Ch 05 Networking Technology

The concept of networking is probably as

old as the concept of telecommunication
itself. Over the years computing networks
have advanced from pair of wires to fiber
optics and microwaves through Wi-Fi
networks.
Networking

Introduction
A computer network is a group of interconnected computers
or a collection of hardware components and computers
interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing
of data, resources, hardware, programs and information
provides a means of e-mail communication and video
conferencing. Besides the hardware needed for networking it
also requires special software to enable communication which
are in built to all major operating system.
 Network Classification
Computer network is classified into three categories based on the geographical area.
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
Local Area Network (LAN)
•LANs are privately-owned networks within a building or campus (upto few kms range)
•They are mainly used to connect PCs and workstations in company offices.
•Main idea is resource (printers ,files) sharing.
•Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 to 100 Mbps (Recent trend is in GBPS)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
•A MAN is basically a bigger version of LAN and normally uses similar technology.
•It might cover a group of nearby corporate offices or city.
•MAN can be related to the local cable television network.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
•A WAN spans a large geographical area , often a country or a continent.
•WAN have irregular topologies.
•Typically many LANs put together forms a WAN
•A WAN provides long distance transmission of data, voice image and video information.
 Network Classification

Internet - Individual networks are joined into internetworks with the help of
internetworking devices. The internet is networking of million of networks. These
networks are connected to each other either by wired or wireless technologies.
Network Communication and Protocol
A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern a
particular aspect of how devices on a network communicate. Protocols determine the
format, timing, sequencing, and error control in data communication.
Protocols are used for communication between computers in different computer
networks. TCP/IP, HTTP, POP, PPP are some examples of the protocols.
 Transmission Media
Transmission media can be defined simply as the means by which signals (data) are
sent from one computer to another (either by wired or wireless means).
Communication can be broadly classified on the basis of transmission media used into
two categories – wired communication and wireless communication. Wired media are
also called as bounded media and wireless media as unbounded media.

TRANSMISSION
MEDIA

WIRED WIRELESS
(GUIDED) (UNGUIDED)

CO-AXIAL OPTICAL FIBER MICROWAVE

TWISTED PAIR
(THICKNET& (SINGLEMODE & RADIO SIGNALS (TERRESTRIAL & INFRA RED WI-FI
(UTP &STP)
THINNET) MULTIMODE) SATELLITE)
 Transmission Media
A transmission media is a material substance that can propagate energy waves. For
example, the transmission medium for sound received by the ears is usually air, but
solids and liquids may also act as transmission media for sound.

The absence of a material medium in vacuum may also constitute a transmission

medium for electromagnetic waves such as light and radio waves. While material
substance is not required for electromagnetic waves to propagate, such waves are
usually affected by the transmission media they pass through, for instance by
absorption or by reflection or refraction at the interfaces between media.

The term transmission medium also refers to a technical device that employs the
material substance to transmit or guide waves. Thus, an optical fiber or a copper cable
is a transmission medium.
Characteristics of Transmission Media

Cost
Installation Requirement
Bandwidth
Bandusage
Attenuation
Immunity from EMI
Communication over Wires and Cables
Data transmission, digital transmission, or digital communications is
the physical transfer of data (a digital bit stream) over a point-to-point
or point-to-multipoint communication channel.
There are two categories of transmission media used in computer
communications.
1. WIRED / GUIDED /BOUNDED MEDIA
2. WIRELESS / UNBOUNDED / UNGUIDED MEDIA

Examples of such channels are copper wires, optical fibers, wireless

communication channels, and storage media. The data is represented
as an electromagnetic signal, such as an electrical voltage, radio wave,
microwave, or infrared signal.
 Bounded Media
Bounded media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow
path. These are also called guided/wired media. Bounded media are made up of an
external conductor (Usually copper) bounded by jacket material.

