2.30 mm sieve
until no further significant amount passes. The fraction passing the sieve is weighed accurate to 0.1g.
8. The fraction retained on the sieve is also weighed and if the total weight of the fractions passing and
retained on the sieve is added it should not be less than the original weight of the specimen by more
than one gram, if the total weight is less than the original by over one gram, the result should be-
discarded and a fresh test made. The above test is repeated on fresh aggregate sample.

CALCULATION:

The aggregate impact value is expressed as the percentage of the fines formed in terms of
the total weight of the sample. This is recorded correct to the first decimal place.
Let the original weight of the oven dry sample be W1 g and the weight of fraction passing 2.36
mm IS sieve be W2 g.
Aggregate impact value = (W2 / W1) * 100

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE TEST:

Trail Number
S.No Details Average
1 2

Weight of aggregate sample in the

1 cylindrical measure, W1 g (excluding
empty weight of cylindrical measure)

Weight of crushed aggregates after

2
passing through 2.36 mm sieve W2 g

Aggregate Impact Value

3
(W2 / W1) * 100

RESULTS:
The mean impact value obtained in the two tests is reported as the aggregate impact value.

The Impact value of given aggregate sample is……………….

Aggregate impact value is to classify the stones in respect of their toughness property as indicated
below

Aggregate impact values

< 10% Exceptionally strong
10-20% Strong
10-30% Satisfactorily for road
Weak for road
> 35%
surfacing
. Experiment No: 2 Date:

CRUSHING VALUE TEST

AIM:
To determine aggregate crushing value of given aggregate.
THEORY:

The crushing strength of road aggregates is an essential requirement in India as they need
to resist surface stress under rigid tire rims of heavily loaded animal drawn vehicles which is in
considerable amounts.

Crushing strength of road stones may be determined either on aggregate or on cylindrical

specimens cut of rocks. The two tests are quite different in not only the approach but also in the
expression of the results.

Aggregates used in road construction, should be strong enough to resist crushing under
traffic wheel loads. If the aggregates are weak, the stability of the pavement structures is likely to
be adversely affected. The strength of coarse aggregates is assessed by aggregate crushing test.
The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under a
gradually applied compressive load. To achieve a high quality of pavement, aggregate possessing
low aggregate crushing value should be preferred.

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:

The apparatus for the standard aggregate crushing test (figure) consists of the following:

Steel cylinder with open end internal diameter 25.2cm, square base plate plunger having a piston
of diameter 15cm, with a hole provided across the stem of the plunger so that a rod could be
inserted for lifting or placing the plunger in the cylinder.

Cylindrical measure having internal diameter of 11.5cm and a height 18cm.

Steel temping rod with one rounded end, having a diameter of 1.6cm and length 45 to 60cm.

Balance of capacity 3kg with accuracy up to 1kg.

Compression testing machine capable of applying load of 40 tones, at a uniform rate of loading
of 4 tones per minute.

PROCEDURE:
1. The aggregates passing through 12.5mm sieve and retained on 10mm IS sieve is selected for
standard test. The aggregates should be in surface dry condition before testing.
 2. The aggregate may be dried by heating at a temperature of 1000C to 1100C for a period of 4 hours
and is tested after being cooled to room temperature.

3. The cylindrical measure is filled by the test sample of aggregate in three layers of approximately
equal depth, each layer being tamped 25 times by the rounded end of the tamping rod.

4. After the third layer is tamped, the aggregates at the top of the cylindrical measure are leveled off
by using the tamping rod as a straight edge.

5. About 6.5kg of aggregate is required for preparing two tests samples. The test samples thus taken
are then weighed. The same weight of the sample is taken in the repeat test.

6. The cylinder of the test apparatus is placed in position on the base plate; one third of the sample is
placed in the cylinder and tamped 25 times by the tamping rod. Similarly, the other two parts of
the test specimen are added, each layer being subjected to 25 tampings.

7. The total depth of the material in the cylinder after tamping shall however 10cm. The surface of
the aggregates is leveled and the plunger inserted so that it rests on this surface in level position.

8. The cylinder with the test sample and plunger in position is placed on compression testing
machine. Load is then applied through the plunger at a uniform rate of 4 tones per minute until the
total load is 40 tones, and the load is released.

9. Aggregates including the crushed portion are removed from the cylinder and sieved on a 2.36mm
IS sieve. The material which passes this sieve is collected.

10. The above crushing test is repeated on second sample of the same weight in accordance with
above test procedure. Thus two tests are made for the same specimen for taking an average value.

CALCULATIONS:

Total weight of dry sample taken = W1g.

Weight of the portion of crushed material passing 2.36mm is sieve = W2g.

 The aggregate crushing value is defined as the ratio of weight of fines passing the specified IS
sieve to the total weight of the sample expressed as percentage. The value is usually recorded up
to the first decimal place.
Aggregate crushing value = (W2 / W1) * 100

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE TEST:

Trail Number
S.No Details Average
1 2

Weight of aggregate sample in the

1 cylindrical measure, W1 g (excluding
empty weight of cylindrical measure)

Weight of crushed aggregates after

2
passing through 2.36 mm sieve W2 g

Aggregate Crushing Value

3
(W2 / W1) * 100

RESULTS:
The mean crushing value obtained in the two tests is reported as the aggregate crushing value.

The Crushing value of given aggregate sample is……………….



Experiment No: 3 Date:

LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST

AIM:
To determine Los Angeles abrasion value of the aggregate.

THEORY:
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative
rubbing action between aggregates and steel balls used as abrasive charge. The pounding action of
these balls also exits while conducting the test. Some investigators believe this test to be more
dependable as rubbing and pounding action simulate the field conditions where both abrasion and
impact occur. Los Angeles abrasion test has been standardized by the ASTM, AASHO and also by
the ISI. Standard specification of Los Angeles abrasion values is also available for various types
of pavement constructions.

APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of Los Angeles machine and sieves.

Los Angeles machine consists of a hollow steel cylinder, closed at both ends having an inside
diameter 70cm and an inside length of 50cm, mounted on stub shafts about which it rotates on a
horizontal axis. An opening is provided in the cylinder for the introduction of the test sample. A
removable cover of the opening is provided in such a way that when closed and fixed by bolts and
nut, it is dust-tight and the interior surface is perfectly cylindrical.

A removable steel shelf projecting radially 8.8 cm into the cylinder and extending to the full
length of it is mounted on the interior surface of the cylinder rigidly parallel to the axis. The shelf
is fixed at a distance of 125 cm from the opening, measured along the circumference in the
direction of rotation, Refer Figure.

Abrasive charge, consisting of cast iron spheres approximately 4.8 cm in diameter and 390 to 445
g in weight are used. The weight of the sphere used as the abrasive charge and the number of
spheres to be used are specified depending on the gradation of the aggregates tested. The
aggregate grading have been standardized as A. B. C, D. E, F, and G for this test and the IS
specifications for the grading and abrasive charge to be used are given in Table.

IS sieve with l.70 mm opening is used for separating the fines after the abrasion test.

PROCEDURE:
1. Clean aggregates dried in an oven at 105-110°C to constant weight. Conforming to anyone of the
 grading A, to G, as per Table. is used for the test. The grading or gradations used in the test should
be nearest to the grading to be used in the construction.

2. Aggregates weighing 5 kg for grading A. B, C or D and 10 kg for grading E, F or G may be taken

as test specimen and placed in the cylinder. The abrasive charge is also chosen in accordance with
Table, depending on the grading of the aggregate and is placed in the cylinder of the machine.

3. The cover is then fixed dust-tight. The machine is rotated at a speed of 30 to 33 revolutions per
minute. The machine is rotated for 500 revolutions for gradations A. B, C and D, for gradations E,
F and G; it shall be rotated for 1,000 revolutions.

4. The machine should be balanced and driven in such a way as to maintain uniform peripheral
speed.

5. After the desired number of revolutions, the machine is stopped and the material is discharged
from the machine taking care to take out entire stone dust. Using a sieve of size larger than 1.70
mm IS sieve, the material is first separated into two parts and the finer position is taken out and
sieved further on a 1.7 mm IS sieve.

6. The portion of material coarser than 1.7mm size is washed and dried in an oven at 105 to ll0°C to
constant weight and weighed correct to one gram.

CALCULATIONS:

The difference between the original and final weights of the sample is expressed as a percentage
of the original weight of the sample is reported as the percentage wear.

Let the original weight of aggregate = W1 gm

Weight of aggregate retained on 1.70mm IS sieve after the test = W2 gm

Loss in weight due to wear test = (W1- W2) gm

Los Angeles abrasive value, %= Percentage wear = {(W1- W2) / W1} *100
Table 4.1 Los Angeles Abrasion grading table

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE TEST:

Trail Number
S.No Details Average
1 2

1 Total weight of dry sample (W1) gms

Weight of aggregate retained on 1.7mm

2
IS sieve after the test (W2) gms

Loss in weight due to wear (W1 – W2)

3 gms

Los Angeles abrasion value:

4 {(W1- W2) / W1} *100

RESULT:
The result of the Los Angeles abrasion test is expressed as a percentage wear and the average
value of two tests may be adopted as the Los Angeles abrasion value.

The Abrasion value of given aggregate sample is……………….

Experiment No: 4 Date:

SHAPE TEST
INTRODUCTION:
The particle shape of aggregate is determined by the percentage of flaky and elongated
particles contained in it. In case of gravel it is determined by its angularity number. For base
course and construction of bituminous and cement concrete types, the presence of flaky and
elongated particles are considered undesirable as they may cause inherent weakness with
possibilities of breaking down under heavy loads.

Rounded aggregates are preferred in cement concrete road construction as the workability
of concrete improves. Angular shape of particles is desirable for granular base course due to
increased stability derived from the better interlocking. When the shape of aggregates deviates
more from the spherical shape as in the case of angular, flaky and elongated aggregates, the voids
content in an aggregate of any specified size increases and hence the grain size distribution of a
grade aggregate has to be suitably altered in order to obtain minimum voids in the dry mix or the
highest dry density.

The angularity number denotes the void content of the same size. Thus angularity number
has considerable importance in the gradation requirements of various types of mixes such as
bituminous concrete and soil-aggregate mixes. Thus evaluation of shape of the particles,
particularity with reference to flakiness, elongation and angularity is necessary.

FLAKINESS INDEX TEST:

AIM:
To determine flakiness index of a given aggregates sample.

DEFINITION:

The flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage dry weight of particles whose least dimension
(thickness) is less than three-fifths (0.6) of their mean dimension. The test is not applicable to
sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.

APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a standard thickness gauge shown in fig 4.1, IS sieves of the sizes 63,
50, 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 and 6.3 mm and a balance to weight the samples.

PROCEDURE:
1. The sample is sieved with the sieves mentioned in the table. A minimum of 200 pieces of each
 fraction to be tested are taken and weighed =W1g.

2. In order to separate flaky materials, each fraction is then gauged for thickness on a thickness
gauge shown in fig 4.1 or in bulk on sieves having elongated slots.

3. The width of the slot used should be of the dimensions specified in column (3) of table 4.1 for the
appropriate size of the material.

