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CHAPTER 820 CROSS DRAINAGE

Topic 821 - General
Index 821.1 - Introduction
Cross drainage involves the conveyance of surface water and stream flow across or from the highway right of way. This is accomplished by providing either a culvert or a bridge to convey the flow from one side of the roadway to the other side or past some other type of flow obstruction. In addition to the hydraulic function, a culvert must carry construction and highway traffic and earth loads. Culvert design, therefore, involves both hydraulic and structural design. This section of the manual is basically concerned with the hydraulic design of culverts. Both the hydraulic and structural designs must be consistent with good engineering practice and economics. An itemized listing of good drainage design objectives and economic factors to be considered are listed in Index 801.4. Information on strength requirements, height of fill tables, and other physical characteristics of alternate culvert shapes and materials may be found in Chapter 850, Physical Standards. More complete information on hydraulic principles and engineering techniques of culvert design may be found in the FHWA Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts". Key aspects of culvert design and a good overview of the subject are more fully discussed in the AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines. Structures measuring more than 6.1 m along the roadway centerline are conventionally classified as bridges, assigned a bridge number, and maintained and inspected by the Division of Structures. However, some structures classified as bridges are designed hydraulically and structurally as culverts. Some examples are certain multi-barreled box culverts and arch culverts. Culverts, as distinguished from bridges, are usually covered with embankment and have structural material around the entire perimeter, although some are supported

on spread footings with the streambed serving as the bottom of the culvert. Bridges are not designed to take advantage of submergence to increase hydraulic capacity even though some are designed to be inundated under flood conditions. For economic and hydraulic efficiency, culverts should be designed to operate with the inlets submerged during flood flows, if conditions permit. At many locations, either a bridge or a culvert will fulfill both the structural and hydraulic requirements of the stream crossing. Structure choice at these locations should be based on con0struction and maintenance costs, risk of failure, risk of property damage, traffic safety, and environmental and aesthetic considerations. Culverts are usually considered minor structures, but they are of great importance to adequate drainage and the integrity of the highway facility. Although the cost of individual culverts is relatively small, the cumulative cost of culvert construction constitutes a substantial share of the total cost of highway construction. Similarly, the cost of maintaining highway drainage features is substantial, and culvert maintenance is a large share of these costs. Improved service to the public and a reduction in the total cost of highway construction and maintenance can be achieved by judicious choice of design criteria and careful attention to the hydraulic design of each culvert.

821.2 Hydrologic Considerations

Before the hydraulic design of a culvert or bridge can begin, the design discharge, the quantity (Q) of water in cubic meters per second, that the facility may reasonably be expected to convey must be estimated. The most important step is to establish the appropriate design storm or flood frequency for the specific site and prevailing conditions. Refer to Chapter 810, Hydrology and specifically Topics 818 and 819 for useful information on hydrological analysis methods and considerations. When empirical methods are used to estimate the peak rate of runoff, design Q, for important culverts, it is recommended that at least two methods be tried. By comparing results a more reliable discharge estimate for the drainage basin may be obtained. This is more important for large

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basins having areas in excess of 1.3 km2 (130 ha) than for small basins.

821.3 Selection of Design Flood

As discussed in Index 818.2, there are two recognized alternatives to selecting the design flood frequency (probability of exceedance) in the hydraulic design of bridges and culverts. They are: By policy - using a preselected recurrence interval. By analysis - using the recurrence interval that is most cost effective and best satisfies the specific site conditions and associated risks.

these criteria need to be balanced against potential damage to the highway and adjacent properties upstream and downstream of the site. The selection of a design flood with a lesser or greater peak discharge may be warranted and justified by economic analysis. A more frequent design flood than a 4% probability of exceedance (25-year) should not be used for the hydraulic design of culverts under freeways and other highways of major importance. Alternatively, where predictive data is limited, or where the risks associated with drainage facility failure are high, the greatest flood of record or other suitably large event should be evaluated by the designer. When channels or drainage facilities under the jurisdiction of local flood control agencies or Corps of Engineers are involved, the design flood must be determined through negotiations with the agencies involved.

Although either of these alternatives may be used exclusive of the other, in actual practice both alternatives are often considered and used jointly to select the flood frequency for hydraulic design. For culverts and small bridges, apply the following general rules for first consideration in the process for ultimate selection of the design flood. (1) Bridges. The basic rule for the hydraulic design of bridges is that they should pass a 2% probability flood (50-year). Freeboard, vertical clearance between the lowest structural member and the water surface elevation of the design flood, sufficient to pass the 1% probability flood should be provided. Sixtenths meter of freeboard is often assumed for preliminary bridge designs. The effects of bedload and debris should be considered in the design of the bridge waterway. (2) Culverts. There are two primary design frequencies that should be considered: A 10% probability flood (10-year) without causing the headwater elevation to rise above the inlet top of the culvert and, A 1% probability flood (100-year) with-out headwaters rising above an elevation that would cause objectionable backwater depths or outlet velocities.

