CORUNDUM

Corundum is a mineral species best known for its two popular gemstone varieties, sapphire and ruby.
All colors of corundum except red are known as sapphire. Corundum is a crystalline form of
aluminium oxide (Al2O3) typically containing traces of iron, titanium, vanadium, and chromium. It
crystallises with trigonal symmetry. It displays the following crystal habits steep bipyramidal, tabular,
prismatic, rhombohedral crystals, massive or granular. Polysynthetic twinning is common,displays a
conchoidal to uneven fracture with hardness 9 on the Mohs scale of hardness. Its displays admantine to
vitreous lustre and a colurless streak with a specific gravity of 3.95–4.1. It is transperant to opaque, has a
Refractive Index 1.762-1.770. Green sapphire may be about 0.01 higher.Uniaxial negative.

Pleochroism: Ruby: strong purplish red and orangey red. Blue sapphire: strong violetish blue and
greenish blue.

Common Inclusions in Corundum: Corundum gemstones, such as rubies and sapphires, often contain
various inclusions that contribute to their unique character and beauty. Here are some of the most common
inclusions found in corundum:

 Rutile Needles: Delicate, hair-like inclusions that can create a silky sheen. When densely packed
and properly oriented, they produce a shimmering asterism effect, as seen in star sapphires.
 Fingerprints: Named for their resemblance to human fingerprints, these intricate patterns are often
formed by healed fractures within the crystal, adding a unique texture to the gem.
 Mineral Crystals: Inclusions of other minerals such as spinel, garnet, or zircon, these can
sometimes be visible to the naked eye and may add a subtle sparkle or color variation to the gem.
 Feathers: Fracture patterns that resemble feathers, often white or transparent. These inclusions can
impact the gem's clarity and are usually visible under magnification.
 Needles: Thin, elongated inclusions that can be made of various minerals, Depending on their
orientation and density, needles can either enhance or detract from the gemstone's appearance.
 Crystal Clusters: Groups of tiny crystals trapped within the corundum during its formation. These
clusters can create interesting visual effects and may affect the stone's transparency

Corundum is scattered across the globe, with each location contributing unique characteristics to the
gemstones it yields. Sri Lanka, renowned for its "Ceylon Sapphires," boasts a rich history of
producing exquisite blue and yellow sapphires. Myanmar, formerly Burma, is legendary for its
Pigeon's Blood rubies, celebrated for their exceptional colour and clarity. Thailand, particularly the
Chanthaburi and Trat areas, is recognised for its significant sapphire production, often yielding gems
in a range of blue and yellow hues. Madagascar has emerged as a major player in the corundum
market, offering a diverse array of sapphires, including blues, pinks, yellows, and colour-change
varieties. Other notable sources of corundum include Kashmir, known for its velvety blue sapphires,
and Tanzania, which produces an array of sapphires and rubies.

Synthetic vs Natural Corundum

A most common feature of the flame fusion grown Sapphires or Rubies is curved colour zoning. That
is a concentration of colour visible as curved lines under magnification. A natural counterpart will
have either straight or angular zoning instead. This feature is the easiest way to distinguish between
the synthetic and natural sapphire. Occasionally Synthetic Corundum can have angular zoning, but
that is very rare. It is always important to find more than one inclusion to help us determine the nature
of the material. Common inclusions in synthetic Corundum are gas bubbles, angular veil-like feathers,
and less often metallic inclusions. In Natural Corundum we often see crystals, needles, ‗Silk‘, and
fingerprint inclusions.. The Verneuil process always produces curved growth lines, which are visible
under magnification and with the correct illumination. No natural mineral ever displays such curved
lines, called striae, and their presence is a guarantee of synthetic origin. Another characteristic of
synthetics and glass is the presence of perfectly round bubbles, sometimes with a small tail, like a
tadpole. Flux-grown rubies may show characteristic inclusions of the flux.

BERYL

Beryl is a single mineral with many varieties that are distinguished by their color. Well-known
varieties of beryl include emerald and aquamarine. Beryl chemical formula is Be₃Al₂Si₆O₁₈. There are
six well known types of beryl. Each type is known because of its distinctive color. The six different
types of beryl include aquamarine, bixbite, emerald, goshenite, heliodor, and morganite. Of all of the
varieties, emerald and aquamarine are the most sought after for their great beauty as gemstones
(Beryl). Beryl belongs to the hexagonal crystal system. Normally beryl forms hexagonal columns but
can also occur in massive habits. Twinning is rare and cleavage is imperfect. It has a conchoidal to
uneven fracture and a hardness of 7.5 to 8 on the Mohs scale of hardness. It has a white streak and
vitreous to resinous lustre, with specific gravity ranging from 2.63 to 2.92. It is transparent to
translucent with refractive index usually ranging from 1.577-1.583 and is uniaxially negative

Pleochroism Emerald: strong green and blue-green. Aquamarine (blue): weak to distinct blue and
light blue. Aquamarine (greenish blue): weak to distinct blue and blue-green. Golden: weak greenish
yellow and yellow. Brown: weak brownish yellow and greenish yellow. Morganite: distinct light red
and light violet.

Beryl is a versatile mineral that comes in several varieties, each known for its distinct color and
unique characteristics. Here are some of the most well-known beryl varieties based on color:

1. Emerald:

Color: Emerald is renowned for its deep green color, which is caused by trace amounts of chromium
and/or vanadium in the crystal structure.

Distinctive Features: Emeralds often exhibit a rich green hue that is highly prized in the world of
gemstones. Their color can range from bluish-green to yellowish-green. Inclusions are common in
emeralds and are sometimes referred to as ―jardin‖ (French for garden), adding to their character.