4. The amount of flaky material passing the gauge is weighed to accuracy of at least 0.1 percent of
the test sample.

Fig. 4.1 Thickness Gauge

Table 4.1 Dimensions of Thickness and Length gauges

CALCULATIONS:
In order to calculate the flakiness index of the entire sample of aggregates first the weight
of each fraction of aggregates passing and retained on the specified set of sieves is noted.

As an example let 200 pieces of the aggregates passing 50 mm sieve and retained on 40
mm sieve be = W1g. Each of the particles from this fraction of the thickness gauge in this
 example the width of the appropriate gauge of the thickness gauge is
(50  40)
----------- * 0.6  27mm
2
Let the weight of the flaky material passing this gauge be w1g. similarly the weights of the
fractions passing and retained the specified sieves. W1, W2, W3 etc. weighted and the total weight
W1+W2+W3 = W g is found also the weights of material passing each of the specified thickness
gauges are found = w1, w2, w3…..And the total weight of the material passing the different
thickness gauges = w1+w2+w3+…..and the total weight of the flakiness index is the total weight
of the sample gauged.

Flakiness Index = (w1 + w 2 + w 3 +……) * 100

(W1 + W2 + W3 +…….)

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Size of Aggregates Weight of the Thickness Weight of

aggregates in each
fraction consisting of Gauge (0.6 fraction passing
Passing through Retained
IS on IS times the mean
200 pieces, kg through thickness
sieve), mm
sieve, mm sieve, mm gauge, kg

Total W= w=

RESULT:

Flakiness index of the given aggregate (w/ W)* 100=

ELONGATION INDEX

AIM:
To determine elongation index of given aggregate sample.
DEFINITION:
The elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest
dimension (length) is greater than one and four fifth (1.8 times) of their mean dimension. The
elongation test is not applicable to sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.

APPARATUS:
The apparatus length gauge consists of the Standard length gauge. IS sieve of size 50, 40,
25, 20, 16, 12.5, 10 and 6.3 mm .A balance to weigh the samples.
PROCEDURE:
1. The sample is sieved through the specified set of IS sieves. A minimum of 200 pieces of each
fraction is taken and weighed.

2. In order to separate elongated material, each fraction is then gauged individually for length gauge.
The gauge length used should be those specified in column 4 of the Table 4.1 for the appropriate
material.

3. The pieces of aggregates from each fraction tested which could not pass through the specified gauge
length with its long side are elongated particles and are collected separately to find the total weight
of aggregate retained by the length gauge are weighed to an accuracy of at least 0.1 percent of the
weight of the test sample.

Fig. 4.2 Length Gauge

CALCULATION:
In order to calculate the elongation index of the entire sample of aggregates, the weight of
aggregates which is retained on the specified gauge length from each fraction is noted. As an
example, let 200 pieces of the aggregate passing 40 mm sieve and retained 31.5 mm sieve weight
W1g. Each piece of these are tried to be passed through the specified gauge length of length gauge,
 which in this example is
(40  31.5)
----------- * 1.8  64.4mm
2

With its longest side and those elongated pieces which do not pass the gauge are separated
and the total weight determined = W1g. Similarly the weight of each fraction of aggregate passing
and retained on specified sieves sizes are found, W1, W2, W3……… and the total weight of sample
determined = W1+W2+W3+………=W g. Also the weight of material from each fraction retained
determined on the specified gauge length are found = w1, w2, w3………and the total weight
retained determined = w1+w2+w3…. = w g.

The elongated index is the total weight of the material retained on the various length gauges,
expressed as the total weight of the sample gauged.

Elongation Index = (w1 + w 2 + w 3 +……) * 100

(W1 + W2 + W3 +…….)

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Size of Aggregates Weight of the

Length Gauge Weight of
fraction consisting of(1.8 times the aggregates in each
Passing through Retained
IS on IS mean sieve), fraction retained on
200 pieces, kg mm length gauge, kg
sieve, mm sieve, mm

Total W= w=

RESULT:

Elongation index of the given aggregate (w/ W)* 100=

TESTS ON BITUMEN

Experiment No: 5 Date:

PENETRATION AND SOFTENING POINT OF BITUMEN

A. PENETRATION TEST

AIM: To determine the grade of the given bitumen.

THEORY:

The consistency of bituminous materials varies depending upon several factors such as
constituents, temperature, etc. At temperature ranges between 25 and 500 C most of the paving bitumen
grades remain in semi-solid or in plastic states and their viscosity is so high that they do not flow as liquid.
But the viscosity of most of the tars and cutbacks are sufficiently low at this temperature range to
permit these bituminous materials to be in a liquid state, enabling some of the grades to be mixed
with aggregates even without heating.

Determination of absolute viscosity of bituminous materials is not so simple. Therefore the

consistency of these materials are determined by indirect methods; the consistency of bitumen is
determined by penetration test which is a very simple test; the viscosity of tars and cutback bitumen’s
are determined indirectly using an orifice viscometer in terms of time required for a specified quantity of
material to flow through an orifice. There is a certain range of consistency of bituminous materials,
wherein the material is too soft for penetration test, but the viscosity is so high that the material cannot
flow through the orifice ofthe viscometer; the consistency of such materials is measured by 'float test'.

Various types and grades of bituminous materials are available depending on their origin and
refining process. The penetration test determines the consistency of these materials for the purpose of
grading them, by measuring the depth (in units of one tenth of a millimeter or one hundredth of a
centimeter) to which a standard needle will penetrate vertically under specified conditions of standard load,
duration and temperature. Thus the basic principle of the penetration test is the measurement of the
penetration (in units of one tenth of an mm) of a standard needle in a bitumen sample maintained at 250 C
during five seconds, the total weight of the needle assembly being 100 g. The softer the bitumen, the greater
will be the penetration.

The penetration test is widely used world over for classifying the bitumen into different grades. The
ISI has standardized the penetration test equipment and the test procedure, Figure 1. Even though it is
recognized that the empirical test like penetration, softening point etc. cannot fully qualify the paving
 binder for its temperature susceptibility characteristics, the simplicity and quickness of operation of this
test cannot be ignored for common use.
APPARATUS:

It consists of items like container, needle, water bath penetrometer, stop watch etc. Following are the
standard specifications as per ISI for the above apparatus.

a) Container: A flat bottomed cylindrical metallic container 55 mm in diameter and 35 mm or 57 mm

inheight.
b) Needle: A straight, highly polished cylindrical hard steel needle with conical end, having the
shape and dimensions as given in Fig. The needle is provided with a shank approximately 3.0 mm
indiameter into which it is immovably fixed.
c) Water-bath: A water bath is maintained at 25 + 10 C confining not less than 10 liters of water; the
sampleis immersed to depth not less than 100 mm from the top and supported on a perforated shelf
not less than 50 mm from the bottom of the bath.

d) Penetrometer: It is an apparatus which allows the needle assembly of gross weight 100 g to
penetrate without appreciable friction for the desired duration of time. The dial is accurately
calibrated to give penetration value in units of one tenth of a mm. Electrically operated
automatic penetrometers are also available. Typical sketch of penetrometer is shown in Fig.
e) Transfer tray: A small tray which can keep the container fully immersed in water during the
test.

Fig: Penetrometer
PROCEDURE:

1. The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency between 750 and 1000 C above the approximate temperature
at which bitumen softens. The sample material is thoroughly stirred to make it homogenous and free from air
bubbles and water.

2. The sample material is then poured into the container to a depth at least 15 mm more than the expected
 penetration. The sample containers are cooled in atmosphere of temperature not lower than 130 C for one
hour. Then they are placed in temperature controlled water bath at a temperature of 250 C for a period of one
hour.

3. The sample container is placed in the transfer tray with water from the water bath and placed under the needle
of the penetrometer. The weight of needle, shaft and additional weight are checked. The total weight of this
assembly should be 100 g.

4. Using the adjusting screw, the needle assembly is lowered and the tip of the needle is made to just touch the
top surface of the sample; the needle assembly is clamped in this position.

5. The contact of the tip of the needle is checked using the mirror placed on the rear of the needle. The initial
reading of the penetrometer dial is either adjusted to zero or the initial reading is taken before releasing the
needle.

6. The needle is released exactly for a period of 5.0 sees by pressing the knob and the final reading is taken on
the dial. At least three measurements are made on this sample by testing at distance of not less than 100mm
apart.

7. After each test the needle is disengaged and cleaned with benzene and carefully dried. The sample container
is also transferred in the water bath before next testing done so as to maintain a constant temperature of 250 C.
The test is repeated with sample in the other containers.

CALCULATIONS:

The difference between the initial and final penetration readings is taken as the penetration value.
The mean value of three consistent penetration measurements is reported as the penetration value. It is
further specified by ISI that results of each measurement should not vary from the mean value reported
 above by more than the following:

Penetration grade Repeatability

0-80 4 percent
80-225 5 percent
Above 225 7 percent

OBSERVATION SHEET:

POURING TEMPERATURE:
PERIOD OF COOLING IN ATMOSPHERE:
PERIOD OF COOLING IN WATER BATH:
ROOM TEMPERATURE:
DURATION OF RELEASING THE PENETRATION NEEDLE:
TEST TEMPERATURE:
Penetrometer dials reading

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3

Initial
Final

Grade of the Bitumen:

RESULT:
The grade of the given bitumen is…………….
B. SOFTENING POINT

AIM: To determine the softening point of the bitumen.

THEORY:

Bitumen does not suddenly change from solid to liquid state, but as the temperature increases, it
gradually becomes softer until it flows readily. All semi-solid state bitumen grades need sufficient fluidity
before they are used for application with the aggregate mix. For this purpose bitumen is sometimes cut
back with a solvent like kerosene. The common procedure however is to liquify the bitumen by heating.
The softening point is the temperature at which the substance attains particular degree of softening under
specified condition of test.
For bitumen, it is usually determined by Ring and Ball test. A brass ring containing the test sample
of bitumen is suspended in liquid like water or glycerine at a given temperature. A steel ball is placed upon
the bitumen and liquid medium is then heated at a specified distance below the ring is recorded as the
softening point of particular bitumen. The apparatus and test procedure are standardized by ISI. It is
obvious that harder grade bitumen possess higher softening point than softer grade bitumen. The concept
of determining the softening point by ring and ball apparatus is shown in Fig.
APPARATUS:

It consists of Ring and Ball apparatus.

a) Steel Balls: They are two in number. Each has a diameter of 9.5mm and weight 2.5+ .05 g.
b) Brass Rings: There are two rings of the following dimensions.
Depth 6.4 mm

Inside diameter at top 17.5 mm

Inside diameter at bottom 15.9mm

Outside diameter 20.6 mm

Brass rings are also placed with ball guides as shown in Fig.
c) Support: The metallic support is used for placing pair of rings. The upper surface of the rings is
adjusted to be 50 mm below the surface of water or liquid contained in the bath. A distance of
25mm between the bottom of the rings and top surface of the bottom plate of support is
provided. It has housing for a suitable thermometer.
d) Bath and Stirrer: A heat resistance glass container of 85mm diameter and 120mm
depth is used. Bath liquid is water for material having softening point below 80°C and glycerine
for materials having softening point above 80°C. Mechanical stirrer is used for ensuring uniform
heat distribution at all times throughout the bath.
 Fig. Softening Point Test

PROCEDURE:

1. Sample material is heated to a temperature between 75 and 100°C above the approximate softening
point until it is completely fluid and is poured in heated rings placed on metal plate.
2. To avoid sticking of the bitumen to metal plate, coating is done to this with a solution of glycerine
and dextrine. After cooling the rings in air for 30 minutes, the excess bitumen is trimmed and rings are
placed in the support as discussed above.
3. At this time the temperature of distilled water is kept at 5°C. This temperature is maintained for 15
minutes after which the balls are placed in position. The temperature of water is raised at uniform rate
of 5°C per minute with a controlled heating unit, until the bitumen softens and touches the bottom
plate by sinking of balls.
4. At least two observations are made. For material whose softening point is above 80°C, glycerine is
used as a heating medium and the starting temperature is 35°C instead of5°C.