821.4 Headwater and Tailwater

(1) Headwater. The term, headwater, refers to the depth of the upstream water surface measured from the invert of the culvert entrance. Any culvert which constricts the natural stream flow will cause a rise in the upstream water surface. It is not always economical or practical to utilize all the available head. This applies particularly to situations where debris must pass through the culvert, where a headwater pool cannot be tolerated, or where the natural gradient is steep and high outlet velocities are objectionable. The available head may be limited by the fill height, damage to the highway facility, or the effects of ponding on upstream property. The extent of ponding should be brought to the attention of all interested functions, including Project Development, Maintenance, and Right of Way. Full use of available head may develop some vortex related problems and also develop objectionable velocities resulting in abrasion of the culvert itself or in downstream erosion. In most cases, provided the culvert is not flowing under pressure, an increase in the culvert size

The designer must use discretion in applying the above criteria. Design floods selected on this basis may not be the most appropriate for specific project site locations or conditions. The cost of providing facilities to pass peak discharges suggested by

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does not velocities.

appreciably

change

the

outlet

(2) Tailwater. The term, tailwater, refers to the water located just downstream from a structure. Its depth or height is dependent upon the downstream topography and other influences. High tailwater could submerge the culvert outlet.

821.5 Effects of Tide and Wind

Where the tailwater elevation is controlled by tides, special studies will normally be required to determine the tailwater stage consistent with the design storm frequency of the facility. The effects of wind and flood discharges must be considered in conjunction with predicted tide stages. Where necessary, backflow protection should be provided in the form of flap gates. Refer to Indexes 838.3 and 838.5(2) for further discussion of this subject.

higher construction cost. On the other hand, retaining solids upstream from the entrance by means of a debris control structure often involves substantial maintenance cost and could negatively affect fish passage. An economic comparison which includes evaluation of long term maintenance costs should be made to determine the most reasonable and cost effective method of handling. (2) Interception. If it is not economical to pass debris, it should be retained upstream from the entrance by means of a debris control structure or the use of a debris basin when the facility is located in the vicinity of alluvial fans. If drift and debris are retained upstream, a riser or chimney may be required. This is a vertical extension to the culvert which provides relief when the main entrance is plugged. The increased head should not be allowed to develop excessive velocities or cause pressure which might induce leakage in the culvert. If debris control structures are used, access must be provided for maintenance equipment to reach the site. This can best be handled by coordination and field review with district maintenance staff. Details of a pipe riser with debris rack cage are shown on Standard Plan D93C. See FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9, "Debris-Control Structures" for further information. The use of an upstream debris basin and downstream concrete lined channels, has often been used by Local Agencies for managing flood flows on alluvial fans in urbanized areas. Experience has shown that this approach is effective, however, the costs of building and maintaining such facilities is high with a potential for sediment inflows greater than anticipated. The District Hydraulics Engineer should be consulted if a debris basin is being considered for interception in the vicinity of an alluvial fan.

Topic 822 - Debris Control

822.1 Introduction
Debris, if allowed to accumulate either within a culvert or at its inlet, can adversely affect the hydraulic performance of the facility. Damage to the roadway and to upstream property may result from debris obstructing the flow into the culvert. Coordination with district maintenance forces can help in identifying areas with high debris potential and in setting requirements for debris removal where necessary. The use of any device that can trap debris must be thoroughly examined prior to its use. In addition to the more common problem of debris accumulation at the culvert entrance, the use of safety end grates or other appurtenances can also lead to debris accumulation within the culvert at the outlet end. Evaluation of this possibility, and appropriate preventive action, must be made if such end treatment is proposed.

822.2 Debris Control Methods

There are two methods of handling debris: (1) Passing Through Culvert. If economically feasible, culverts should be designed to pass debris. Culverts which pass debris often have a

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822.3 Economics
Debris problems do not occur at all suspected locations. It is often more economical to construct debris control structures after problems develop. An assessment of potential damage due to debris clogging if protection is not provided should be the basis of design.

Therefore, culverts should be placed at each defined swale to limit carryover of drainage from one watershed to another.