2. Aquamarine:

Color: Aquamarine is characterized by its pale blue to blue-green color, reminiscent of the clear
waters of the sea.

Distinctive Features: The light blue or cyan hue of aquamarine is highly desirable. Some aquamarines
may display a bluish-green color, and they often have a transparent appearance. Like other beryl
varieties, they can contain inclusions, but these are usually less pronounced than those in emeralds.

3. Morganite:

Color: Morganite is known for its delicate pink to peachy-pink color, caused by traces of manganese.
Distinctive Features: Morganite‘s soft pastel hues make it a popular choice in jewelry. Its color range
can vary from light pink to deeper peach tones. The clarity and transparency of morganite are valued,
and the gemstone is often cut into elegant and stylish faceted shapes.

4. Heliodor:

Color: Heliodor comes in shades of yellow to yellow-green.

Distinctive Features: The name ―heliodor‖ is derived from the Greek words for ―sun‖ and ―gift,‖
referencing its sun-like color. The gemstone can range from pale yellow to vibrant yellow-green.
Heliodor‘s bright color and relatively good clarity make it a striking choice for jewelry.

5. Goshenite:

Color: Goshenite is the colorless variety of beryl, often used as a base for various treatments and as
a diamond substitute.

Distinctive Features: Goshenite‘s lack of color allows it to showcase the brilliance and sparkle of the
gem‘s natural transparency. It‘s sometimes used as a less expensive alternative to diamonds and as a
neutral backdrop for other colored gemstones.

6. Red Beryl (Bixbite):

Color: Red beryl is one of the rarest and most valuable beryl varieties, displaying vivid shades of red
due to traces of manganese.

Distinctive Features: Red beryl‘s intense red color and scarcity make it highly sought after by
collectors and gem enthusiasts. It‘s considered one of the rarest gemstones in the world.

Beryl is a common mineral, and it is widely distributed in nature. It is found most commonly in
granitic pegmatites. In granitic pegmatites, beryl is found in association with quartz, potassium
feldspar, albite, muscovite, biotite, and tourmaline. Beryl is sometimes found in metasomatic contacts
of igneous intrusions with gneiss, schist, or carbonate rocks. Common beryl, mined as beryllium ore,
is found in small deposits in many countries, but the main producers are Russia, Brazil, and the
United States.

GARNET

Garnets are nesosilicates having the general formula X3Y2(SiO4)3. The X site is usually
occupied by divalent cations (Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn)2+ and the Y site by trivalent cations (Al, Fe,
Cr)3+ in an octahedral/tetrahedral framework with [SiO4]4− occupying the tetrahedra.

Garnets are classified into two main groups based on their chemical composition. Whether
the Y or the X component in the chemical composition of the species is constant, we can
divide the members of the garnet family into two groups:

 PyrAlSpites Aluminum Garnets (Pyrope, Almandine, Spessartite) Aluminium

in Y site
 UGrAndites Calcium Garnets (Uvarovite, Grossular, Andradite) Calcium in X site
They crystallize in the cubic system, having three axes that are all of equal length and perpendicular
to each other. It has a Rhombic dodecahedron or cubic habit, cleavage is indistinct and displays
conchoidal to uneven fracture. It is vitreous to resinous lustre, has a white streak, hardness of 6.5 to
7.5 on the Mohs Scale of hardness and specific gravity of 3.1 to 4.3. It is singly refractive and has a
refractive index of 1.72-1.94.

Pyralspite garnets – aluminium in Y site

 Almandine: Fe3Al2(SiO4)3

 Pyrope: Mg3Al2(SiO4)3

 Spessartine: Mn3Al2(SiO4)3

Almandine, sometimes incorrectly called almandite, is the modern gem known as. Chemically,
almandine is an iron-aluminium garnet with the formula Fe3Al2(SiO4)3; the deep red transparent
stones are often called precious garnet and are used as gemstones (being the most common of the gem
garnets).Almandine occurs in metamorphic rocks like mica schists, associated with minerals such as
staurolite, kyanite, andalusite, and others

Pyrope (from the Greek pyrōpós meaning "firelike" is red in color and chemically an aluminium
silicate with the formula Mg3Al2(SiO4)3, though the magnesium can be replaced in part by calcium
and ferrous iron. The color of pyrope varies from deep red to black.

Spessartine or spessartite is manganese aluminium garnet, Mn3Al2(SiO4)3. Its name is derived from
Spessart in Bavaria. It occurs most often in skarns, granite pegmatite and allied rock types, and in
certain low grade metamorphic phyllites.

Ugrandite group – calcium in X sit

 Andradite: Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3
 Grossular: Ca3Al2(SiO4)3
 Uvarovite: Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3

Andradite is a calcium-iron garnet, Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3, is of variable composition and may be red,

yellow, brown, green or black.The recognized varieties are demantoid (green), melanite
(black) and topazolite (yellow or green). Demantoid is one of the most prized of garnet
varieties.
Grossular is a calcium-aluminium garnet with the formula Ca3Al2(SiO4)3, though the calcium may in
part be replaced by ferrous iron and the aluminium by ferric iron. Grossular garnet from Kenya and
Tanzania has been called tsavorite. Tsavorite was first described in the 1960s in the Tsavo area of
Kenya, from which the gem takes its name.Uvarovite is a calcium chromium garnet with the formula
Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3. This is a rather rare garnet, bright green in color, usually found as small crystals
associated with chromite in peridotite, serpentinite, and kimberlites.
FELDSPAR

The feldspars are complex aluminosilicate minerals containing K, Na, and Ca, with some rarer types
rich in Ba. The feldspars group members are all closely allied in form and habit due to a similar
structure. The feldspar group is divided into two distinct varieties:

(1) the orthoclase or alkali which is rich in potassium and sodium (alkali elements), moonstone,
orthoclase, and amazonite are the main members of this group;

(2) the plagioclase feldspars (also known as soda-lime feldspars) that constitute an isomorphous series
between albite, the sodium aluminium silicate, NaAlSi3O8, and anorthite, the calcium aluminium
silicate, CaAl2Si2O8. Labradorite and aventurine are the main members of this group.