CALCULATIONS:
The temperature at the instant when each of the ball and sample touches the bottom plate of support
is recorded as softening value. The mean of duplicate determinations is noted. It is essential that the mean
value of the softening point (temperature) does not differ from individual observations by more than the
following limits.
Softening point Repeatability Reproducibility
Below 30°C 2°C 4°C

30°Cto80°C 1°C 2°C

Above 80°C 2°C 4°C

 The ranges of softening point specified by the Indian Standards Institution for various grades of
bitumen are given below:

Bitumen Grades Softening point, °C

*A 25 & A 35 55 to 70

*S 35 50 to 65

A 45, S 45 & A 65 45 to 60

S 65 40 to 55

A 90 & S 90 35 to 50

A 200 & S 200 30 to 45

“A” denotes bitumen from Assam Petroleum and “S” denotes bitumen from sources other than from
Assam Petroleum.
OBSERVATION SHEET
POURING TEMPERATURE:
PERIOD OF COOLING IN ATMOSPHERE:
\PERIOD OF COOLING IN WATER BATH:
ROOM TEMPERATURE:
RATE OF HEATING:
TEST TEMPERATURE:
LIQUID USED IN WATER BATH: WATER / GLYCERINE
RATE OF HEATING:
TIME IN MINUTES TEMPERATURE OC

RESULT:
The Softening point of given bitumen is…………….
Experiment No: 6 Date:
DUCTILITY AND ELASTIC RECOVERY OF BITUMEN

A. DUCTILITY TEST

AIM: To determine ductility of the given bitumen.

THEORY

In the flexible pavement construction where bitumen binders are used, it is of significant
importance that the binders form ductile thin films around the aggregates. This serves as a
satisfactory binder in improving the physical interlocking of the aggregates. The binder material
which does not possess sufficient ductility would crack and thus provide previous pavement surface.
This in turn results in damaging effect to the pavement structure.
It has been stated by some agencies that the penetration and ductility properties, go together;
but depending upon the chemical composition and the type of crude source of the bitumen’s,
sometimes it has been observed that the above statement is incorrect. It may hence be mentioned that
the bitumen may satisfy the penetration value, but may fail to satisfy the ductility requirements.
Bitumen paving engineer would however want that both test requirements are satisfied in the
field jobs. Penetration or ductility cannot in any case replace each other. The ductility is expressed
as the distance in centimeters to which a standard briquette of bitumen can be stretched before the
thread breaks. The test is conducted at 27°±0.5° C and a rate of pull of 50+2.5 mm per minute. The
test has been standardized by the ISI. The ductility test concept is shown in Fig.
APPARATUS

The ductility test apparatus consists of items like sample (briquette) moulds water bath square-
end trowel or putty knife sharpened on end and ductility machine. Standard specifications as per ISI
being:

(a) Briquette mould: Mould is made of brass metal with shape and dimensions as
indicated in Fig. Both ends called clips possess circular holes to grip the fixed and movable
ends of the testing machine. Side pieces when placed together form the briquette of the
following dimensions:
Length …. 75 mm

Distance between clips …. 30 mm

Width at mouth of clips …. 20 mm

Cross section at minimum width…. 10 mm x 10 mm

 (b) Ductility machine: It is an equipment which functions as constant temperature waterbath and a
pulling device at a pre-calibrated rate. The central rod of the machine is threaded and through a
gear system provides movement to one end where the clip is fixed during initial placement. The
other clip end is hooked at the fixed end of the machine. Two clips are thus pulled apart
horizontally at a uniform speed of 50+2.5 mm per minute. The machine may have provision to
fix two or more mould so as to test these specimens simultaneously.

PROCEDURE

1. The bitumen sample is melted to a temperature of 75°C to 100°C above the approximate softening
point until it is fluid. It is strained through IS sieve 30, poured in the mould assembly and placed on a
brass plate, after a solution of glycerin and dextrin is applied at all surfaces of the mould exposed to
bitumen.

Fig. Ductility Test

2. Thirty to forty minutes after the sample is poured into the moulds, the plate assembly along with the
sample is placed in water bath maintained at 27°C for 30 minutes. The sample and mould assembly
are removed from water bath and excess bitumen is cut if by leveling the surface using hot knife.
3. After trimming the specimen, the mould assembly containing sample is replaced in water bath
maintained at 27°C for 85 to 95 minutes. The sides of the mould are now removed and the clips are
carefully booked on the machine without causing any initial strain.
4. Two or more specimens may be prepared in the moulds and clipped to the machine so as to conduct
these tests simultaneously. The pointer is set to read zero.
5. The machine is started and the two clips are thus pulled apart horizontally. While the test is in
operation, it is checked whether the sample is immersed in water at depth of at least 10 mm.
6. The distance at which the bitumen thread of each specimen breaks, is recorded (in cm) to report as
ductility value.
CALCULATIONS:
The distance stretched by the moving end of the specimen upto recorded as ductility
value. It is recommended by ISI that test results should not differ from mean value by more
than the following:

Repeatability : 5 percent

Reproducibility : 10 percent

The minimum ductility values specified by the Indian Standards Institution for various
grades of bitumen available in India are given below:
Source of paving bitumen and penetration grade Minimum ductility value,
cm
Assam petroleum A 25 5
A 35 10
A 45 12
A 65, A 90 & A 200 15
Bituminous from sources other than Assam Petroleum S 50
35
S 45, S 65 & S 90 75

OBSERVATION SHEET

POURING TEMPERATURE:

PERIOD OF COOLING IN ATMOSPHERE:

PERIOD OF COOLING IN WATER BATH BEFORE TRIMMING:
PERIOD OF COOLING IN WATER BATH AFTER TRIMMING:
ROOM TEMPERATURE:
RATE OF PULLING:
TEST TEMPERATURE:

BRIQUETTE NUMBER I II III

INITIAL
FINAL
MEAN DUCTILITY VALUE

RESULT:
The Ductility Value of given bitumen is…………….
B. ELASTIC RECOVERY OF BITUMEN

AIM: To find out the elastic recovery of bitumen.

THEORY:

This procedure describes the method of measuring recovery of tensile deformation of an

asphalt sample by using a standard Ductilometer. The testing procedure uses similar equipment and
methods as AASHTO T 51.
APPARATUS:

 Ductilometer and related equipment, as specified by AASHTO T 51. There must also be some

method available of stopping the Ductilometer at a point in the test and holding the sample at a

constant level of deformation.

 Clock or watch, capable of measuring a 5 min, 10 sec. and a 1 hr, 5 min. period.

 Scissors.

PROCEDURE:

1. Prepare the apparatus and the samples as specified in AASHTO T 51, Sections 5.1–5.3.

2. Attach the sample clips to the pins or hooks of the Ductilometer.

3. Begin pulling the clips apart at a rate of 50 mm/min. (2 in./min.)

4. When the sample elongation reaches 200 mm (8 in.), stop pulling the clips apart.

5. If the sample breaks before 200 mm (8 in.) elongation, consider the test abnormal and fail the

sample after obtaining this result several times.

6. Hold the sample at 200 mm (8 in.) elongation for 5 min, 10 sec.

7. Cut the sample at its approximate center using the scissors. The cut ends of the sample will begin

to draw apart.

8. Allow the sample to relax for 1 hr, 5 min.

9. Manually move the sample clips together until the cut ends of the sample meet.

10. Record the elongation in mm (in.) indicated by the Ductilometer when the cut ends of the sample

are touching.

11. Calculate the elastic recovery using the equation shown in equation below.
CALCULATIONS:

Calculate the elastic recovery as a percentage of the total elongation recovered by the sample
during the test:

Where:
R = the elastic recovery
Ef = the final elongation recorded

RESULT:
The elastic recovery of bitumen is___________
Experiment No: 7 Date:
VISCOSITY OF BITUMEN

AIM: To determine the viscosity of the given bitumen.

THEORY:

This test method describes how to find out the viscosity of bitumen emulsion with Saybolt
Furol viscometer. It is applicable to all the emulsified asphalts specified in Specifications IS-3117-
2004.
APPARATUS:

A. Water Bath: Bath equipped with a stirring device and with means for heating or cooling,
serves as a support to hold the oil tube in the vertical position and as a container for the bath
liquid.
The bath temperature necessary to maintain thermal equilibrium, while the liquid in the oil tube is
swell stirred by the oil-tube thermometer, shall vary to within +/- 0.1˚C , for the specified test
temperatures given below:
Temperature Range 19 to 27 ˚ C
Temperature of Test 25˚ C
The level of the bath liquid shall be not lower than 0.5 cm above the overflow rim of the oil tube.
B. Oil Tube Thermometers: Four thermometers graduated in degree centigrade which can
measure the temperature upto 100˚C or self-reading electronic thermometer.
C. Timing Device: A stop-watch graduated in divisions of 0.2 s or less and accurate to within 0.1
percent when tested over a 60 min period; or other equivalent timing device.
D. Withdrawal Tube or Pipette: Used for draining the gallery, with a smooth tip of about 3 mm
outside diameter and about 2 mm inside diameter.
PROCEDURE:

1. Make the viscosity determinations in a room free from draughts and rapid changes in
temperature.
2. For standardization, the room temperature shall be between 20˚C and 30˚C and the actual
temperature shall be recorded & for routine testing, temperatures up to 38°C may prevail
without introducing errors in excess of one percent.
3. Clean the oil tube with a solvent, such as benzene, and remove excess solvent from the gallery.
Sieve the all sample through a 150 micron IS sieve before pouring into the oil tube. Pour the
material in oil tube. Insert the cork stopper, taking care that the cork fits tightly enough to
 prevent the escape of air, as tested by the absence of oil on the cork after it is withdrawn. If the
test temperature is above that of the room, heat the material to not more than 1.5 ˚C above the
temperature of test, and if the temperature is below that of the room, cool it to not more than
1.5˚C below the temperature of test.