823.2 Alignment and Slope

The ideal culvert placement is on straight alignment and constant slope. Variations from a straight alignment should be only to accommodate unusual conditions. Where conditions require deviations from the tangent alignment, abrupt changes in direction or slope should be avoided in order to maintain the hydraulic efficiency, and avoid excessive maintenance. Angle points may be permissible in the absence of abrasives in the flow; otherwise, curves should be used. When angle points are unavoidable, maintenance access may be necessary. See Index 838.5 for manhole location criteria. Curvature in pipe culverts is obtained by a series of angle points. Whenever conditions require these angle points in culvert barrels, the number of angle points must be specified either in the plans or in the special provisions. The angle can vary depending upon conditions at the site, hydraulic requirements, and purpose of the culvert. The angle point requirement is particularly pertinent if there is a likelihood that structural steel plate pipe will be used. The structural steel plate pipe fabricator must know what the required miters are in order for the plates to be fabricated satisfactorily. Manufacturers' literature should be consulted to be sure that what is being specified can be fabricated without excessive cost. Ordinarily the grade line should coincide with the existing streambed. Deviations from this practice are permissible under the following conditions: (a) On flat grades where sedimentation may occur, place the culvert inlet and outlet above the streambed but on the same slope. The distance above the streambed depends on the size length and amount of sediment anticipated. If possible, a slope should be used that is sufficient to develop self-cleaning velocities. (b) Under high fills, anticipate greater settlement under the center than the sides of

822.4 Classification of Debris

In order to properly determine methods for debris control, an evaluation of the characteristics of debris within flood flows must be made. Debris can be either floating, suspended in the flood flow, or dragged/rolled along the channel bottom. Typically, a flood event will deposit debris from all of these types. The FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9 contains a debris classification system to aid the designer in selecting the appropriate type of debris control structure.

822.5 Types of Debris Control Structures

The FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9, "Debris-Control Structures", shows types of debris control structures and provides a guide for selecting the type of structure suitable for various debris classifications.

Topic 823 - Culvert Location

823.1 Introduction
The culvert usually should be located so that the thalweg of the stream to be accommodated, approaches and exits at the approximate centerline of the culvert. However, for economic reasons, as a general rule, small skews should be eliminated, moderate skews retained and large skews reduced. Since the culvert typically acts as a constriction, local velocities will increase through the barrel and in the vicinity of the outlet. The location and design must be also sensitive to the environment (fish passage etc). As a general rule, flood waters should be conducted under the highway at first opportunity minimizing scour of embankment and entrapment of debris.

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the fill. Where settlement is anticipated, provisions should be made for camber. (c) In steep sloping areas such as on hillsides, the overfill heights can be reduced by designing the culvert on a slope flatter than natural slope. However, a slope should be used to maintain a velocity sufficient to carry the bedload. A spillway or downdrain can be provided at the outlet. Outlet protection should be provided to prevent undermining. For the downdrain type of installation, consideration must be given to anchorage. This design is appropriate only where substantial savings will be realized.

Standard Plans, D94A & B for width of flared end sections.

Topic 825 - Hydraulic Design of Culverts

825.1 Introduction
After the design discharge, (Q), has been estimated, the conveyance of this water must be investigated. This aspect is referred to as hydraulic design. The highway culvert is a special type of hydraulic structure. An exact theoretical analysis of culvert flow is extremely complex because the flow is usually non-uniform with regions of both gradually varying and rapidly varying flow. Hydraulic jumps often form inside or downstream of the culvert barrel. As the flow rate and tailwater elevations change, the flow type within the barrel changes. An exact hydraulic analysis therefore involves backwater and drawdown calculations, energy and momentum balance, and application of the results of hydraulic studies. An extensive hydraulic analysis is usually impractical and not warranted for the design of most highway culverts. The culvert design procedures presented herein and in the referenced publications are accurate, in terms of head, to within plus or minus 10 percent.

Topic 824 - Culvert Type Selection

824.1 Introduction
A culvert is a hydraulically short conduit which conveys stream flow through a roadway embankment or past some other type of flow obstruction. Culverts are constructed from a variety of materials and are available in many different shapes and configurations. Culvert selection factors include roadway profiles, channel characteristics, flood damage evaluations, construction and maintenance costs, and estimates of service life.