Bounded media are great for LABS as

1. They offer high speed
2. Good security
3. Low cast.

Three common types of bounded media are

•Coaxial Cable
•Twisted Pairs Cable
•Fiber Optics Cable
 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is very common & widely used commutation media. (TV wire is usually
coaxial). Coaxial cable gets its name because it contains two conductors that are
parallel to each other. The center conductor in the cable is usually copper. The copper
can be a solid wire. Outside this central Conductor is a non-conductive material
(insulation). It is usually white, plastic material used to separate the inner Conductor
form the outer Conductor. The other Conductor is a fine mesh made from Copper. It is
used to help shield the cable form EMI. Outside the copper mesh is the final protective
cover. The actual data travels through the center conductor (copper wire) in the cable.
EMI interference is caught by outer copper mesh.
 Coaxial Cable
There are different types of coaxial cable vary by gauge. Gauge is the measure of the
cable thickness. It is measured by the Radio grade measurement, or RG number. The
high the RG number, the thinner the central conductor core, the lower the number the
thicker the core.
Two types of co-axial cables are used-
Base-band co-axial cables: These cables are used for digital transmission
Broadband co-axial cables : These cables are used for analog transmission
Here the most common coaxial standards.
50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11: used with thick Ethernet.
50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
93-Ohm RG-62: used with ARCNET.
 Coaxial Cable

Characteristics of Advantages Coaxial Disadvantage Coaxial

Coaxial Cable Cable Cable
• Low cost • Inexpensive • Single cable failure can take
• Easy to install • Easy to wire down an entire network
• Up to 10Mbps capacity • Easy to expand
• Medium immunity from EMI • Moderate level of EMI
• Medium of attenuation immunity
 Twisted Pair Cable
The most popular network cabling is Twisted pair. It is
1. Light weight
2. Easy to install
3. Inexpensive
4. Support many different types of network.
Twisted pair cabling is made of pairs of solid or stranded copper twisted along each
other. The twists are done to reduce vulnerably to EMI and cross talk. The number of
pairs in the cable depends on the type. The copper core is usually 22-AWG or 24-AWG,
as measured on the American wire gauge standard. There are two types of twisted
pairs cabling
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 Twisted Pair Cable
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
UTP is more common. It can be either voice grade or data grade depending on the
condition. UTP cable normally has an impedance of 100 ohm. UTP cost less than STP
and easily available due to its many use. There are five levels of data cabling
Category 1
These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable.
Category 2
These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation.
Category 3
These cable supports up to 16 mps and are mostly used in 10 mps.
Category 4
These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps.
Category 5
This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps.
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11
connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector.
 1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
UTP is more common. It can be either voice grade or data grade depending on the
condition. UTP cable normally has an impedance of 100 ohm. UTP cost less than STP
and easily available due to its many use. There are five levels of data cabling
Category 1 - These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable.
Category 2 - These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation.
Category 3 - These cable supports up to 16 mps and are mostly used in 10 mps.
Category 4 - These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps.
Category 5 - This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps.
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11
connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector.
 1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
Characteristics Of UTP
•low cost
•easy to install
•High speed capacity
•High attenuation
•Effective to EMI
•100 meter limit
Advantages Of UTP
•Easy installation
•Capable of high speed for LAN
•Low cost
Disadvantages Of UTP
•Short distance due to attenuation
 2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
It is similar to UTP but has a mesh shielding that’s protects it from EMI which allows
for higher transmission rate. IBM has defined category for STP cable
Type 1 - STP features two pairs of 22-AWG
Type 2 - This type include type 1 with 4 telephone pairs
Type 6 - This type feature two pairs of standard shielded 26-AWG
Type 7 - This type of STP consist of 1 pair of standard shielded 26-AWG
Type 9 - This type consist of shielded 26-AWG wire
 2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
Characteristics of STP
1. Medium cost
2. Easy to install
3. Higher capacity than UTP
4. Higher attenuation, but same as UTP
5. Medium immunity from EMI
6. 100 meter limit

Advantages of STP
1. Shielded
2. Faster than UTP and coaxial

Disadvantages of STP
1. More expensive than UTP and coaxial
2. More difficult installation
3. High attenuation rate
 Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cable uses electrical signals to
transmit data. It uses light. In fiber optic
cable light only moves in one direction for
two way communication to take place a
second connection must be made between
the two devices. It is actually two strands of
cable. Each strand is responsible for one
direction of communication.

A laser at one device sends pulse of In the center of fiber cable is a glass stand or
light through this cable to other core. The light from the laser moves through
device. These pulses are translated this glass to the other device. Around the
into “1’s” and “0’s” at the other end. internal core is a reflective material known
as CLADDING. No light escapes the glass
core because of this reflective cladding.

Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2

gbps (Gigabytes per Second)
 Fiber Optic Cable
Characteristics of Fiber Optic Cable
1. Expensive
2. Very hard to install
3. Capable of extremely high speed
4. Extremely low attenuation
5. No EMI interference

Advantages of Fiber Optic Cable

1. Fast
2. Low Attenuation
3. No Emi Interference

Disadvantages of Fiber Optics

1. Very costly
2. Difficult to install
 Fiber Optic Cable
Characteristics of Fiber Optic Cable
1. Expensive
2. Very hard to install
3. Capable of extremely high speed
4. Extremely low attenuation
5. No EMI interference

Advantages of Fiber Optic Cable

1. Fast
2. Low Attenuation
3. No Emi Interference

Disadvantages of Fiber Optics

1. Very costly
2. Difficult to install
 Wireless Communication over Radio Signals
It is difficult to lay down cables due to the terrain (mountains, jungles, swamps, etc.),
wireless may be better. Modern wireless digital communication began in the Hawaiian
Islands, where large chunks of Pacific Ocean separated the users and the telephone
system was inadequate.
For mobile users, twisted pair, coaxial cables and fiber-optics are of no use. They need
to get their hits of data for their i-pad, i-phone, laptop, palmtop or wristwatch
computers without being tethered to the terrestrial communication infrastructure and
the only way their queries and interest can be catered to be through the wireless
communication.
Wireless/ Unguided media or unbounded media doesn't use any physical connectors
between the two devices communicating. Wireless media is used when a physical
obstruction or distance blocks are used with normal cable media. The three types of
wireless media are:
a. RADIO WAVES
b. MICRO WAVES
c. INFRARED WAVES
 Radio Waves

Radio waves are easy to generate and they can travel longer distance It has frequency between
10 KHz to 1 GHz. They can travel in all directions and hence they are also called omni
directional. They can easily penetrate through obstacles. Hence they are widely used in
communication Radio waves has the following types.
• Short waves
• VHF (Very High Frequency)
• UHF (Ultra High Frequency)
Microwaves
Microwaves travels at high frequency than radio waves and provide throughput as wireless network media.
Microwave transmission requires sender to be inside of the receiver. Following are the types of Microwaves.
• Terrestrial Microwaves
• Satellite Microwaves
Terrestrial Microwaves
Terrestrial Microwaves are used to transmit wireless signals across a few miles. Terrestrial
system requires that direct parabolic antennas can be pointed to each other. These systems
operate in a low Giga Hertz range.
Characteristics of Terrestrial Microwaves
a. Moderate to high cost. b. Moderately difficult installation
c. 1 M bps to 10 M bps capacity d. Variable attenuation
e. Low immunity to EMI
 Radio Waves
Satellite Micro Waves
The main problem with micro wave communication is the curvature of the earth, mountains &
other structure often block the line of sight. Due to this reason, many repeaters are required for
long distance which increases the cost of data transmission between the two points.
Satellite micro wave transmission is used to transmit signals throughout the world. These system
use satellites in orbit about 50,000 Km above the earth. Satellite dishes are used to send the
signals to the satellite where it is again sent back down to the receiver satellite. These
transmissions also use directional parabolic antenna’ within line of sight.
In satellite communication micro wave signals at 6 GHz are transmitted from a transmitter on
the earth through the satellite position in space. By the time signal reaches the satellites
becomes weaker due to 50,000 Km distance. The satellite amplifies week signals and transmits it
back to the earth at the frequency less than 6 GHz.
Characteristics Satellite Micro Waves
1. High cost
2. Extremely difficult.
3. Variable attenuation.
4. Low immunity to EMI
5. High security needed because a signal send to satellite is broadcasts through all receivers with
in satellite.
 Radio Waves
Infrared
Infrared frequencies are just below visible light. These high frequencies allow high speed data transmission.
This technology is similar to the use of a remote control for a TV. Infrared transmission can be affected by
objects obstructing sender or receiver. These transmissions fall into two categories.
• Point to point
• Broadcast
Point to Point
Point to point infrared transmits signal directly between two systems. Many lap top system use point to
point transmission. These systems require direct alignment between many devices.
Characteristics of Point to Point
• Wide range of cost
• Moderately easy installation.
• 100 kbps to 16 Mb of capacity.
• Variable attenuation.
• High immunity to EMI
Broad Cast
These infrared transmissions use sprayed signal, one broad cast in all directions instead of direct beam. This
help to reduce the problems of proper alignment and abstraction. It also allows multiple receiver of signal
Characteristics of Broad Cast
• Inexpensive.
• Single installation.
• 1Mbps capacity.
• Variable attenuation.
 Network Features