Feldspars crystallise either in the triclinic or monoclinic system, it displays either two or three sets of
cleavage, has a vitreous lustre and a white streak. It has a hardness of 6.0 to 6.5, specific gravity
around 2.55-2.76 and refractive index of 1.518–1.526

Moonstone is the opalescent variety of orthoclase, with a blue or white sheen like the glow of the
moon. Moonstone is composed of two feldspar species, orthoclase and albite; the two species are
intermingled. Essentially, as the newly formed mineral cools, the intergrowth of orthoclase and albite
separate into stacked, alternating layers creating an inner luster that make the stones seem to carry
their own light source within. Light falling between these thin, flat layers scatters in many directions
creating a billowy, floating blue to white scintillation. There are two main varieties of moonstone, 1 )
Adularia which is the common type of moonstone and usually come from Burma and Ceylon. This
variety displays a white to blue sheen and the body colors naybe white, blue, or reddish brown and 2)
albite which is sodium-rich variety of the moonstone.

Orthoclase is from Greek words meaning "break straight" because the cleavages are at 90 degrees. Its
color ranges from colorless, white, gray, yellow, reddish and greenish. Orthoclase can have catseye
effect. Yellow and colorless catseye gemstones are known from Burma and Ceylon. Some of these
(Ceylon) are also asteriated. Yellow faceted Orthoclase is a attractive and beautiful gemstone.
Unfortunately, the cleavage makes it less advantageous for wear.

Amazonite, or Amazon Stone:This type is a light green to light bluish-green variety of microcline
feldspar. It owes its use as a gemstone to the attractiveness of its color and its resemblance to jadeite;
in fact, it has been called "Colorado jade" and "Pikes Peak jade", incorrectly. The appearance of
amazonite is distinctive, in that it has grid like mottled green and white patterns and a faint sheen.

Labradorite belongs to plagioclase feldspars family. It is noted for its beautiful play of color which
flashes out over large areas of the grey-colored mineral. Yellows, gold,reds, and purple are some of
the other colors shown by specimens of labradorite. Interference of light from the fine lamellae of the
repeated twinning produces the brilliant colors of labradorite. It also shows a metallic rainbow effect
similar to that of opal, this effect is called labradorescence.

Localities: Sri Lanka, India and Myanmar(Burma) are the major sources of moonstones. Canada,
Mexico, Madagascar and the United States are major sources of transparent orthoclase. Amazonite is
found in the Unites States, mainly in Colorado, but also in Madagascar, Myanmar (Burma), Brazil,
Germany and Russia.
TOURMALINE

Tourmaline is a vast and complex mineral group that has many species, including the following with
relevant gem varieties: dravite, uvite, rossmanite, schorl, tsilaisite, elbaite and fluor-liddicoatite.
Tourmaline crystallizes in the trigonal crystal system, mostly as trigonal, prismatic crystals.
Tourmalines are extremely complicated borosilicates, and the formula for many of the mineral
varieties varies considerably. Although it is generally considered a species, there are three major
mineralogical types: the alkali, the iron, and the magnesium tourmalines, all of which are complex
silicates of boron and aluminum. The differences that distinguish one type from another depend on the
additional metallic ions present. The alkali tourmalines, which are of greatest interest geologically,
may contain sodium, lithium and/or potassium; these are usually found in pegmatite dikes. Iron
tourmalines are black, and the magnesium type is usually yellow or brown, but it may also be black.

It crystallises in the Hexagonal system, Crystal Habit is prismatic, the two ends of which are different
in character. Striations parallel to the prism faces of the crystals are common. A cross section is
roughly triangular in outline, and is often green on the outside and red or yellow on the inside , or red
on one end and green on the other. It has Hardness of 7 to 7.5on the Mohs scale of hardness and has a
white streak .Cleavage is absent, fracture is Conchoidal and specific Gravity varies from 3.01 to 3.20.

Its is transparent to translucent , has a vitreous lustre and aRefractive Index of 1.624-1.644 It is
Uniaxial negative displays strong Pleochroism

Red and pink: red and yellowish red.

Green: blue-green and yellow green to dark brown-green. Blue lighter and darker blue.

Yellowish green: blue-green and yellow-green to brown-green: blue green and yellow green to
brown-green.

Alexandrite: brownish red and yellowish green.

Characteristic Inclusions: Both red and green tourmaline frequently contain irregular thread like liquid
and gas inclusions. Green tourmaline, especially, may contain dense masses of straight, parallel fibers
or hollow tubes that produce a chatoyant effect on cabochon stones. Red material also often contains
what appear to be gas filled fractures parallel to the principal axis.