4. Pour the material into the oil tube until it ceases to overflow into the gallery. Keep it well
stirred with the oil tube thermometer, care being taken to avoid touching the outflow tube.
Make an adjustment of bath temperature to remain constant of sample temperature. If the
indicated bath temperature varies by more than+/- 0.03˚C test result shall be discarded.
5. After the temperature of the material in the oil tube has remained constant with +/- 0.02°C of
the desired temperature for 1 min with constant stirring, withdraw the oil tube thermometer and
remove the surplus material from the gallery by the help of the withdrawal tube so that the
level of the material in the gallery is below the level in the oil tube proper.
6. Place the receiving flask in position in such that flask is not less than 10 cm and not more than
10 cm from the bottom of the bath. Remove the cork from its position and at the same time
start the stop watch & Stop the stoop watch when liquid reaches the designated mark of the
receiving flask.
CALCULATIONS:

1. Note the time in second as determined from above said procedure & it will be the Saybolt Furol
Viscosity of the material at the temperature at which the test is made.
2. Report the results to the nearest 0.1 s for viscosity values below 200 second and to the nearest
whole second for values 200 second or above.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Weight of empty specific gravity bottle:

Volume of Specific gravity bottle:

Volume of Bitumen considered for calculating viscosity:

Dynami
Kinemati
Time for collecting Density of c
Temp. of the Wt. of bottle c
Sl.No 60CC of bitumen in t Bitumen in Viscosit
Bitumen in 0C + Bitumen Viscosity
(sec) kg/m3 y in
in m2/sec
Pa.sec

RESULT:
The Viscosity of given bitumen is…………….
Experiment No: 8 Date:
FLASH AND FIRE POINTS
AIM: To determine the flash point and fire point of the

bitumen.THEORY:

Bituminous materials leave out volatiles at high temperatures depending upon their
grade. These volatile vapours catch fire causing a flash. This condition is very hazardous and
it is therefore essential to qualify this temperature for each bitumen grade, so that the paving
engineers may restrict the mixing or application temperatures well within the limits.
The flash point is the lowest temperature at which flash occurs due to the ignition of
the volatile vapours when a small flame is brought in contact with the vapours of a bituminous
product, gradually heated under standardized conditions. As mentioned above, this test gives
an indication of the critical temperature at and above which suitable precautions should be
taken to eliminate fire hazards during its application.
When the bituminous material is further heated to a higher temperature, the material
itself catches fire and continues to burn; the lowest temperature causing this condition is the
fire point. The fire point is always higher than the flash point of a material. ISI vide
specifications I.S.: 1209-1958 gives the following definitions.
Flash point: “The flash point of a material is the lowest temperature at which the
vapour of substance momentarily takes fire in the form of a flash under specified condition of
test.”
Fire point: “The fire point is the lowest temperature at which the material gets ignited
and burns under specified condition of test.”

APPARATUS:

Pensky-Martens Closed Tester consists of cup, lid, stirring device, cover shutter, flame
exposure device etc.
Pensky-Marten open Tester as above with the modification, that the cover of the cup is
replaced by a clip which encircles the upper rim of the cup and carries thermometer and test
flame.

PROCEDURE

1. All parts of the cup are cleaned and dried thoroughly before the test is started. The material
is filled in the cup upto a filling mark. The lid is placed to close the cup in a closed system.
 2. All accessories including thermometer of the specified range are suitably fixed. The bitumen
sample is then heated. The test flame is lit and adjusted in such a way that the size of a beed
is of 4mm diameter.
3. The heating is done at the rate of 5° to 6°C per minute. The stirring is done at a rate of
approximately 60 revolutions per minute.

Fig. Pensky-Martens Apparatus

4. The test flame is applied at intervals depending upon the expected flash and fire points. First
application is made atleast 17°C below the actual flash point and then at every 1 degree to
3°C. The stirring discontinued during the application of the test flame.
CALCULATIONS:

The flash point is taken as the temperature read on the thermometer at the time of the
flame application that causes a bright flash in the interior of the cup in closed system. For
open cup it is the instance when flash appears first at any point on the surface of the material.
The heating is continued until the volatile ignites and the material continues to burn for 5
seconds. The temperature of the sample material when this occurs is recorded as the fire point.
The minimum value of Flash point by Pensky Marten's closed type apparatus specified
by the IS is 175°C for all the grades of bitumen (for both Assam petroleum and those from
other sources).
The minimum specified flash point for rapid curing cutback bitumen of all grades is
26°C and that for medium curing type is 38° for grades 0 and 1 and 65° for grades 2 to 5.
Slow curing cutbacks have minimum values ranging from 65 to 121°C.

OBSERVATION SHEET:

TYPE OF CUP:
 RATE OF HEATING:

TIME IN MINUTES TEMPERATURE OC

RESULT:

FLASH POINT:
FIRE POINT:
MIX PREPARATION
Experiment No: 9, 10 Date:

MARSHALL STABILITY SAMPLE PREPARATION AND TESTING

AIM:
To find out the Optimum Bitumen Content of given mix by Marshall Stability Test.

THEORY:
Bruce Marshall, formerly bituminous engineer with Mississippi state highway department, USA
formulated Marshall’s method for designing bituminous mixes. Marshall’s test procedure was later
modified and improved upon by U.S. corps of engineers through their extensive research and correlation
studies. ASTM and other agencies have standardized the test procedure. Generally, this stability test is
applicable to hot-mix design using bitumen and aggregates with maximum size of 25mm.

In this method, the resistance to plastic deformations of cylindrical specimen of bituminous mixture
is measured when the same is loaded at the periphery at 5 cm per minute. This test procedure is used in
designing and evaluating bituminous paving mixes. The test procedure is extensively used in routine test
program for the paving jobs. There are two major features of the Marshall method of designing mixes
namely, (i) Density-Voids analysis, (ii) Stability-Flow tests. The Marshall stability of the mix is defined
as a maximum load carried by a compacted specimen at a standard test temperature at 600C. The flow
value is a deformation the Marshall Test specimen undergoes during the loading up to the maximum
load in 0.25 mm units. In this test an attempt is made to obtain optimum binder content for the type of
aggregate mix and traffic intensity. The proposed designed steps for the design of bituminous mix are
given below.

 Select grading to be used.

 Select aggregates to be employed in the mix.

 Determine the proportion of each aggregate required to produce design grading.

 Determine the specific gravity of the aggregate combination and of the asphalt cement.

 Make up trail specimens with varying asphalt contents. Determine the specific gravity of each
component specimen.

 Make stability tests on the specimens.

 Calculate the percentage of voids, VMA and the percent voids filled with bitumen each
specimen.
  Select the optimum bitumen content with design requirements.

The design may be required if necessary after altering the gradation so as to fulfill the design
requirements.

APPARATUS:

1. Mould assembly: Cylindrical moulds of 10cm diameter and 7.5cm height are required. It further
consists of a base plate and collar extension. They are designed to be interchangeable with either
end of cylindrical mould.

2. Sample Extractor: For extruding the compacted specimen from the mould, an extractor suitably
fitted with a jack or compression machine.
3. Compaction pedestal and hammer: It consists of a wooden block capped with M.S. plate to hold
the mould assembly in position during compaction. The compaction hammer consists of a flat
circular tamping face 8.8 cm diameter and equipped with a 4.5 kg. Weight constructed to provide
a free fall of 47.5cm. Mould holder is provided consisting of spring tension device designed to
hold compaction mould in place on the compaction pedestal.
4. Breaking head: It consist of upper and lower cylindrical segments or test heads having an inside
radius of curvature of 5cm. The lower segment is mounted on a base having two vertical guide
rods which facilitate insertion in the holes of upper test head.

Fig. 10.1 Marshall Stability Testing Machine

 5. Loading machine: The loading machine is provided with a gear system to lift the base in upward
direction. On the upper end of the machine, a pre-calibrated proving ring of 5 tons capacity is
fixed. In between the base and the proving ring, the specimen contained in test head is placed. The
loading machine produces a movement at the rate of 5cm per minute. Machine is capable of
reversing its movement downward also. This facilitates adequate space for placing test head
system after one specimen has been tested.

6. Flow Meter: One dial gauge fixed to the guide rods of a testing machine can serve the purpose.
Least count of 0.025 mm is adequate. The flow value refers to the total vertical upward movement
from the initial position at zero loads to a value at maximum load. The dial gauge or the flow
meter should be able to measure accurately the total vertical movement upward.

Besides the above equipment, the following are also required.,

 Ovens on hot plate,

 Mixing apparatus,

 Water bath, thermometers of range up to 2000 C with sensitivity of 2.50 C.

PROCEDURE:
In the Marshall method each compacted test in specimen is subjected to the following tests and
analysis in the order listed below:

 Bulk density determination,

 Stability and flow test,

 Density and voids analysis,

At least three samples are prepared for each binder content.

A. PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMENS:

1. The coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and the filter material should be proportioned and mixed in
such a way that final mix after blending has the gradation within the specified range. The specified
gradation of mineral aggregates and the bitumen binder as per IRC: 29-1968 are given in table 10.1
2. The aggregates and filter are mixed together in the desired proportion as per the design
requirements are fulfilling the specified gradation. The required quantity of mix is taken so as to
produce a compacted bituminous mix specimen of thickness 63.5mm approximately.
3. Approximately 1200g of aggregates and filler are taken and heated to a temperature of 175 to 190 0
 C. The compaction mould assembly and rammer are cleaned and kept pre heated to a temperature of
100 to 1450C. The bitumen is heated to temperature of 121 to 138 0 C and the required quantity of
first trail percentage of bitumen (say 3.5% by weight of mineral aggregates) is added to the heated
aggregate and thoroughly mixed using a mechanical mixer or by hand mixing with trowel.
4. The mixing temperature for 80/100 grade bitumen may be around 1540C and that for 60/70 grade
about 1600C. The mix is placed in a mould and compacted by rammer, with 75 blows on either side.
The compacting temperatures may be about 1380C for 80/100 grade bitumen and 1490C for 60/70
grade.
5. The compacted specimen should have a thickness of 63.5 mm. The weight of the aggregate taken
may be suitably altered to obtain a thickness of 63.5 + 3.0 mm. At least two specimens, but
preferably three or four specimens should be prepared at each trail bitumen content which may be
varied at 0.5 percent increments up to about 6.0 or 6.5 percent.
6. The compacted specimens are allowed to cool to room temperature, the sample height and weight is
determined, theoretical density is calculated. The specimen is then weighed in air and then in water
for determining volume and later bulk density.
7. The specimens are then transferred into a water bath, kept at 600C for 30 to 40 minutes. They are
then removed, dried and placed in Marshall Test head. Their Stability and flow values are noted.
They are corrected for variation from average height

B. TESTS:

Specific gravity of compacted specimens:

The specific gravity values of the different aggregates, filler, and bitumen used are determined first.
The theoretical specific gravity Gt of the mix is given by;

Where W1= Weight of coarse aggregates,

W2= Weight of fine aggregates,
W3= Weight of filler,
W4= Weight of bitumen in total mix,

G1, G2, and G3 are apparent specific gravity values of the coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and
filler respectively and G4 is the specific gravity of bitumen.
 Density and void analysis:
Soon after the compacted bituminous mix specimens have cooled to room temperature, the weight,
average thickness and diameter of the specimen are noted. The specimens are to be weight in air and
then in water. The bulk density value Gb of the specimen if calculated from the weight and volume. The
voids analysis is made as given below:

100(Gt  Gb)
V v = Air voids in the mix = = %
G t

Vb = Volume of bitumen,% = W 4 =
G b
G 4

VMA = Void in Mineral Aggregates = Vv + Vb = %

VFB = Voids Filled with Bitumen,% = 100 *V b

=
VMA

Marshall Stability and flow values:

The specimens to be tested are kept immersed under water in a thermostatically controlled water
bath maintained at 600C for 30 to 40 minutes. The specimens are taken one by one, placed in the
Marshall Test head and the Marshall Stability value (maximum head carried in kg. before failure load in
0.25mm units) are noted. The corrected Marshall Stability value of each specimen is determined by
applying the approximate correction factor, if the average height of the specimen is not exactly 63.5mm
the correction factors are given in table 10.2.

DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM BITUMEN CONTENT

Five graphs are plotted with values of bitumen content against the value of:

 Density Gb. g/cm3,

 Marshall stability S, kg,
 Voids in total mix Vv %,
 Flow value ,F (0.25mm units)
 Voids filled with bitumen , VFB %,

Let the bitumen content corresponding to maximum density be B1, corresponding to maximum
stability be B2 and that corresponding to the specified voids content Vv (4.0% in the case of dense AC
mix) to B3. Then the optimum bitumen content for deign mix is given by

B0= (B1+B2+B3)/3.
 The value of flow and VFB are found from the graphs, corresponding to the bitumen content B0. All
the design values of Marshall Stability, flow, voids and VFB are checked at the optimum bitumen
content B0, with the specified design requirements of the mix.

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF THE MIX:

As per IRC: 29-1968, when the specimens are compacted with 50 blows on either face of the
designed AC mix should fulfill the following requirements.

 Marshall stability value Kg(minimum)=340

 Marshall flow value , 0.25mm units= 8 to 16
 Voids in total mix, Vv%=3 to 5
 Voids in mineral aggregates filled With bitumen,VFB %=75 to 85

The highest possible Marshall Stability values in the mix should be aimed at consistent with the
other three requirements mentioned above. In case the mix designed does not fulfill any one or more of
the designed requirements, the gradation of the aggregates or filter content or bitumen content or
combination of these are altered and the design tests are repeated till all the requirements are
simultaneously fulfilled.

JOB MIX FORMULA:

The proportions in which the different aggregates, filler and bitumen are to be mixed specified by
weight or by volume for implementation during construction.

CALCULATIONS:

The following values are either measured or computed:

1) Bulk density,
2) Stability,
3) Flow,
4) Percentage air voids,
5) Percent voids filled with bitumen or tar,
6) Percent voids in mineral aggregates,

Values 1, 2, 3 are measured where values listed in 4, 5, 6 are computed in

following:
Table 10.1: Specified grading of aggregate for bituminous concrete

Table 10.2: Correction Factors

Volume of specimen in cubic Approximate thickness of Correction

centimeter specimen in mm factors
457-470 57.1 1.19
471-482 58.7 1.14
483-495 60.3 1.09
496-508 61.9 1.04
509-522 63.5 1.00
523-535 65.1 0.96
536-546 66.7 0.93
547-559 68.3 0.89
560-573 69.9 0.86

Notes:

1. The measured stability of a specimen multiplied by the ratio for the thickness of specimen is
equal to the corrected stability for a 63.5 mm specimen.

2. Volume thickness relationship is based on a specimen diameter of 10 cm.

OBSERVATION SHEET:

Stability and flow value determination

Type of grading of aggregate :

Mixing temperature :

Number of blows on either side :

Grade of bitumen :

Compaction temperature :

Providing ring calibration factor :

Flow value dial, 1 division :

Table 10.3 Observation table for density and voids

Weight (g) Gb Gt Vv Vb VMA VFB

Sample Bitumen Height
No Content(%) (mm)

Average

Average

Average
Table 10.4 Observation table for Marshall Stability and flow value

Bitumen Stability Value Flow value

Sample content Flow dial 0.25mm
No percent reading units
Measured Corrected

Average

Average

Average

Average

Optimum bitumen content determination:

B1 = Bitumen content corresponding to maximum density =

B2 = Bitumen content corresponding to maximum Stability =

B3 = Bitumen content corresponding to 4% voids content =

Bo = Optimum bitumen content = ( B1 + B2 + B3 ) / 3 =

 In addition to these, graphs are plotted between, with bitumen content on x axis, and:
1. Bulk density, Gb

2. Marshall Stability, M

3. % voids in total mix, Vv

4. Flow value, f

5. % voids filled with bitumen, VFB

RESULTS:
Optimum bitumen content = %

Marshall Stability at optimum bitumen content = kg

Marshall flow value at optimum bitumen content, 0.25 mm units = mm

Voids in total mix at optimum bitumen content, Vv = %

Voids in mineral aggregate filled with bitumen, VFB = %

TRAFFIC LAB
Experiment No: 11 Date:

VOLUME STUDIES AT MID BLOCKS

INTRODUCTION:
Traffic volume studies are conducted to determine the number, movements, and classifications
of roadway vehicles at a given location.

NEED FOR THE STUDY:

These studies are useful for determining the following:
1. Magnitudes, classifications and the time and directional split of vehicular flows.

2. Proportions of vehicles in the traffic stream.

3. Hourly, daily, yearly and seasonal variation of vehicular flows.

4. Flow fluctuation on different approaches at a junction or different parts of a road

network system.
5. The structural and geometric design of pavements, bridges and other highway facilities.

6. Intersection design.

7. Improvement of roadway operating conditions.

8. Traffic signal design.

9. Economic feasibility.

THEORY:
Traffic Volume: It is defined as the number of vehicles passing a section of a lane or roadway during a
given time interval.
Rate of Flow: It is the rate at which vehicles pass a point during a specified time period of less than one
hour, expressed as an equivalent hourly rate.
Traffic volumes can be expressed as daily volumes, hourly volumes, and sub-hourly volumes.
1. Daily Volume: Traffic volume expressed as a number of vehicles per day is referred to as daily
volume. It is used for determining pavement thickness.
2. Average Annual Daily Traffic: The average 24-hour volume at a given location over a full year
(365 days), estimated as the number of vehicles passing a section in a year, is known as AADT.
 3. Average Annual Weekday Traffic: The average 24-hour traffic volume at a given location
occurring on weekdays over a full year is known as AAWT.
4. Average Daily Traffic: The average 24-hour volume at a given location over a defined time period
of less than one year is known as ADT.

5. Average Weekday Traffic: An average 24-hour traffic volume occurring on weekdays for some
period of time less than one year, such as for a month or a season.
6. Hourly Volume: Traffic volume expressed as a number of vehicles per hour is referred to as hourly
volume.
7. Peak Hour Volume: It is the volume of traffic that uses the approach, lane or lane group in question
during the hour of the day that observes the highest traffic volumes.
8. Directional Design Hourly Volume: It is the one-way volume in the predominant direction of
travel in the design hour, expressed as a percentage of the two-way DHV.
𝐷𝐷𝐻𝑉 = 𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇 × 𝐾 × 𝐷
Where K is the proportion of daily traffic that moves in peak hour,
D is the proportion of peak hour traffic that moves in the peak direction.

9. Sub-Hourly Volume: It is the traffic volume expressed as a number of vehicles per hour when the
study is conducted for less than an hour. In data collection and clustering, the time interval that
represents instantaneous traffic is the 15- minute interval.
10. Peak Hour Factor (PHF): It is the ratio of the total hourly traffic volume to the maximum
15-minute traffic volume within the hour. It represents the flow variation within an hour.
11. PCU: A Passenger Car Unit is a measure of the impact that a mode of transport has on traffic
variables (such as headway, speed, density) compared to a single standard passenger car. This is also
known as passenger car equivalent. Highway capacity is measured in PCU/hour daily.

Classified & Non-Classified Traffic Volume: Classified traffic volume takes into account the different
categories of vehicles & non-classified don’t consider the different types of vehicles.

Methods for Traffic Volume Survey:

1. Manual counting method.
2. Semi-automatic method.
3. Automatic method.
OBJECTIVE: To conduct a traffic volume study and to determine different volume statistics for
a particular road section.

EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES REQUIRED:

1. Observation sheets
2. A stopwatch
3. Video camera (in case of indirect methods)
THEORY:
In this method, vehicles are counted manually. There are two methods of manual counting:
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method

Direct Method: In this method, data is recorded using hand tally on the observation sheets.
Advantages:
 By this method, traffic volume, as well as vehicle classification, can be
obtained.
 Data can be used immediately after collection.

Disadvantages:
 This method is not practical for long duration counts and when the traffic flow
is high.
 The counts cannot be cross-checked. So there is an increased probability of
accumulation of errors.
 This method is very difficult when the volume is high and/or there are three or
more than three traffic lanes.
 The counts cannot be recorded in bad weather.

Indirect Method: In this method, data is collected using a video camera. The video is captured
for a particular duration of time and data is retrieved and entered into the observation sheets
later by rewinding.
Advantages:
 Besides traffic volume, several traffic parameters can be obtained from the
recorded film.
Data can be cross-checked and quality can be ensured.
 Applicable when the volume is high.
 Suitable for non-lane-based traffic operation.
Disadvantages:

 Data cannot be used immediately after collection.

  This process is time-consuming and tedious.
 Not suitable for very long duration counts.

PROCEDURE:
1. First, a section of the road is to be selected according to the guidelines and all the necessary lab
preparations are to be completed in advance.
2. Traffic volume is a unidirectional study. Therefore, it is more desirable to record traffic in each
direction of travel and keep separate observers for each direction.
3. The number of observers required to count the vehicles depends upon the number of lanes and the
type of information required.
4. The time slots and number of shifts could vary depending on members of the field team. For
example, for all day counts, work in three shifts of 8 hours each could be organized.
5. Data is to be recorded on tally sheets/field data observation sheets. First, the observer records the
date, location, weather condition, direction and time of the study. One or more sheets may be
required for observing and recording the traffic data.
6. Observer counts the vehicles and records observations in the respective vehicle- type column with the
help of hand tallies called Five-Dash system (vertical strokes for first four vehicles followed by an
oblique for the fifth vehicle depicting a total of five) for each count interval, mostly 15 minutes.
7. Data is collected for each type of vehicle and filled in tally sheets for the whole time of the study.
8. Calculate the hourly volume (vehicles/hour). Volume can be expressed as Average Daily Traffic
(ADT) and Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) depending on data recorded.
9. Also, determine the peak rate of flow and Peak Hour Factor (PHF) during both peak and off-peak
periods for data recorded in the field.