824.2 Shape and Cross Section

(1) Numerous cross-sectional shapes are available. The most commonly used shapes include circular, box (rectangular), elliptical, pipe-arch, and arch. The shape selection is based on the cost of construction, the limitation on upstream water surface elevation, roadway embankment height, and hydraulic performance. (2) Multiple Barrels. In general, the spacing of pipes in a multiple installation, measured between outside surfaces, should be at least half the nominal diameter with a minimum of 0.6 m. See Standard Plan D89 for multiple pipe headwall details. Additional clearance between pipes is required to accommodate flared end sections. See

825.2 Culvert Flow

The types of flow and control used in the design of highway culverts are: Inlet Control - Most culverts operate under inlet control which occurs when the culvert barrel is capable of carrying more flow than the inlet will accept. Supercritical flow is usually encountered within the culvert barrel. When the outlet is submerged under inlet control, a hydraulic jump will occur within the barrel. Outlet Control - Outlet control occurs when the culvert barrel is not capable of conveying as much flow as the inlet will accept. Culverts under outlet control generally function with submerged outlets and subcritical flow within the culvert

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barrel. However, it is possible for the culvert to function with an unsubmerged outlet under outlet control where flow passes through critical depth in the vicinity of the outlet. For each type of control, different factors and formulas are used to compute the hydraulic capacity of a culvert. Under inlet control, the cross sectional area of the culvert, inlet geometry, and elevation of headwater at entrance are of primary importance. Outlet control involves the additional consideration of the tailwater elevation of the outlet channel and the slope, roughness and length of the culvert barrel. A discussion of these two types of control with charts for selecting a culvert size for a given set of conditions is included in the FHWA Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts."

elevation. In cases where the headwater elevation is greater then the top elevation of the roadway embankment, an overtopping analysis is done in which flow is balanced between the culvert discharge and the surcharge over the roadway. In the cases where the culvert is not full for any part of its length, open channel computations are performed.

825.4 Coefficient of Roughness

Suggested Manning's n values for culvert design are given in Table 851.2.

Topic 826 - Entrance Design

826.1 Introduction
The size and shape of the entrance are among the factors that control the level of ponding at the entrance. Devices such as rounded or beveled lips and expanded entrances help maintain the velocity of approach, increase the culvert capacity, and may lower costs by permitting a smaller sized culvert to be used. The inherent characteristics of common entrance treatments are discussed in Index 826.4. End treatment on large culverts is an important consideration. Selecting an appropriate end treatment for a specific type of culvert and location requires the application of sound engineering judgment. The FHWA Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts" combines culvert design information previously contained in HEC No. 5, No. 10, and No. 13. The hydraulic performance of various entrance types is described in HDS No. 5.

825.3 Computer Programs

Numerous calculator and computer programs are available to aid in the design and analysis of highway culverts. The major advantages of these programs over the traditional hand calculation method are: Increased accuracy nomographs. over charts and

Rapid comparison of alternative sizes and inlet configurations.

Familiarity with culvert hydraulics and traditional methods of solution is necessary to provide a solid basis for designers to take advantage of the speed, accuracy, and increased capabilities of hydraulic design computer programs. The hydraulic design calculator and computer programs available from the FHWA are more fully described in HDS No. 5, "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts." The HY8 culvert hydraulics program provides interactive culvert analysis. Given all of the appropriate data, the program will compute the culvert hydraulics for circular, rectangular, elliptical, arch, and user-defined culverts. The logic of HY8 involves calculating the inlet and outlet control headwater elevations for the given flow. The elevations are then compared and the larger of the two is used as the controlling

826.2 End Treatment Policy

The recommended end treatment for small culverts is the prefabricated flared end section. For safety, aesthetic, and economic reasons, flared end sections should be used at both entrance and outlet whenever feasible instead of headwalls. End treatment, either flared end section or headwall, is required for circular culverts 1500 mm or more in diameter and for pipe arches of equivalent size.

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826.3 Conventional Entrance Designs

The inlet edge configuration is one of the prime factors influencing the hydraulic performance of a culvert operating in inlet control. The following entrance types are frequently used. (1) Projecting Barrel. A thin edge projecting inlet can cause a severe contraction of the flow. The effective cross sectional area of the barrel may be reduced to about one half the actual available barrel area. The projecting barrel has no end treatment and is the least desirable hydraulically. It is economical but its appearance is not pleasing and use should be limited to culverts with low velocity flows where head conservation, traffic safety, and appearance are not important considerations. Typical installations include an equalizer culvert where ponding beyond the control of the highway facility occurs on both sides of the highway or where the flow is too small to fill the minimum culvert opening. The projecting entrance inhibits culvert efficiency. In some situations, the outlet end may project beyond the fill, thus providing security against erosion at less expense than bank protection work. Projecting ends may prove a maintenance nuisance, particularly when clearance to right of way fence is limited. (2) Flared End Sections. This end treatment provides approximately the same hydraulic performance as a square-edge headwall and is used to retain the embankment, improve the aesthetics, and enhance safety. Because prefabricated flared end sections provide better traffic safety features and are considered more attractive than headwalls they are to be used instead of headwalls whenever feasible. Details of prefabricated flared end sections for circular pipe in sizes 300 mm through 2100 mm in diameter and pipe arches of equivalent size are shown on Standard Plans D94A & B.