Brazil remains the world‘s largest producer of tourmaline in all colours. The States of Paraíba and Rio
Grande do Norte have produced Brazil‘s most coveted cuprian (copper bearing) tourmaline.
Afghanistan is known for a very bright blue green quality of tourmaline, though it also produces some
green and pink material. Myanmar (Burma), India, Kenya, Mozambique, Pakistan, Nigeria, Sri Lanka,
Russia, Tanzania all produce significant quantities of material in various colours. The United States –
California and Maine, and particularly the Pala district in Southern California, is known for producing
rich pink tourmaline and rubellite. Madagascar primarily produces rubellite and liddicoatite
tourmaline. Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe are also sources.
TOPAZ

Topaz is a mineral species that crystallises in the orthorhombic crystal system. Its chemical
composition is Al2(F,OH)2SiO it ranges from Colourless, yellow, orange, brown, pink to red to
purple red, light blue to dark blue and light green in colour. It has a hardness of 8 on the Mohs Scale
of hardness Highly perfect parallel cleavage to the base of the crystal. Fracture is Conchoidal and
Specific Gravity varies from 3.49 to 3.57. It has a White streak and Characteristic Inclusions include
Cavities containing two non miscible liquids and a gas bubble. Topaz's crystal habit takes many
forms. It can display a range of slender and long crystals to bulky and short.

It is Transparent has a vitreous lustre and a Refractive Index ranging from 1.609 - 1.637.It is Biaxial
positive and displays weak Pleochroism .

Unlike many of the other gemstones, there are no distinct well known variety terms applied to the
various colors of topaz, even though it is available in a broad range of colors.

The most popular gem varieties of topaz for jewellery making are the yellow colored stones which are
often referred to as golden topaz or as precious topaz and the deep orangy yellow gem, which is
sometimes called imperial topaz. The rose-pink variety is produced by the heating of yellow imperial,
popularly known as burnt topaz (natural red and pink stones are very rare). The colorless stone is also
used and cut so as to resemble the diamond and is sometimes referred to as slave's diamond.

Topaz is found in placer deposits, pegmatites, and volcanic rocks. Many of the topazes used in
jewelry of modern times have come from Brazil. Brazil is one of the largest producers of topaz,[40]
some clear topaz crystals from Brazilian pegmatites can reach boulder size and weigh hundreds of
pounds.The principal locality is near Ouro Preto in the south of Minas Gerais, where crystals of every
shades of yellow from very pale to deep-wine tint have been found. Gem quality topaz also can be
found in Mexico, USA (color less and blue topazes come from California, Utah, and Colorado), Sri
Lanka, Russia, Japan (mostly colorless topaz) and Zaire. Pakistan produces some of the strongest pink
to reddish colours at Katlang, near Peshawar. Topaz is also found at sources all around the world,
such as Nigeria, Australia, Myanmar (Burma), Madagascar, Mexico, Namibia, Sri Lanka, Ukraine and
the United States and Russia.

SPINEL

Spinel is a mineral species, member of the spinel group, whose varieties are primarily distinguished
by their colour. It forms in the cubic crystal system, and its basic chemical composition is: MgAl 204.

Colours: red, pink, orange, blue, violet, purple and grey are the most common colours. Other colours
include brown and black, and rarely, yellow, green and near colourless. Colour-change spinel changes
from greyish blue in daylight to purple in incandescent light. Vivid cobalt-blue spinel is coloured by
cobalt. Spinels are allochromatic gemstones. This means that color in spinels comes from the presence
of trace elements acting as chromophores. Spinels free of trace elements appear colorless. Chromium,
iron, and cobalt are the most common chromophores in spinel.

The common crystal forms are octahedra, usually twinned. It has no true cleavage, but shows an
octahedral parting and a conchoidal fracture.Its hardness is 8, its specific gravity is 3.5–4.1, and it is
transparent to opaque with a vitreous to dull lustre. Crystal habit is Octahedral or flat triangular plates
caused by twinning, cleavage is absent, it displays conchoidal fracture, has a hardness of 7.5 to 8.0 on the
Mohs scale of hardness, displays a vitreous lustre and has a white streak. Specific gravity ranges from 3.58
to 3.61.Pleochroism is absent and it has refractive index around 1.719

Minute fingerprint inclusions may be seen in spinel. With sufficient magnification, tiny octahedral
crystals or negative crystals may be seen. These octahedral crystals, if large enough, may be
accompanied by strain halos.

Spinel has long been found in the gemstone-bearing gravel of Sri Lanka and in limestones of the
Badakshan Province in modern-day Afghanistan and Tajikistan; and of Mogok in Myanmar.

Spinel is found as a metamorphic mineral in metamorphosed limestones and silica-poor mudstones.[9]

It also occurs as a primary mineral in rare mafic igneous rocks, Spinel, (Mg,Fe)(Al,Cr)2O4, is common
in peridotite in the uppermost Earth's mantle.

CHRYSOBERYL

The mineral or gemstone chrysoberyl is an aluminate of beryllium with the formula BeAl2O4 .It
crystallises in the Orthorhobic system. An interesting feature of its crystals is the cyclic twins called
trillings. These twinned crystals have a hexagonal appearance, but are the result of a triplet of twins
with each "twin" oriented at 120° to its neighbors and taking up 120° of the cyclic trilling. If only two
of the three possible twin orientations are present, a V-shaped twin results.

Ordinary chrysoberyl is yellowish-green and transparent to translucent. When the mineral exhibits
good pale green to yellow color and is transparent, then it is used as a gemstone. The three main
varieties of chrysoberyl are: ordinary yellow-to-green chrysoberyl, cat's eye or cymophane, and
alexandrite. It has a hardness of 8 ½,cleavage is indistinct displays a conchoidal fracture has a specific
Gravity 3.71 to 3.75; normal 3.73 and a white streak. It is transparent to translucent has a vitreous to
sub-adamantine lustre while fracture surfaces are vitreous to greasy. The refractive index ranges from
1.746-1.755. It is Biaxially positive and strongly pleochroic.