OBSERVATIONS:
𝑃𝐶𝑈, 𝑣𝑒ℎi𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎi𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 × 𝑃𝐶𝑈 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
 Observation Sheet

Classified Traffic Volume Count Study for Mid-Block Section

Name of the Road: Day & date:
Section from: to: Hour:
Location: Weather:
Direction: Sheet No.: Name of the observer(s):
FAST MOVING SLOW MOVING VEHICLES
VEHICLES
Vehicl Bus Truck Animal Drawn
e Two- Three Four Cycle
LCV Multi- Cycle Others
Type Wheeler Wheeler Wheeler Mini Full 2-Axle Ricksha Bullock cart Horse
Axle w
Time

00-15

15-30

30-45

45-60

TOTA
L
PCU
Factor
TOTA
L
PCU
CALCULATIONS:

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑜ƒ 𝑃𝐶𝑈/ℎ𝑟
𝑣𝑒ℎi𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡i𝑚𝑒

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑃𝐶𝑈/ℎ𝑟

𝑡𝑜t𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟ƒ𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
4 × 𝑚𝑎𝑥i𝑚𝑢𝑚 15 𝑚i𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑤i𝑡ℎi𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 ƒ𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =

ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA:

The data can be presented and analyzed by plotting line graphs and pie charts.

(a) (b)

Fig. Example plots showing data presentation.

(a) Determines the peak hour (b) Gives the composition of traffic

RESULT:
Experiment No: 12 Date:

VOLUME STUDIES AT INTERSECTIONS

OBJECTIVE: To record and analyze turning movement counts at an intersection during peak and off-
peak hours.
EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES REQUIRED:

1. Magnetic compass
2. Observation sheet(s)/ Electronic count boards/ Pneumatic tubes
3. Stopwatch(es)
4. A team of observers (number of members depend on the type of method used and type
of intersection)

NEED FOR THE STUDY:

Existing traffic data at an intersection or on a road section forms the foundation for analysis in
the transportation engineering field. The existing traffic count data is important for both planning and
operational studies. Turning Movement Counts (TMC's) are the directional volume counts of traffic
passing through an intersection. The purpose of the TMC’s is to summarize the counts of vehicle
movements through an intersection during certain time periods. This type of volume summary is used
in making important decisions regarding the geometric design of the roadway, sign and signal
installation, signal timing, pavement marking, traffic circulation patterns, capacity analysis, parking
zones, and vehicle classification. This data is used in making decisions at a planning-level (e.g.,
traffic impact analyses), as well as operational analyses-level (e.g., signal installation and timing).
TMC's are usually taken during peak periods. However, sometimes traffic flow during the
off-peak period is also recorded. The volume of traffic passing through an intersection is usually
recorded as vehicles per hour (veh/hr). TMC's at an intersection relates to the left, right, and through
traffic leaving the intersection from each approach.

THEORY:
Types of counts
 Vehicle Counts: Counts may be conducted manually or using video technology. For manual
counts, the required number of observers is dependent on the volume levels and the geometric
design of the intersection. Most likely, several observers will be necessary to perform Turning
Movement Counts (TMC) at signalized intersections since the majority of these studies are
 performed during peak flow periods. Un-signalized intersections will typically require fewer
observers. For video counts, the number of cameras and their placement will depend on the
geometry and size of the intersection. For signalized intersections, it is recommended that at least
five signal cycles be captured within a specific count interval. A count interval is defined as the
fraction of an hour that is used to aggregate data. The maximum cycle length should be used if the
signal is actuated. Potential challenges in counting signalized intersections during actuated
phasing are permissive turning movements since they do not move consistently during their green
phase and right turns/right-turn-on-red movements may be easily miscounted.
 Path-Based Counts: Several modern intersection configurations combine multiple movements
into shared lanes, and the traffic count is dependent on the origin and destination which is
commonly defined as the vehicle path. Some of these intersections include modern roundabouts,
super streets (through and left-turns replaced by a right-turn U-turn combination) and Michigan U-
Turn (left-turns replaced by a right-turn U-turn combination) intersections. At these types of
intersections, it is not possible to observe individual turning movements in isolation.
 Unconventional Intersection Counts: Some unconventional intersection designs include
continuous flow intersections, single-point urban interchanges, and diverging diamond
interchanges. These unconventional designs generally do not require path-based counts and each
movement can be observed in isolation. Therefore, a volume study at these unconventional
intersections is done in a similar manner to a standard intersection. The observer should be familiar
with the flow patterns before conducting the study. Automated data collection methods can be used
where no shared lanes with other movements are present.

Types of counts

 Manual Observation Counts: During this procedure, the observer manually records each vehicle as
it proceeds through the point of interest. Manual counts minimize equipment cost and set-up time;
however, they can become inefficient the longer the observer stays in the field. Most counts focus
on peak- hour conditions; therefore, the set-up time and removal of automated equipment may not
be justified.
 Automatic Counts: Equipment for automatic counts typically provides volume counts on the legs of
the intersection (such as in-road count technologies) and may not always provide turning movement
counts directly, with some exceptions (such as video imaging processing). Reliability of the
equipment is considered the traditional disadvantage and analysts must prepare contingency plans in
 case of equipment failure and understand technology limitations.
PROCEDURE:
 Note: There are a number of methods to record the counts i.e. manual counting method (using tally
marks on recording forms), semi-automatic method (using electronic counting boards) and
automatic method (using pneumatic tubes).
1. The intersection to be studied is visited at least 15 minutes before the scheduled period for collecting
the data. It is also helpful to get familiarized with the study area and the traffic flow pattern at the
intersection.
2. Note the north direction with the help of a magnetic compass.
3. The team leader assigns member(s) on different sections of the legs of the intersection. (The number
of members depends on the type of intersection and type of method used as illustrated below).

Fig. Illustration showing placement of different observers on a three- legged

two-way intersection

4. Observer(s) fill all the necessary details of the intersection in the prescribed form. Additional
information about the intersection can also be recorded using supplementary sheets.
5. The observers collect the TMC’s either using Manual Sheets or Electronic Count Boards.
6. Stopwatches are used to record the desired count interval, and a new form shall be used at the
beginning of a new interval. Time intervals must be maintained and coordinated accurately when
two or more observers are performing the counts. Any temporary traffic event such as collisions or
 maintenance activities should be recorded since they may lead to unusual traffic counts.
7. The manual count is done by recording each vehicle with a tick mark on a prepared field form as
shown in the observation sheet below. Pedestrian and bicycle volumes may be recorded in the same
form. However, if the volumes are high they may require separate sheets.
8. TMC's are collected for two hours duration at a study intersection to conduct intersection level of
service (LOS) analysis.
9. Finally, all the data is summarized and presented in the form of tables and sketches.
OBSERVATIONS:

Observation Sheet 1
Vehicle Turning Movement Counts
 Observation Sheet 2
Summary of Turning Movement Counts

NOTE: These observation sheets have been adopted from ITE Manual of
Transportation Engineering Studies.
ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION:
Draw a sketch showing the intersection geometrics and describe the intersection characteristics
based on recorded TMC's. Various pie charts can be drawn to show the composition of traffic at the
intersection. Comparative analysis can be done between the off-peak hour and peak hour TMC's

Fig.2 Illustrations showing representation of directional movements

RESULT:
Experiment No: 13 Date:

SPEED STUDIES USING SPOT SPEEDS

INTRODUCTION:

Spot speed studies are conducted to document the distribution of vehicle speeds as they pass a
point or short segment of the roadway. These studies are conducted under conditions of free flow/
uninterrupted flow facilities.

NEED FOR THE SPOT SPEED STUDY:

Spot speed studies are used to determine vehicle speed percentiles, which are useful in making
many speed-related decisions. Some are enlisted below:
1. Geometric design
2. Accidental analysis
3. Traffic control planning
4. Classification of roads as freeways, highways, arterials, collectors and local
streets
5. Speed trends
6. Safety applications
7. Determination of existing traffic operations, evaluation of traffic controldevices,
and measurement of the effectiveness of traffic control devices, etc.

THEORY:
Speed:
Speed is the ratio of total distance travelled to the total time taken to traverse that distance. Units
for speed are km/hr, m/s, feet/sec, miles/hr, etc. Speed is an important transportation consideration because
it relates to safety, time, comfort, convenience and economics.

Study Components: There are basically three categories of speeds.

1. Spot Speed: It is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at any specific location. It is determined
by measuring the time required for a vehicle to traverse a specified distance along a road
section.
2. Running Speed: It is determined by dividing the total distance by the total running time (only
 the time vehicle is in motion) for the route. In this, all spot- time delays are excluded.
3. Journey Speed or Overall Speed: It is obtained by dividing the total distance by the total time
of travel including all delays.

Factors Affecting Spot Speed

Various factors which affect the spot speed are as follows:

1. Type of road
2. Traffic volume
3. Lane width
4. Sight distance
5. Gradient
6. Pavement unevenness
7. Roadside developments
8. Environmental conditions

Methods of the spot speed study

1. Pavement Marking method

2. Enoscope method
3. Radar/Speed gun method
A. SPOT SPEED STUDY BY PAVEMENT MARKING METHOD

OBJECTIVE: To conduct a spot speed study, develop a cumulative frequency speed distribution curve and
calculate various statistical measures.
EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES REQUIRED:
1. Measuring tape
2. Flags/ Road markers
3. A stopwatch
4. Observation sheets
5. Computer system with statistical software e.g. MS Excel/ Sigma
Plot (optional)
THEORY:
The speed survey is done to determine the speed that drivers select, unaffected by the existence of
congestion. This information is used to determine general speed trends, to help determine reasonable speed
limits, and to assess safety. The speed of travel on the road is also used in classifying routes. Level of service
based on speed is an indicator of the quality of traffic flow or mobility. The pavement marking method can
be used to successfully complete a spot speed study using a small sample size taken over a relatively short
period of time. It is a quick and inexpensive method for collecting speed data but a relatively inaccurate
method. To calculate vehicle speed, we use the predetermined study length known as trap length and the
elapsed time it takes for the vehicle to move through the test section in the following formula:

D
𝑉=
𝑇

where V = speed (m/s)

D = distance between two sections (m)
T = time elapsed between two sections (sec)

Fig.1 Trap length for conducting a speed study

 Using the recommended study lengths based on the average speed of the traffic stream, the speed
calculations become straightforward and less confusing.