(3) Headwalls and Wingwalls. This end treatment may be required at the culvert entrance for the following reasons: To improve hydraulic efficiency. To retain the embankment and reduce erosion of slopes. To provide structural stability to the culvert ends and serve as a counterweight to offset buoyant or uplift forces.

(4) Rounded Lip. This treatment costs little, smoothes flow contraction, increases culvert capacity, and reduces the level of ponding at the entrance. The box culvert and pipe headwall standard plans include a rounded lip. The rounded lip is omitted for culverts less than 1200 mm in diameter; however, the beveled groove end of concrete pipe at the entrance produces an effect similar to that of a rounded lip. (5) Mitered End. A mitered culvert end is formed when the culvert barrel is cut to conform with the plane of the embankment slope. Mitered entrances are not to be used. They are hydraulically less efficient than either flared end sections or headwalls, and they are structurally unstable. (6) Entrance Risers. At a location where the culvert would be subject to plugging, a vertical pipe riser should be considered. Refer to Index 822.2 for discussion on debris-control structures.

826.4 Improved Inlet Designs

Entrance geometry refinements can be used to reduce the flow contraction at the inlet and increase the capacity of culverts operating under inlet control without increasing the headwater depth. The following entrance types improve culvert inlet performance and can be provided at reasonable cost. (1) Expanded Entrances. Headwalls with straight flared wingwalls or warped wingwalls offer a more highly developed entrance appropriate for large culverts, regardless of type or shape of barrel. The effect of such entrances can be approximated more economically by a shaped

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entrance using air blown mortar, concreted riprap, sacked concrete or slope paving. Straight flared wingwalls and warped wingwalls aid in maintaining the approach velocity, align and guide drift, and funnel the flow into the culvert entrance. To insure enough velocity to carry drift and debris through the culvert or increase the velocity and thereby increase the entrance capacity, a sloping drop down apron at the entrance may be used. To minimize snagging drift, the standard plans require wingwalls to be flush with the culvert barrel. The flare angle may range from 30 to 75 degrees; the exact angle is based on the alignment of the approach channel banks and not the axis of the culvert. Greater efficiency is obtained when the top of the wingwall is the same elevation as the headwall. Whether warped or straight flared wingwalls are used depends on the shape of the approach channel. Straight flared wingwalls are appropriate for well defined channels with steep banks. Warped wingwalls are more suited to shallow trapezoidal approach channels. Usually it is more economical to transition between the stream section and the culvert by means of straight flared wingwalls or warped wingwalls than to expand the culvert barrel at entrance. For a very wide channel, this transition may be combined with riprap, dikes, or channel lining extending upstream to complete the transition. (2) Transitions. Elaborate transitions and throated openings for culverts may be warranted in special cases. Generally a highly developed entrance is unnecessary if the shape of the culvert fits the approach channel. In wide flat channels where ponding at entrance must be restricted, a wide shallow structure or multiple conduit should be used if drift and debris are not a problem. Throated or tapered barrels at entrance are more vulnerable to clogging by debris. They are not economical unless they are used for corrective measures; for example, where there is a severe restriction in right of way width and

it is necessary to increase the capacity of an existing culvert structure. For further information refer to HEC-9, "Debris-Control Structures" and HDS 5, "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts"

Topic 827 - Outlet Design

827.1 General
The outlet velocity of highway culverts is usually higher than the maximum natural stream velocity. This higher velocity can cause streambed scour and bank erosion for a limited distance downstream from the culvert outlet. The slope and roughness of the culvert barrel are the principle factors affecting outlet velocity. The shape and size of a culvert seldom have a significant effect on the outlet velocity. When the outlet velocity is believed to be excessive and it cannot be satisfactorily reduced by adjusting the slope or barrel roughness, it may be necessary to use some type of outlet protection or energy dissipator. A method of predicting and analyzing scour conditions is given in the FHWA publication "Scour at Culvert Outlets in Mixed Bed Materials", FHWA/RD - 82/011. When dealing with erosive velocities at the outlet, the effect on downstream property should be evaluated.