Alexandrite, a strongly pleochroic (trichroic) gem, will exhibit emerald green, red and orange-yellow
colors depending on viewing direction in partially polarised light. However, its most distinctive
property is that it also changes color in artificial (tungsten/halogen) light compared to daylight. The
color change from red to green is due to strong absorption of light in a narrow yellow portion of the
spectrum, while allowing large bands of more blue-green and red wavelengths to be transmitted.
Which of these prevails to give the perceived hue depends on the spectral balance of the illumination.
Fine-quality alexandrite has a green to bluish-green color in daylight (relatively blue illumination of
high color temperature), changing to a red to purplish-red color in incandescent light (relatively
yellow illumination).[8] However, fine-color material is extremely rare. Less-desirable stones may
have daylight colors of yellowish-green and incandescent colors of brownish red.[8]

Cymophane is popularly known as "cat's eye". This variety exhibits pleasing chatoyancy or
opalescence that reminds one of the eye of a cat. When cut to produce a cabochon, the mineral forms
a light-green specimen with a silky band of light extending across the surface of the stone.

Inclusions: Chrysoberyl has no inclusions that can be regarded as characteristic of a significant

proportion of specimens. Finger print inclusions, similar to those in corundum, are not uncommon.
Silk like inclusions (negative crystals or rutile crystals), which cause the chatoyant band in cat's-eye,
are also frequently encountered; however, they occur in a single direction, rather than in three sets of
parallel needles, as in corundum, and are usually exceedingly fine. Yellow transparent stones only
frequently show step like glide planes or twinning lines.

Chrysoberyl is another of the numerous minerals that, in gem quality, is usually formed in pegmatite
dikes; however, it is also formed in gneiss, mica-schist and granite. Associated with chrysoberyl in
pegmatite dikes are such minerals as beryl, tourmaline and apatite, as well as the usual pegmatite
assemblage of minerals. In gneiss or schist, it may be found with sillimanite, garnet or beryl.
Significant sources include Brazil, Sri Lanka, Russia, Madagascar, India, and other locations.

DIAMONDS:

Diamonds are crystalline forms of carbon known for their unparalleled hardness, brilliant luster, and
extraordinary optical properties. Formed under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions deep
within the Earth‘s mantle, diamonds are composed primarily of carbon atoms arranged in a crystal
lattice structure. This unique arrangement contributes to their exceptional physical and chemical
properties, making them highly valued as gemstones and industrial materials. Diamonds form deep
within the Earth‘s mantle, approximately 140 to 190 kilometers below the surface, where
temperatures range from 900 to 1300 degrees Celsius and pressures reach between 45 and 60 kilobars.
Carbon-containing minerals undergo transformation under these extreme conditions, resulting in the
formation of diamonds. Over millions of years, volcanic activity brings these diamonds closer to the
Earth‘s surface through kimberlite and lamproite pipes. These geological formations are subsequently
mined to extract diamonds, which are then processed and cut for use in jewelry and industrial
applications. The 4Cs, are the globally accepted standard for assessing the quality of a diamond —
color, clarity, cut and carat weight.

Physical Properties of Diamond

Colorless, pale yellow to deep yellow, brown, white, blue-white; less commonly in
Color
oranges, pinks, greens, blues, reds, gray to black.

Streak Colorless

Luster Adamantine to greasy

Transparency Transparent, Translucent, Opaque

Cleavage 111 perfect in four directions

Diaphaneity Transparent to subtransparent to translucent

Mohs Hardness 10
Specific Gravity 3.52±0.01

Diagnostic
Hardness, heat conductivity, crystal form, index of refraction, dispersion.
Properties

Crystal System Isometric

Tenacity Brittle

Fracture Irregular/Uneven

Density 3.5 – 3.53 g/cm3

Optical Properties of Diamond

Diamond possesses a number of unique optical properties that make it one of the most prized
gemstones in the world. Some of these properties include:

Brilliance: Diamond has a high refractive index, which means that it bends and slows down light more
than most other materials. This property gives diamond its characteristic sparkle and brilliance, which
is highly prized in jewelry.

Dispersion: Diamond also has a high dispersion, which means that it breaks up white light into its
constituent colors, creating a rainbow-like effect known as fire.

Transparency: Diamond is transparent to visible light, which means that it allows light to pass through
it without scattering or absorbing it. This property is highly valued in gemstones and is one of the
reasons why diamond is such a popular choice for jewelry.

Lustre: Diamond has a high lustre, which means that it reflects light in a highly polished and glossy
manner. This property gives diamond its smooth, glassy appearance and makes it highly prized in
jewelry and other decorative applications.

Birefringence: Diamond is birefringent, which means that it has different refractive indices in
different directions. This property can be used to create optical effects such as doubling or splitting of
images.

Distribution:

Diamonds are found in many parts of the world, but the distribution of diamond deposits is highly
uneven. The majority of diamonds are produced in just a few countries, including:

Russia: Russia is the world‘s largest producer of diamonds, with most of its production coming from
the Yakutia region in northeastern Siberia.

Botswana: Botswana is the world‘s second-largest producer of diamonds, with most of its production
coming from the Orapa and Jwaneng mines.

Canada: Canada is a significant producer of diamonds, with its main mines located in the Northwest
Territories and Ontario.
Australia: Australia is a major producer of diamonds, with its main mines located in Western
Australia and the Northern Territory.