Network Features
File and Printer Sharing
Network allows users to share information in different ways but the common way of sharing
information is through file sharing. The file could be either on the server or on other hosts and
when in network can be shared by all. Resources like printer can be shared by many systems at a
given point of time thereby saving on the cost and space.
Application Services and E-mail
One of the most common reasons for networking in many businesses, institutions and
organizations is that several users can work together on a single application which will be on the
server and can be shared by all. In larger office, personnel can use e-mails and instant messaging
tools to communicate and store messages.
Remote Access
With remote access, different users can access same files, data and messages in the office as
well as when they are not in the office. Now a days mobiles, i-pad, i-phones make use of this
technology.
 Networking
Network Relationship - Prior to understanding the network relationship it is important to
know some networking terminologies which are as follows:
Node - A node is anything connected to the network, usually a computer, but it could be a
printer or a scanner.
Segment - A segment is any portion of a network that is separated by a switch, bridge or a
router from another part of a network.
Backbone - Backbone is the main cabling of a network that all of the segments connect to.
Usually, the backbone is capable of carrying more information than the individual segments.
Topology - The way each node is physically connected to the network.
Client - A client is an application or system that accesses a service made available by a server.
Server - A server is a computer designed to process requests and deliver data to other
(client) computers over a local network or the Internet.
Networks can be broadly classified into one of the two categories depending upon the
structures, sizes and budgets of different organization:
Client-Server Network (Centralized)
Peer-to-Peer Network (Decentralized)
 Networking

Client-Server Network :
In Client-Server network client applications request services from server. Clients and servers typically run
on different computers interconnected by a computer network. It provides for centralized administration.
All users and resources can be managed from a single location or security database The file servers become
the heart of the system, providing access to resources and providing security

Advantages of Client-Server Networks

1. Facilitate resource sharing – centrally administrate and control
2. Facilitate system backup and improve fault tolerance
3. Enhance security – only administrator can have access to Server
4. Support more users – difficult to achieve with peer-to-peer networks

Disadvantage of Client-Server Networks

1. High cost for Servers
2. Need expert to configure the network
3. Failure of the Server leads to the failure of the entire network
 Networking

Peer To Peer Network

Peer-to-peer networks allow users to share resources and files located on their computers and to access
shared resources found on other computers. They do not have a file server or a centralized management
source . All computers are considered equal. They all have the same abilities to use the resources available
on the network. This network is designed primarily for small to medium local area networks.

Advantages of Peer To Peer Networks

1. Low cost
2. Simple to configure
3. User has full accessibility of the computer
4. Security is not an issue

Disadvantages of Peer To Peer Networks

1. No need for a dedicated server.
2. No central repository for files and applications
3. Does not provide the security available on a client/server network.
4. May have duplication in resources
5. Difficult to uphold security policy
6. 10 or less users
 NETWORK ACCESS METHODS

An Access method is a set of rules governing how the network nodes share
the transmission media. there are three most important media access
methods:

CONTENTION BASED ACCESS METHOD

POLLING
TOKEN PASSING
 Cable Topologies

It is also known as Network topology. Network Topology defines the way in

which computers, printers and other devices are connected in other words -
the structure of the network. Network topology describes the layout of the
wire and devices as well as the paths used by data transmissions.

Types Of Topologies: Topologies can be majorly classified as follows:

BUS
RING
STAR
 Bus Topology

In Bus topology all devices are connected to a common cable called

trunk/bus also known as backbone with terminators provided at each end.
Maximum length of the cable can be 200m. Maximum nodes that can be
attached are 30. This topology is popular on LAN because it is inexpensive
due to single cable connection and easy to install.
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. Installation of devices is easy.
2. Requires less cable as compared to Star topology.
3. Less expensive and works better for smaller networks.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. If backbone breaks entire network gets down.
2. Difficult to isolate problems due to single cable.
3. Limited number of devices can only be attached.
 Star Topology

In star Topology each device is connected to a central device called

hub/switch through cable. All data transferred from one node to another
passes through hub/switch before reaching the destination

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Centralized management and security can be implemented in the hub/switch.
2. Adding or removing of node does not affect the whole network.
3. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Requires more cable length.
2. Failure of hub/switch affects the entire network.
3. It is more expensive.
 Ring Topology

In Ring topology, devices are connected in a closed loop with all the nodes
arranged along a ring. All devices have equal access to media. Data travels
from one device to another around entire ring in one direction. It is primarily
used for LANs but also used in WANs.
Advantages of Ring Topology
Data travels at greater speed.
Data is quickly transferred without collision/bottlenecks.
Handles large volume of traffic.
Transmission of data is relatively simple as packets travel in one direction only.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

More cabling is required compared to bus.
One faulty device affects the entire network.
Addition of devices affects the network.
Difficult to troubleshoot.
A data packet passes through every node between the sender and receiver making it slow.
 Ethernet
Ethernet is the most widely used local area
network architecture.

IEEE 802.3

Ethernet uses contention based (CSMA/CD)

access method.
Ethernet evolution through four
generations
Ethernet Frame
Ethernet Frame
Preamble. The first field of the 802.3 frame contains 7 bytes (56
bits) of alternating Os and Is that alerts the receiving system to the
coming frame and enables it to synchronize its input timing. The
pattern provides only an alert and a timing pulse. The 56-bit pattern
allows the stations to miss some bits at the beginning of the frame.
The preamble is actually added at the physical layer and is not
(formally) part of the frame.
Start frame delimiter (SFD). The second field (l byte:
10101011) signals the beginning of the frame. The SFD warns the
station or stations that this is the last chance for synchronization.
The last 2 bits is 11 and alerts the receiver that the next field is the
destination address.
Ethernet Frame
o Destination address (DA). The DA field is 6 bytes and
contains the physical address of the destination station or
stations to receive the packet.
o Source address (SA). The SA field is also 6 bytes and
contains the physical address of the sender of the packet. We
will discuss addressing shortly.
o Length or type. This field is defined as a type field or length
field. The original Ethernet used this field as the type field to
define the upper-layer protocol using the MAC frame. The
IEEE standard used it as the length field to define the number
of bytes in the data field. Both uses are common today.
o Data. This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-
layer protocols. It is a minimum of 46 and a maximum of
1500 bytes.
o CRC. The last field contains error detection information, in
this case a CRC-32
Categories of Standard Ethernet
10Base2 implementation
10Base5 implementation
10Base-T implementation
10Base-F implementation
Fast Ethernet implementations
1. Repeater Network Hardware
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher
level and/or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the
signal can cover longer distances.

2. Hub
A hub is the place where data converges from one or more directions and is
forwarded out in one or more directions. It can be seen in local area networks. Hubs
are of three types Active hubs, Passive hubs and intelligent hubs. An active hub
possesses all the usual features of a passive hub besides having some more.

An active hub takes a larger role in Ethernet communications with the help of
technology called store & forward.

A passive hub on the other hand, do very little to enhance the performance of the
network. Neither, it helps in any way in the troubleshooting operations.

Intelligent hub is another form of hub that is increasingly being used.

An advanced version that comprises the best of both active and passive hubs is the
intelligent hub, it provides with the ability to manage the network from one central
location. With the help of an intelligent hub, one can easily identify, diagnose
problems and even come up with remedial solutions.
 Network Hardware

3.Router
A router is a device or a software in a computer that determines the next network
point to which a packet should be forwarded toward its destination. It allows
different networks to communicate with each other. A router creates and maintains
a table of the available routes and their conditions and uses this information along
with distance and cost algorithms to determine the best route for a given packet. A
packet will travel through a number of network points with routers before arriving at
its destination.

4. MODEM
Modem converts the digital data into its analog form at the transmitter side and at
the reception side it will convert the analog data into its digital form.
Two types of Modem:
Asynchronous Modem
synchronous Modem