827.2 Embankment Protection

Improved culvert outlets are designed to restore natural flow conditions downstream. Where erosion is to be expected, corrective measures such as bank protection, vertical flared wingwalls, warped wingwalls, transitions, and energy dissipators may be considered. See Chapter 870, "Channel and Shore Protection-Erosion Control", FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circulars No. 11, "Design of Riprap Revetment", No. 14, "Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators for Culverts and Channels", and No. 15, "Design of Roadway Channels with Flexible Linings", and "Hydraulic Design of Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipators", Engineering Monograph No. 25 by the U. S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 1964 (revised 1978). HY-8, within the Hydrain

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Integrated Computer Program System, provides designs for energy dissipators and follows the HEC-14 method for design. Culvert outlet design should provide a transition for the 100-year flood or design event from the culvert outlet to a section in the natural channel where natural stage, width, and velocity will be restored, or nearly so, with consideration of stability and security of the natural channel bed and banks against scour. If an outfall structure is required for transition, typically it will not have the same design as the entrance. Wingwalls, if intended for an outlet transition (expansion), generally should not flare at an angle (in degrees) greater than 46 divided by the outlet velocity in meters per second. However, transition designs fall into two general categories: those applicable to culverts in outlet control (subcritical flow) or those applicable to culverts in inlet control (supercritical). The procedure outlined in HEC-14 for subcritical flow expansion design should also be used for supercritical flow expansion design if the culvert exit Froude number (Fr) is less than 3, if the location where the flow conditions desired is within 3 culvert diameters of the outlet, and if the slope is less than 10 percent. For supercritical flow expansions outside these limits, the energy equation can be used to determine flow conditions leaving the transition. Warped endwalls can be designed to fit trapezoidal or U-shaped channels, as transitions for moderateto-high velocity (3-5.5 m/s). For extreme velocity (exceeding 5.5 m/s) the transition can be shortened by using an energydissipating structure.

828.2 Minimum Diameter

The minimum diameter for cross culverts under the roadway is 450 mm. For other than cross pipes, the minimum diameter is 300 mm. For maintenance purposes, where the slope of longitudinal side drains is not sufficient to produce self-cleaning velocities, pipe sizes of 450 mm or more in diameter should be considered. The minimum diameter of pipe to be used is further determined by the length of pipe between convenient cleanout access points. If pipe runs exceed 30 m between inlet and outlet, or intermediate cleanout access, the minimum diameter of pipe to be used is 600 mm. When practicable, intermediate cleanout points should be provided for runs of pipe 600 mm in diameter that exceed 100 m in length. If a choice is to be made between using 450 mm diameter pipe with an intermediate cleanout in the highway median or using 600 mm diameter pipe without the median access, the larger diameter pipe without the median access is preferred.

828.3 Length
The length of pipe culvert to be installed is determined as follows: (a) Establish a theoretical length based on slope stake requirements making allowance for end treatment. (b) Adjust the theoretical length for height of fill by applying these rules: For fills 4 m or less, no adjustment is required. For fills higher than 4 m, add 0.3 m of length at each end for each 3 m increment of fill height or portion thereof. The additional length should not exceed 2 m on each end. In cases of high fills with benches, the additional length is based on the height of the lowest bench.

Topic 828 - Diameter and Length

828.1 Introduction
From a maintenance point of view the minimum diameter of pipe and the distance between convenient cleanout access points are important considerations. The following instructions apply to minimum pipe diameter and the length of pipe culvert.

(c) Use the nearest combination of commercial lengths which equal or exceed the length obtained in (b) above.

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Topic 829 - Special Considerations

829.1 Introduction
In addition to the hydraulic design, other factors must be considered to assure the integrity of culvert installations and the highway.

The allowable overfill heights for concrete arches, structural plate arches, and structural plate vehicular undercrossings are based on existing soil withstanding the soil pressures indicated on the Standard Plans. A foundation investigation should be made to insure that the supporting soils withstand the design soil pressures for those types of structures. (2) Method of Installation. Under ordinary conditions, the methods of installation described in the Standard Specifications and shown on the Standard Plans should be used. For any predictable settlement, provisions for camber should be made. Excavation and backfill details for circular concrete pipe, reinforced box and arch culverts, and corrugated metal pipe and arch culverts are shown on Standard Plans A62-D, A62DA, A62-E, and A62-F respectively. (3) Height of Cover. There are several alternative materials from which acceptable culverts may be made. Tables of maximum height of cover recommended for the more frequently used culvert shapes, sizes, corrugation configurations, and types of materials are given in Chapter 850. Not included, but covered in the Standard Plans, are maximum earth cover for reinforced concrete box culverts, reinforced concrete arches, and structural plate vehicular undercrossing. For culverts where overfill requirements exceed the limits shown on the tables a special design must be prepared. Special designs are to be submitted to the Division of Structures for review, or the Division of Structures may be directly requested to prepare the design. Under any of the following conditions, the Division of Structures is to prepare the special design: Where foundation material will not support footing pressure shown on the Standard Plans for concrete arch and structural plate vehicular undercrossings. Where foundation material will not support footing pressures shown in the Highway Design Manual for structural plate pipe arches or corrugated metal pipe arches.