Democratic Republic of Congo: The DRC is a significant producer of diamonds, with most of its
production coming from the Kasai and Kasaï-Oriental provinces.

Other countries that produce smaller amounts of diamonds include Angola, South Africa, Namibia,
Brazil, and India.

Diamonds were reported from numerous places across India, but most of the diamond mining took
place by placer mining in the drainages of the Pannar River and Krishna River in modern Andhra
Pradesh state. Placer mining took place along the Krishna River for 300 km below Sangram.

PERIDOT

Peridot is an olivine, a solid solution between the minerals forsterite and fayalite that crystallizes in
the orthorhombic system and has the following chemical composition: (Mg,Fe)2SiO4. Peridot‘s
signature green color comes from the composition of the mineral itself—rather than from trace
impurities, as with many gemstones. That‘s why this is one of few gemstones that only comes in one
color, though shades may vary from yellowish-green to olive to brownish-green, depending on how
much iron is present. Twinning is uncommon, has a poor cleavage, displays a conchoidal fracture and
hardness of 6.5 to 7. It displays a vitreous lustre, has a colourless streak and specific gravity of 3.2 to
4.3. Refractive index varies from 1.64 to 1.70 and displays weak pleochroism.

The two old terms frequently applied to peridot (i.e., olivine and chrysolite) outline its color range
fairly well, for chrysolite means "golden yellow" and olivine has reference to its olive-green color.
Actually, transparent peridot varies in color from a light greenish yellow through medium olive green
to a rather dark brownish green, although there has been some tendency to categorize trade grades as
follows:

Peridot: This term is applied to the top grades of this gemstone. It is a medium to dark, slightly
yellowish green, which to many gives the impression of a swarm, velvety color. It is never as intense
in color as the most expensive grades of emerald or demantoid garnet, but to those who appreciate
peridot, this is an important facet of its beauty.

Chrysolite: The color range of this type is light yellow-green to greenish yellow.

Olivine:The term olivine refers to dark yellow-green to brownish green to almost brown stones.

Internal identifying characteristics: Inclusions of biotite mica, chromite and biotite in the gem often
cause internal stresses to occur. In turn, these stresses cause liquid filled discoid fractures known as
lily pad inclusions.

Localities Egypt (St John‘s Island) is the classic source, though it is no longer a commercial producer
of the gem. Myanmar (Burma) is considered a classic source too, if only because it has consistently
produced large, clean peridots, which have become a global gauge to measure this gemstone‘s beauty.
In recent years, Pakistan has also become a producer of very fine material. The United States
consistently mines for the gem in Arizona, though they are generally smaller and sometimes slightly
brownish in colour. Australia, Brazil, China, Kenya, Ethiopia, Norway, Sri Lanka, Finland, Tanzania,
Vietnam, and the Antarctic have also produced it, though not in significant commercial quantities.

Peridot can be found in mafic and ultramafic rocks occurring in lava and peridotite xenoliths of the
mantle. The gem occurs in silica-deficient rocks such as volcanic basalt and pallasitic meteorites.

KYANITE

Kyanite is a typically blue aluminosilicate mineral, found in aluminium-rich metamorphic pegmatites

and sedimentary rock. It is the high pressure polymorph of andalusite and sillimanite. Kyanite is an
aluminum silicate mineral, with the chemical formula Al2SiO5. It is typically patchy blue in color,
though it can range from pale to deep blue and can also be gray or white or, infrequently, light green.
It typically forms sprays of bladed crystals. Kyanite is a naturally abundant mineral that belongs to the
silicate mineral family. The allochromatic (externally coloured) gemstone is colourless in its pure
form, only through trace elements does it usually get its light to dark blue colour. Depending on the
type and amount of foreign admixtures, the colour of the kyanite varies between blue-violet, green-
blue, green, brown-white, white or grey.

The raw material of kyanite forms in aluminum-rich sediments, which were exposed to medium to
high temperatures and pressure. The most famous mining area for kyanite is the Kali Gandaki region,
which is located in the border region of Nepal and Tibet. The deposit was discovered in 1995. Other
sites are in Brazil, Kenya, Myanmar, Austria, Switzerland, Zimbabwe and the USA.

Kyanite has been used as a semiprecious gemstone, which may display cat's eye chatoyancy, though
this effect is limited by its anisotropism and perfect cleavage. Color varieties include orange kyanite
from Tanzania. The orange color is due to inclusions of small amounts of manganese (Mn3+) in the
structure.

SPHENE

Titanite, or sphene is a calcium titanium nesosilicate mineral, CaTiSiO5. Trace impurities of iron and
aluminium are typically present. Also commonly present are rare earth metals including cerium and
yttrium; calcium may be partly replaced by thorium. Titanite, which is named for its titanium content,
occurs as translucent to transparent, reddish brown, gray, yellow, green, or red monoclinic crystals.
These crystals are typically sphenoid in habit and are often twinned. Possessing a subadamantine
tending to slightly resinous luster, titanite has a hardness of 5.5 and a weak cleavage. Its specific
gravity varies between 3.52 and 3.54. Titanite's refractive index is 1.885–1.990 to 1.915–2.050 with a
strong birefringence of 0.105 to 0.135 (biaxial positive). Transparent specimens are noted for their
strong trichroism, the three colours presented being dependent on body colour. Owing to
the quenching effect of iron, sphene exhibits no fluorescence under ultraviolet light.