Table.1 Recommended Trap length for spot speed studies

Traffic stream average Recommended study
speed length
(miles/hr) (feet)
Below 25 88-100
25-40 176-200
Over 40 264-300

Key parameters associated with roadway speeds:

1. Time Mean Speed (TMS): It is the average speed of all the vehicles passing a point on a highway
or lane over some specified time period. It is taken as an arithmetic mean of all the speeds.
∑i(𝑑⁄𝑡 )
𝑇𝑀𝑆 = i
𝑛
2. Space Mean Speed (SMS): The average speed of all vehicles occupying a given section of
highway or lane over some specified time period. Thus, it is the harmonic mean of speeds.
𝑑
𝑆𝑀𝑆 =
∑i 𝑡i⁄ 𝑛
where 𝑑 = distance traversed
𝑡i = time for “i𝑡ℎ” vehicle to traverse a particular section
𝑛 = number of observed vehicles

3. 85th Percentile Speed: The speed at or below which 85% of a sample of free- flowing vehicles is
travelling.
4. Median (50th Percentile Speed): The speed that equally divides the distribution of spot speeds. 50%
of observed speeds are higher than the median whereas 50% of observed speeds are lower than the
median.
5. Design Speed: 98th percentile speed is taken as design speed.
6. Mode: The mode is defined as the single value of speed that is most likely to occur, i.e. for which
frequency is maximum.
7. Pace: It is defined as the 10 km/h increment in speed in which the highest percentage of drivers is
observed. It is also found graphically using the frequency distribution curve. The pace is a traffic
engineering measure not commonly used for other statistical analyses.
PROCEDURE:
1. Select the site as per guidelines and then obtain appropriate trap length. Using the recommended
study lengths based on the average speed of the traffic stream, the speed calculations become easy
and less tedious.
2. Record observations on spot speed study data entry form. On the spot speed data form, the
observer records the date, location, weather conditions, start time, and end time. Spot speed study
is a unidirectional study. First, choose one direction and then proceed to observations.
3. As the front of the vehicle (or only the lead vehicle in a group) crosses the starting section of the
study length, the observer there signals the observer at the end section who starts the stopwatch.
The observer stops the stopwatch when the vehicle reaches the end station. Therefore, the time
elapsed between the two sections is obtained.
4. Repeat the procedure for recording time of vehicles moving in the opposite direction.
5. Calculate vehicle speeds by using the predetermined study length and the elapsed time it took the
vehicle to move through the test section in the following formula:
𝐷
𝑉=
𝑇
where V = speed (m/s)
D = distance between two sections (m)
T = time elapsed between two sections (sec)

6. Choose appropriate bin limits and generate a frequency distribution table.

7. Perform calculations using Table.2.
8. Generate a frequency distribution curve and cumulative frequency distribution curve either
manually or using software such as MS Excel/ Sigma Plot.
9. Compute various statistical metrics like mean, mode, standard deviation, etc. either using
statistical formulae or using the generated graphs. Also determine the speed percentiles
such as 15th, 50th, 85th, and 98th percentile speeds.
10. Compute the confidence bounds with 95% and 99.7% confidence respectively and hence
compute the sample size required to achieve a tolerance of “x, km/hr” as an error.
OBSERVATIONS:
Observation Sheet 1
Spot speed study data entry
form

Date: Day: Weather: Page:

Name of the road:
Name of the observer(s):
Study/trap length:
Direction From: Towards:
Total number of vehicles observed:
Vehicle Time taken to cover study length (s) Speed (m/s) Speed (km/hr)
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
NOTE: Different observers can observe different types of vehicles and thus we can have classified spot speeds.
CALCULATIONS
Table 2 Cumulative Frequency Distribution Sheet

Date: Day: Weather: Page:

Name of the road:
Name of the observer(s):
Study/trap length:
Direction From: Towards:
Total number of vehicles observed:
Mid value of Cumulativ %
Speed interval speed interval, Frequency, e
% Frequency,
Cumulative
fi %fi fi× 𝑉i fi(𝑉i − 𝑉𝑚)2
(Km/hr) 𝑉i (km/hr) frequency, frequency
∑ fi %∑ fi
ANALYSIS OF DATA:
Plot frequency distribution curve and cumulative frequency distribution curve and report the
following results.

1. Median speed = km/hr

2. Modal speed = km/hr

3. Pace = km/hr
4. %Vehicles in pace =

∑ f i× 𝑉i
5. Mean Speed = 𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = -------------- = km/hr
𝑛

fi(𝑉i −𝑉𝑚 )2
6. Standard Deviation, 𝜎𝑠 = √[ ] = ---------------- = km/hr
𝑛−1

7. Percentile Speeds: 15th Percentile Speed =

50th Percentile Speed =

85th Percentile Speed =

98th Percentile Speed =

8. Confidence bounds, μ = 𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑍𝜎𝑠

Note: For 95% confidence, Z=1.96 & for 99.7% confidence, Z=3.0

9. Sample size required for x% confidence with accepted error of 𝑆𝑒,

2 2
Z
𝑛𝑠 = 𝑆𝑒2
𝑠 = =
PRESENTATION OF DATA:
Some graphical illustrations have been shown below. These graphs have been generated with the set
of an example spot speed study using MS Excel.

Table 3 Frequency of speeds obtained from a sample survey

Speed Range, kmph 20-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55
Frequency 0 2 6 18 25 19 16
Speed Range, kmph 56-60 61-65 66-70 71-75 76-80 81-85 Total
Frequency 17 12 7 4 3 1 130

Fig.2 Frequency distribution of speeds

Fig 3 Percent frequency distribution of speeds

 100 98th Percentile
90 85th Percentile
80

% Cumulative frequency
70
60
50 50th Percentile
40
30
20 15th Percentile
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Speed, kmph

Fig.4 Percent Cumulative frequency distribution of speeds

Students are expected to use the data collected during spot speed surveys. The data should be
analyzed and presented in both tabular as well as graphical forms using both the manual method and using
the software. Hence inferences should be drawn from each.

RESULT:
B. SPOT SPEED STUDY USING RADAR/ SPEED GUN

OBJECTIVE: To conduct a spot speed study using Speed/ Radar Gun, develop cumulative frequency
speed distribution curve and calculate various statistical measures.

EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES REQUIRED:

1. Speed/Radar Gun
2. Observation sheets
3. Computer system with statistical software e.g. MS Excel/ Sigma Plot (optional)

THEORY:
The speed gun or radar meters are used for measurement of spot speeds much rapidly as
compared to previously discussed methods. It measures speed directly by measuring the difference in the
frequency between the emitted and reflected radar wave emitted on an oncoming vehicle. The principle of
radar meter is that when it is targeted to a vehicle moving with some speed, the difference between the
frequencies of the emitted and reflected beams is used to calculate the speed. This is normally referred to
as the Doppler Effect which states that the difference in frequency is proportional to the speed of the
oncoming vehicle. Using this principle, the instrument is programmed to calculate the speed of the vehicle.

Fig.7 Radar Speed Meter Study Layout Fig 8 Radar Gun

 This is a recent advancement in speed studies; it automatically records speed and employs a
radar transmitter-receiver unit. The apparatus transmits high-frequency electromagnetic waves as a narrow
beam towards the moving vehicle, the beam changes its frequency depending upon the vehicle’s speed and
is returned to the receiver unit. Upon calibration, spot speed of the vehicle is obtained.

These meters are widely used by engineers, traffic police and other departments. These have
certain practical limitations. They are:
1. In some situations, there is a possibility of recording wrong input like when a test sample is
obstructed by other vehicles, the triggered radar beam bounds back by hitting the obstacle
but not the test sample.
2. Accurate measurements from radar meter are obtained only when the radar wave is reflected
directly along the axis of the movement. But in some cases, it is practically difficult.
PROCEDURE
1. Select the proper location and placement of radar meter. The radar meter is so kept that the angle
between the direction of travel of the vehicle and the axis of transmission of a radio wave is as
low as possible, within 20○. The instrument is set up near the edge of carriageway about 1m high
above the ground level.
2. After setting up the instrument, the observer records the date, location, weather conditions, time
and direction on spot speed study form.
3. Choosing a particular direction of movement of vehicles, radar speed meter is started by pressing
on-button. Radar speed meter directs radio wave of a certain frequency at the moving vehicle
and speed of the vehicle is proportional to change in frequency of radio wave transmitted and
received.
4. Radar speed meter is pre-calibrated to display vehicle speed in km/hr with an accuracy of at least
1.5 to 3 km/hr.
5. A slash/tally is recorded on the data form corresponding to speed observed for each selected
vehicle under vehicle-type classification.
6. Perform calculations using Table 2.
7. Generate a frequency distribution curve and cumulative frequency distribution curve either
manually or using software such as MS Excel/ Sigma Plot.
8. Compute various statistical metrics like mean, mode, standard deviation, etc. either using
 statistical formulae or using the generated graphs. Also determine the speed percentiles such as
15th, 50th, 85th and 98th percentile speeds.
9. Compute the confidence bounds with 95% and 99.7% confidence respectively and hence
compute the sample size required to achieve a tolerance of “x, km/hr” as an error.
10. Repeat the procedure for vehicles moving in the other direction also.
OBSERVATIONS:

Observation Sheet 2

Spot speed study (using speed/radar gun) data entry form

Date: Day: Weather: Page:

Name of the road:
Name of the observer(s):
Direction From: Towards:
Total number of vehicles observed:
Vehicle Speed Vehicle Speed Vehicle Speed
No. (km/hr) No. (km/hr) No. (km/hr)
 Observation Sheet 3

Spot speed study (using speed/radar gun) data entry form

Date: Day: Weather: Page:

Name of the road:
Name of the observer(s):
Direction From: Towards:
Total number of vehicles observed:
Speed Range Tally Mark Number
Total
(km/hr) Car/Jeep Bus/ Truck Car/Jeep Bus/ Truck

CALCULATIONS
Refer to Table. 2

ANALYSIS OF DATA
Same as in “A”

PRESENTATION of DATA
Same as in “A”. Refer to Fig.2, Fig.3 and Fig.4

RESULT:
Experiment No: 14 Date:

SPEED STUDIES USING MOVING CAR METHOD

OBJECTIVE: To determine fundamental/ macroscopic characteristics i.e. flow, density and speed of a
traffic stream and their interdependencies thereof by Moving Observer Method.
EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES REQUIRED:
1. An observation sheet/ Counting pads
2. A test vehicle (e.g. a car)
3. Stop watches
4. A team of at least 3 to 4 members

NEED FOR THE STUDY:

1. The traffic stream parameters provide information regarding the nature of traffic flow, which
helps the analyst in detecting any variation in flow characteristics.
2. To gather the information such as amount, location, duration, frequency and the causes of the
delay in the traffic stream.
3. To determine the spots of congestion, causes and in arriving at suitable remedial measures.
4. To find the travel time, average journey time, and benefit-cost analysis.
5. To rate the efficiency of a road.

THEORY:
For a complete description of traffic stream modeling, one would require flow, speed, and
density. Fundamental equation of traffic flow is used for this purpose which is as follows:
q =𝑢×k
where q = flow of traffic stream, vehicles/hour

u = speed of traffic stream, km/hr

k = density of traffic stream, vehicles/km
If we know any two parameters, the third can be computed. In field, moving car or moving
observer method of traffic stream measurement has been developed to provide simultaneous measurement
of traffic stream variables. It has the advantage of obtaining the complete state with few observers, and a
vehicle. In this method, the observer moves in the traffic stream unlike other methods.
 𝑙

Fig.1 Illustration of moving observer method

The first parameter i.e. flow or volume of the traffic stream is computed using the
following formula:
𝑛𝑎 − 𝑛𝑦
𝐹𝑙𝑜w 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎi𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠, q =
𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡 𝑦

where q = flow of vehicles in one direction of the stream.

na = average no. of vehicles counted in the direction of the stream when
the test vehicles travels in the opposite direction.
ny = average no. of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle minus the no. of
vehicles overtaken in the direction of flow.
ta = average journey time when the test vehicle is travelling with the stream
flow.
tw = average journey time when the test vehicle is running against the
stream flow.