829.2 Bedding and Backfill

The height of overfill a culvert will safely sustain depends upon foundation conditions, method of installation, and its structural strength and rigidity. Uniform settlement under both the culvert and the adjoining fill will not overstress flexible and segmental rigid culverts. Unequal settlement, however, can result in distortion and shearing action in the culvert. For rigid pipes this could result in distress and disjointing of the pipe. A flexible culvert accommodates itself to moderate unequal settlements but is also subject to shearing action. Monolithic culverts can tolerate only a minimal amount of unequal settlement, and require favorable foundation conditions. Any unequal settlement would subject a monolithic culvert to severe shear stresses. (1) Foundation Conditions. A slightly yielding foundation under both the culvert and adjoining fill is the foundation condition generally encountered. The maximum height of cover tables given in Chapter 850 are based on this foundation condition. Unyielding foundation conditions can produce high stresses in the culverts. Such stresses may be counteracted by subexcavation and backfill. The Standard Plans show details for shaped, sand, and soil cement bedding treatments. Foundation materials capable of supporting pressures between 100 and 800 kN/m2 are required for culverts with cast-in-place footing or inverts, such as reinforced concrete boxes, arches, and structural plate arches. When culvert footing pressures exceed 150 kN/m2 or the diameter or span exceeds 3 m, a geology report providing a log of test boring is required. Adverse foundation and backfill conditions may require a specially designed structure.

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Where a culvert will be subjected to unequal lateral pressures, such as at the toe of a fill or adjacent to a retaining wall.

829.4 Joints
The possibility of piping being caused by open joints in the culvert barrel may be reduced through special attention to the type of pipe joint specified. For a more complete discussion of pipe joint requirements see Index 853.1. The two pipe joint types specified for culvert installations are identified as "standard" and "positive". The "standard" joint is adequate for ordinary installations and "positive" joints should be specified where there is a need to withstand soil movements or resist disjointing forces. Corrugated metal pipe coupling band details are shown on Standard Plan sheets D97A through D97G and concrete pipe joint details on sheet D97H. If it is necessary for "standard" or "positive" joints to be watertight they must be specifically specified as such. Rubber "O" rings or other resilient joint material provides the watertight seal. Corrugated metal pipe joints identified as "downdrain" are watertight joint systems with a tensile strength specification for the coupler.

Special designs usually require that a detailed foundation investigation be made. (4) Minimum Cover. When feasible, culverts should be buried at least 0.3 m. For construction purposes, a minimum cover of 150 mm greater than the thickness of the structural cross section is desirable for all types of pipe. The minimum thickness of cover for various type culverts under rigid or flexible pavements is given in Table 854.9.

829.3 Piping
Piping is a phenomenon caused by seepage along a culvert barrel which removes fill material, forming a hollow similar to a pipe. Fine soil particles are washed out freely along the hollow and the erosion inside the fill may ultimately cause failure of the culvert or the embankment. The possibility of piping can be reduced by decreasing the velocity of the seepage flow. This can be reduced by providing for watertight joints. Therefore, if piping through joints could become a problem, consideration should be given to providing for watertight joints. Piping may be anticipated along the entire length of the culvert when ponding above the culvert is expected for an extended length of time, such as when the highway fill is used as a detention dam or to form a reservoir. Headwalls, impervious materials at the upstream end of the culvert, and anti-seep or cutoff collars increase the length of the flow path, decrease the hydraulic gradient and the velocity of flow and thus decreases the probability of piping developing. Anti-seep collars usually consist of bulkhead type plate or blocks around the entire perimeter of the culvert. They may be of metal or concrete, and, if practical, should be keyed into impervious material. Piping could occur where a culvert must be placed in a live stream, and the flow cannot be diverted. Under these conditions watertight joints should be specified.

829.5 Anchorage
Refer to Index 834.4(5) for discussion on anchorage for overside drains. Reinforced concrete pipe should be anchored and have positive joints specified if either of the following conditions is present: (a) Where the pipe diameter is 1500 mm or less, the pipe slope is 33 percent or greater, and the fill over the top of the pipe less than 1.5 times the outside diameter of the pipe measured perpendicular to the slope. (b) Where the pipe diameter is greater than 1500 mm and the pipe slope is 33 percent or greater, regardless of the fill over the top of the pipe. Where the slopes have been determined by the geotechnical engineer to be potentially unstable, regardless of the slope of the pipe, as a minimum, the pipes shall have positive joints. Alternative pipes/anchorage systems shall be investigated when there is a potential for substantial movement of the soil.

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Where anchorage is required, there should be a minimum of 450 mm cover measured perpendicular to the slope. Typically buried flexible pipe with corrugations on the exterior surface will not require anchorage, however, a special detail will be required for plastic pipe without corrugations on the exterior surface.

(a) Reinforced Concrete Pipe - Reinforced concrete pipe with joint seals is generally satisfactory. For heads over 6 m, special consideration should be given to hydrostatic pressure. (b) Corrugated Metal Pipe - corrugated metal pipe must be of the thickness and have the protective coatings required to provide the design service life. Field joints must be watertight. The following additional treatment is recommended. When the head is more than 3 m and the flow is continuous or is intermittent and of long duration, pipe fabricated by riveting, spot welding or continuous helical lockseam should be soldered. Pipe fabricated by a continuous helical welded seam need not be soldered. If the head is 3 m or less and the flow is intermittent and lasts only a few days, as in storm flows, unsoldered seams are permissible.

829.6 Irregular Treatment

(1) Junctions. (Text Later) (2) Bends. (Text Later)

829.7 Siphons and Sag Culverts

(1) General Notes. There are two kinds of conduits called siphons: the true siphon and the inverted siphon or sag culvert. The true siphon is a closed conduit, a portion of which lies above the hydraulic grade line. This results in less than atmospheric pressure in that portion. The sag culvert lies entirely below the hydraulic grade line; it operates under pressure without siphonic action. Under the proper conditions, there are hydraulic and economic advantages to be obtained by using the siphon principle in culvert design. (2) Sag Culverts. This type is most often used to carry an irrigation canal under a highway when the available headroom is insufficient for a normal culvert. The top of a sag culvert should be at least 1.4 m below the finished grade where possible, to ensure against damage from heavy construction equipment. The culvert should be on a straight grade and sumps provided at each end to facilitate maintenance. Sag culverts should not be used: (a) When the flow carries trash and debris in sufficient quantity to cause heavy deposits, (b) For intermittent flows where the effects of standing water are objectionable, or (c) When any other alternative is possible at reasonable cost. (3) Types of Conduit. Following are two kinds of pipes used for siphons and sag culverts to prevent leakage:

829.8 Currently Not In Use 829.9 Dams

Typically, proposed construction which is capable of impounding water to the extent that it meets the legal definition of a dam must be approved by the Department of Water Resource (DWR), Division of Safety of Dams. The legal definition is described in Sections 6002 and 6003 of the State Water Code. Generally, any facility 7.6 m or more in height or capable of impounding 61 700 m3 or more would be considered a dam. However, any facility 1.8 m or less in height, regardless of capacity, or with a storage capacity of not more than 18 500 m3, regardless of height, shall not be considered a dam. Additionally, Section 6004 of the State Water Code states "... and no road or highway fill or structure ... shall be considered a dam." Therefore, except for large retention or detention facilities there will rarely be the need for involvement by the DWR in approval of Caltrans designs. Although most highway designs will be exempt from DWR approval, caution should always be exercised in the design of high fills that could impound large volumes of water. Even partial

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plugging of the cross drain could lead to high pressures on the upstream side of the fill, creating seepage through the fill and/or increased potential for piping. The requirements for submitting information to the FHWA Division Office in Sacramento as described in Index 805.6 are not affected by the regulations mentioned above.

829.10 Reinforced Concrete Box Modifications

(1) Extensions. Where an existing box culvert is to be lengthened, it is essential to perform an onsite investigation to verify the structural integrity of the box. If signs of distress are present, the Division of Structures must be contacted prior to proceeding with the design. (2) Additional Loading. When significant additional loading is proposed to be added to an existing reinforced concrete box culvert the Division of Structures must be contacted prior to proceeding with the design. Overlays of less than 150 mm in depth, or widenings that do not increase the per unit loading on the box are not considered to be significant. Designers should also check the extent that previous projects might have increased loading on box culverts, even if the current project is not adding a significant amount of loading.