Sources of sphene include the Tyrol and Salzberg areas in Austria; the St. Gothard district in
Switzerland; France; Madagascar; Russia; Pennsylvania, Maine, Canada and, recently, the Baja
California area of Mexico. The latter deposit illustrates the nature of many of the gem producing
primary deposits of the world. In the late 1940's, a number of large, transparent stones were found by
a Mexican prospector.
IOLITE

Iolite gemstone is the gem-quality variety of the mineral cordierite. Iolite is a hydrous silicate of
aluminum and magnesium, corresponding to the formula Mg2Al4Si5O18, and it occurs in short,
prismatic, orthorhombic crystals. Its hardness is 7 to 7 1/2, its toughness ii only fair (due to distinct
cleavage), and its fracture is uneven to sub conchoidal. The value for specific gravity is 2.56 to 2.66,
and the R.I. is usually 1.542 - 1.551; however, it has been reported as low as 1.534 - 1.540 and as high
as 1.592 - 1.597. In the laboratories, no reading above 1.555 nor below 1.540 has been encountered.
Birefringence is approximately .008. There are no characteristic inclusions. Iolite is biaxial negative,
with the intermediate index .001 to .003 from the high figure, and its luster is vitreous. Although the
dispersion is feeble, the pleochroism is strong; light violet, dark violet and yellow-brown for the violet
variety, and colorless to yellow, blue-gray and dark violet for the blue type.

Germany was the first location where iolite was found, and the nation still has iolite mines. However,
most iolite production today occurs in India, followed closely by Brazil, Sri Lanka, and Tanzania.

APATITE

Apatite is a phosphate calcium with fluorine and chlorine, expressed by the formula
Ca5(F,Cl,OH)(PO4)3. It is colorless when pure. It occurs in a low symmetry class of the hexagonal
system, and the crystals are usually either prismatic or tabular in character. The hardness is 5, the
toughness is poor, and the cleavage is imperfect. It has an uneven fracture, a normal S.G. range of
3.16 to 3.20 (usually nearer the lower figure), and a white streak. There are no characteristic
inclusions. The luster of apatite is vitreous and the R.I. is variable, with the low index ranging from
1.630 to 1.645 and the high index varying from 1.632 to 1.651. The usual R.I. is approximately 1.642
- 1.646, with the birefringence varying from .002 to .006 (usually .002 to .004). The optic character is
uniaxial negative. Blue material shows fairly strong yellow and blue dichroism, but the other colors
are weak in this property.

Apatite is infrequently used as a gemstone. Transparent stones of clean color have been faceted, and
chatoyant specimens have been cabochon-cut. Chatoyant stones are known as cat's-eye apatite,
transparent green stones are known as asparagus stone, and blue stones have been called moroxite. If
crystals of rutile have grown in the crystal of apatite, in the right light the cut stone displays a cat's-
eye effect. Major sources for gem apatite are Brazil, Myanmar, and Mexico. Other sources
includeCanada, Czech Republic, Germany, India, Madagascar, Mozambique, Norway, South Africa,
Spain, Sri Lanka, and the United States.

CRYPTO CRYSTALLINE QUARTZ

The cryptocrystalline varieties of quartz may be divided into two general classes; namely, fibrous and
granular, which, in most cases, are impossible to tell apart without microscopic aid.

Fibrous Varieties

Chalcedony is the general name applied to fibrous varieties. It is more specifically thought of as a
brown, translucent variety, with a waxy luster, often mammillary and in other imitative shapes.
Chalcedony has been deposited from aqueous solutions and is frequently found lining or filling
cavities in rocks. Color and banding give rise to the following varieties:

1. Carnelian. A red chalcedony.

2. Chrysoprase. An apple-green chalcedony.
3. Heliotrope or bloodstone. A green chalcedony with small red spots in it.
4. Agate. A variegated variety with alternating layers of chalcedony and opal, or granular
cryptocrystalline quartz. The different colors are usually in delicate, fine parallel bands
which are commonly curved, in some specimens concentric (Plate XIV). Most agate used
for commercial purposes is colored by artificial means. Some agates have the different
colors not arranged in bands but irregularly distributed. Moss agate is a variety in which
the variation in color is due to visible impurities, often manganese oxide in moss-like
patterns. Wood that has been petrified by replacement by clouded agate is known as
silicified or agatized wood.
5. Onyx. Like agate, is a layered chalcedony and opal, with layers arranged in parallel
planes.

Granular Varieties

1. Flint. Something like chalcedony in appearance, but dull, often dark, in color. It usually
occurs in nodules in chalk and breaks with a prominent conchoidal fracture, giving sharp
edges. Used for various implements by early man.
2. Chert. A compact massive rock similar in most properties to flint, but usually light in
color.
3. Jasper. A granular cryptocrystalline quartz, usually colored red from hematite inclusions.
4. Prase. Dull green in color; otherwise similar to jasper, and occurs with it.

OPAQUE GEM VARIETIES

Opaque gemstones include Lapiz Lazulli, Coral, Turquoise and Onyx.

Lapis Lazuli is a mineral with a hardness of 6 out of 10 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness [?].
These Variously structured gems are made of a variation materials, their full chemical compound
being (Na,Ca)8(Al,Si)12O24(SO4)Cl2(OH)2.
Lapis lazuli is composed of several minerals in small quantities - augite, calcite, diopside, mica,
hauynite, hornblende, pyrite. Because of this some experts consider it a rock, more than a mineral.
The main ingredient of Lapis lazuli is Lazurite. It is a strong but lively blue, sometimes with a hint of
violet. The particular, very attractive color and speckling with minute crystals of pyrite give lapis
lazuli an unmistakable appearance.

Turquoise is an opaque, blue-to-green mineral that is a hydrous phosphate of copper and aluminium,
with the chemical formula CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O. Turquoise is a hydrated phosphate of copper and
aluminum in the Phosphates, Arsenates, Vanadates group, with a triclinic crystal system.It rarely
occurs as prismatic crystals. It is usually found as light-blue or green masses, nodules, and veins,
sometimes filling cavities in various rocks. When it occurs as thin strips, it is tighter and brightly-
colored at the center, lighter and porous on the outside.
It is light, very fragile, with good cleavage that is parallel to its prism faces, and fracture that is
smoothly-curved, like that of a shell. When polished, untreated turquoise may be a strong blue color,
but is more often pale sky blue, greenish blue or pale green.

Precious coral, or red coral, is the common name given to a genus of marine corals, Corallium. The
distinguishing characteristic of precious corals is their durable and intensely colored red or pink-
orange skeleton, which is used for making jewelry. The hard skeleton of red coral branches is
naturally matte, but can be polished to a glassy shine. It exhibits a range of warm reddish pink colors
from pale pink to deep red; the word coral is also used to name such colors.

Onyx is formed of chalcedony bands in alternating colors. It is cryptocrystalline, consisting of fine

intergrowths of the silica minerals quartz and moganite. Its bands are parallel, unlike the more chaotic
banding that often occurs in agates.Sardonyx is a variant in which the colored bands are sard (shades
of red) rather than black. Black onyx is perhaps the most famous variety, but it is not as common as
onyx with colored bands.

ORGANIC GEMSTONES

The four most common types of organic gemstones are:

Amber

Amber is a hard sap or resin from aged pine trees and is a organic gemstone.Much valued from
antiquity to the present as a gemstone, amber is made into a variety of decorative objects. Amber is
used in jewelry. Amber has been used as jewelry since the Stone Age, from 13,000 years ago.Amber
occurs in a range of different colors. As well as the usual yellow-orange-brown that is associated with
the color "amber", amber itself can range from a whitish color through a pale lemon yellow, to brown
and almost black. Other uncommon colors include red amber (sometimes known as "cherry amber"),
green amber, and even blue amber, which is rare and highly sought after. The most prized pieces
contain inclusions of insects, plants or pyrite. Read also: Pictures: Types of Amber

Coral

The marine based gemstone which is made of calcium carbonate found below the vast oceans. Corals
are very small marine animals that live in huge colonies and extract calcium carbonate from the sea.
The corals use the calcium carbonate to build up its home up, around, and above itself. When a
generation of coral dies it dies so within its home, the new generation thus building on top of the old
and so on. This process produces the massive coral reefs you see today! Gemstone corals appear
semitransparent to opaque and the colors can be found white, pink, orange, red, violet and sometimes
gold and black (horny organic substances that are not calcium carbonate). Coral gems are used to
make beads, carvings, cameos, and figurines.

Jet

Jet is a type of coal, a carbon and hydrocarbon mixed compound. Jet is not a mineral, but rather a
mineraloid. It has an organic origin, being derived from decaying wood under extreme pressure. Jet is
either black or dark brown, but may contain pyrite inclusions, which are of brassy colour and metallic
lustre. Jet has also been known as black amber, as it may induce an electric charge like that of amber
when rubbed. Jet has a Mohs hardness ranging between 2.5 and 4 and a specific gravity of 1.30 to
1.34. The refractive index of jet is approximately 1.66. Jet is found in two forms, hard and soft. Hard
jet is the result of carbon compression and salt water; soft jet is the result of carbon compression and
fresh water.

Pearl

The famous pearl is a organic gemstone and has been used as jewelry for thousands of years. Pearls
are made by mollusk animals( organic creatures enclosed within a shell) typically clams, mussels, and
oysters. The soft tissue in the mollusc animal creates a mucus called nacre which hardens thus
creating a pearl. Pearl bearing molluscs can be found in both salt as well as fresh waters.

The salt water mollusc create organic gemstones of much higher value. Where as the fresh water
mollusc (clams and mussels) produce pearls for less desirable jewelry and decorations. The perfect
pearl is round but can come in any abstract shape (usually never rough shaped or with sharp edges).
The color of a pearl varies from white, cream, light rose, cream rose, black, gray, bronze, blue, dark
blue, green, dark green, purple, yellow, as well as violet.

Ammolite

Ammolite is an opal-like organic gemstone. It is made of the fossilized shells of ammonites, which in
turn are composed primarily of aragonite, the same mineral contained in nacre, with a microstructure
inherited from the shell. It is one of few biogenic gemstones; others include amber and pearl.
Ammolite is also known as aapoak, gem ammonite, calcentine, and Korite. The chemical composition
of ammolite is variable, and aside from aragonite may include calcite, silica, pyrite, or other minerals.
Its crystallography is orthorhombic. Its hardness is 4.5–5.5, and its specific gravity is 2.60–2.85.
Significant deposits of gem-quality ammolite are only found in the Bearpaw Formation that extends
from Alberta to Saskatchewan in Canada and south to Montana in the USA.

Other Organic Gemstones

There are a number of other organic gemstones that are less commonly used in jewelry, such as:
 Ivory: Ivory is the hard, white dentin of the tusks and teeth of elephants, walruses, and other
mammals. It is often used in carvings and other decorative objects.
 Tortoise shell: Tortoise shell is the scaly covering of a tortoise's shell. It is often used in
jewelry and other decorative objects.
 Mother-of-pearl: Mother-of-pearl is the iridescent lining of the shells of some mollusks. It is
often used in jewelry and other decorative objects.