The second parameter i.e. speed of the traffic stream is computed using the following
formula:
𝑙
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑛𝑦
(𝑡w − q )
Where 𝑙 = length over which the test vehicle is run
Knowing the two parameters, the third parameter of traffic flow i.e. density (k) can be found
out as:
q
𝑘=
𝑣𝑠
To increase the accuracy and reliability, the test is performed a number of times and the
average results are to be taken.
PROCEDURE:
1. A route of travel is selected and a test vehicle is driven along that route at approximately the
average speed of the stream.
2. A group of observers are to be seated in test vehicle to record various observations during each run
of test vehicle.
3. Some initial information is recorded in the observation sheet(s) e.g. day, date, vehicle number,
route, time of start, direction etc. Alternatively, counting pads can be used by the observers.
4. In the first run, the vehicle is moved in the direction of the existing flow of traffic stream. As the
vehicle moves, one of the observers records the time of start and then journey ending time.
5. Second observer records the vehicles that are overtaken by the test vehicle and also the vehicles that
are overtaking the test vehicle.
6. A number of such test runs are performed over the same length of road.
7. Then the test vehicle is moved against the flow of traffic stream. Now, the observer(s) notes the
number of vehicles travelling in opposite direction. In mixed traffic flow, more observers are
required to count the opposing vehicles.
8. A number of test runs are made by test vehicle along the study stretch and same procedure is
followed.
9. The data is tabulated and various calculations are performed using various equations. From two
parameters (i.e. flow and speed) third parameter of traffic stream (i.e. density) is computed.
10. Finally, plot the three different graphs (flow vs speed, flow vs density and speed vs density) using
the data obtained.
OBSERVATIONS:
Observation Sheet 1

Recording of number of vehicles when test vehicle moves in the same direction as
that of traffic stream

Date: Day: Weather: Page:

Name of the road:
Name of the observer(s):
Study length:
Direction From: Towards:
Total number of vehicles observed:
Number of vehicles observed
Test Run No.1 Test Run No.2 Test Run No.3 Test Run No.4
𝑛11 𝑛12 𝑛21 𝑛22 𝑛31 𝑛32 𝑛41 𝑛42

Journey time for Journey time for test Journey time for Journey time for
test run No. 1= run No. 2= test run No. 3= test run No. 4=
ℎ
Note: 𝑛ij = number of vehicles observed for i test run.
𝑡

i = 1,2,3,4 denotes number of test run; j = 1 denotes number of vehicles overtakenby

test vehicle and j = 2 denotes number of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle
 Observation Sheet 2

Recording of number of vehicles when test vehicle moves in the direction opposite
to the traffic stream

Date: Day: Weather: Page:

Name of the road:
Name of the observer(s):
Study length:
Direction From: Towards:
Total number of vehicles observed:
Number of vehicles observed, 𝑛𝑎
Test Run No.1 Test Run No.2 Test Run No.3 Test Run No.4

Journey time for Journey time for test Journey time for Journey time for
test run No. 1= run No. 2= test run No. 3= test run No. 4=
CALCULATIONS:

Table.1 Determination of fundamental/ macro characteristics of traffic stream

𝑙 𝑞
Test 𝑛 𝑎 − 𝑛𝑦 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑘=
𝑛𝑦 = 𝑞= 𝑛𝑦
Run 𝑛𝑎 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑡𝑎 𝑡𝑦 (𝑡w − 𝑞 ) 𝑣𝑠
No. (𝑛1−𝑛2) 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑡 𝑦

1
2
3
4

ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION:

Plot the following three different graphs using the calculated data. These will give the inter-relationships
between various macro parameters of the traffic stream.
 Flow vs Speed
 Flow vs Density
 Speed vs Density
These graphs are analyzed whether they fit into some particular distribution function e.g. parabolic function,
linear function or so. It is recommended to use MS Excel/ Sigma Plot software for data plotting. Some
illustrations from reference example have been shown below:

Fig. 2 Fundamental diagrams of traffic flow showing the inter-

relationships between macro characteristics of traffic stream

RESULT:
Experiment No: 15 Date:

PARKING STUDIES
INTRODUCTION:
Parking Studies are conducted to collect the required information about the capacity and
use of existing parking facilities. These studies may be restricted to a particular attractor such as a
shopping mall or may encompass an entire region such as a Central Business District.

NEED FOR THE STUDY:

1. To determine the demand at an existing or new parking area.
2. To study the existing parking regulations and safety aspects of the parking area.
3. To study the efficiency of parking lots.
THEORY:
Parking Systems
 On-street parking
 Off-street parking

On-street parking: In case of on-street parking, the vehicles are parked on the sides ofthe
street itself.
Ill effects of on-street parking:
1. Loss of street space leading to traffic congestion.

2. Maneuvers associated with parking and un-parking can cause accidents.

3. Parked cars obstruct the movement of fire-fighting vehicles and

greatly impede their operations.

Table 1 Common systems of on-street parking and the spaces available.

Length of parking space available for

S.No. Parking system
parking ‘n’ number of vehicles (m)
1 Parallel parking L = n/5.9
2 30° angle parking L = 0.58 + 5n
3 45° angle parking L = 3.54n + 1.77
4 60° angle parking L = 2.89n+2.16
5 Right angle parking L = 2.5n
 (a) Parallel parking (b) 30○ parking

(c) 45○ parking (d) 90○ parking

Fig.1 Illustrations of various on-street parking systems

Parallel parking consumes the maximum kerb length and right angle parking consumes the
minimum curb length. But parallel parking makes the least use of the width of the street. From the
point of view of maneuverability, angle parking seems to be better than parallel parking which usually
involves a backing motion. As regards safety, it has been noticed that angle parking is more hazardous
than parallel parking. It is recommended that in general, parallel parking should be favored on streets.
On exceptionally wide (wider than 20m) and low volume streets, consideration might be given for
angle parking.

Off-street parking: In the case of off-street parking, the vehicles are parked not on streets but at
places which are meant only for parking.

Fig.2 Illustrations of off-street parking system

 As per IRC, the standard dimensions of a car are taken as 5m x 2.5m and that for a truck as
3.75m x 7.5m.

Parking Statistics
1. Parking accumulation: It is defined as the number of vehicles parked at a given instant of
time. It is expressed by the accumulation curve (graph obtained by plotting the number of bays
occupied with respect to time).

Fig. 3 Parking bays and accumulation curve

2. Parking volume: It is the total number of vehicles parked at a given duration of time. This
does not account for the repetition of vehicles. The actual volume of vehicles entered in the
area is recorded.
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘i𝑛𝑔 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑡
where 𝑛𝑡 = total number of vehicles parked at a location during ′𝑡′ duration of
time
3. Parking load: It is given by the area under the accumulation curve. It can also be obtained by
simply multiplying the number of vehicles occupying the parking area at each time interval
with the time interval. It is expressed as vehicle hours.
𝑡

𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘i𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝑃𝐿 = ∑(𝑛i×𝑡i)

i=0
where 𝑛i = ith number of vehicle parked at a location for ′𝑡i’duration of time
4. Average parking duration: It is the ratio of total vehicle hours to the number of vehicles
parked.
𝑃𝐿
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘i𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡i𝑜𝑛, 𝑃𝐷 =
𝑃𝑉

5. Parking turnover: It is the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a time interval to the number
of parking bays available. This can be expressed as a number of vehicles per bay per time
duration.
 𝑃𝑉
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘i𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑃𝑇 =
𝑁𝑏
where 𝑁𝑏 = number of bays available
6. Parking index or Occupancy or Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of a number of bays occupied
in a time interval to the total space available. It gives an aggregate measure of how effectively
the parking space is utilized.
𝑃𝐿
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘i𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝗑, 𝑃𝐼 = × 100
𝑃𝐶
where 𝑃𝐶 = Parking capacity

Parking Geometrics

C= Curb Length; 𝜃 = Parking angle; W = Stall

width; S = Stall length; A = Aisle;
B = Bay width
Figure 4 General parking stall geometrics

Parking Surveys
Parking surveys are conducted to obtain different parking statistics.

In-out survey: In this survey, the occupancy count in the selected parking lot is taken at the
beginning. Then the number of vehicles that enter the parking lot for a particular time interval is
counted. The number of vehicles that leave the parking lot is also taken. The final occupancy in the
parking lot is also taken. One person is enough to study the parking lot. But parking duration and turn
over are not obtained.

License plate method of survey: In this case of survey, every parking stall is monitored at a
continuous interval of 15 minutes or so and the license plate number is noted down. This will give the
data regarding the duration for which a particular vehicle was using the parking bay. This will help in
calculating the fare based on the duration for which the vehicle was parked. But this method is very
labor intensive.
PARKING STUDY BY IN-OUT SURVEY

OBJECTIVE: To identify various elements that relate to a parking study by examining an existing
parking area using in-out survey.

EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES REQUIRED:

1. Observation sheets
2. A stopwatch
3. Measuring tape/ Electronic Distance Measuring (EDS) Device
4. A marker like chalk, lime(in case the parking bays are not marked)

PROCEDURE:
1. Choose a parking lot whose parking characteristics are to be determined. For good
results, a working day should be selected to carry out the study of the parking lot.

2. Record the date, time and weather conditions and note it down on observation
sheet.

3. The occupancy count in the selected parking lot is taken and reported as the initial
count.

4. Number of vehicles that enter the parking lot for a particular time interval is
counted.

5. The number of vehicles that leave the parking lot is also taken.

6. Data is to be recorded for the whole time of the study (usually one hour). As it is
not a labour intensive work, one observer is sufficient.

7. Tabulate the data and calculate accumulation, total parking load, average
occupancy, and efficiency of the parking lot. Since we don’t collect any data
regarding the time duration, therefore parking duration and turn over cannot be
obtained.

8. Calculate accumulation, total parking load, average occupancy, and efficiency of

the parking lot.
OBSERVATIONS:
Observation Sheet 1

In-Out field survey sheet

Day: Date: Weather: Page:
Name of the observer(s):
Location:
Time Start: Finish:
Initial Count: Total No. of bays:
Time Number of vehicles entering the Number of vehicles leaving the
stall stall
05
10
15
20
25
30
40
45
55
60

CALCULATIONS:
Table 2 Calculation of accumulation, occupancy, and parking load

Day: Date: Weather: Page:

Name of the observer(s):
Location:
Time Start: Finish:
Initial Count: Total No. of bays:
Number of Number of
Parkin
Tim vehicles entering vehicles Accumulation Occupancy
gload
e(1) the stall leavingthe stall (4) (5)
(6)
(2) (3)
05
10
15
20
25
30
40
45
55
60
Total parking load
 Notes: Accumulation can be found out as the initial count plus number of vehicles that entered the
parking lot till that time minus the number of vehicles that just exited for that particular time interval.
Occupancy for that time interval is accumulation in that particular interval divided by total
number of bays.
Parking load is obtained by multiplying accumulation with the time interval i.e. col. (4 )× time
interval

ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION:

This method is quick but not exhaustive. It is usually done to have a gross idea of the parking spaces
available. Sketch out the plan observed for a parking lot. The calculated indices should be compared with the
exhaustive data (if available) and recommendation about the improvements should be given accordingly.

RESULT: