CHAPTER 3

MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF AGC SYSTEMS

3.1. Automatic Generation Control (AGC)

In an electric power system, Automatic Generation Control (AGC) is a system
for adjusting the power output of multiple generators at different power plants, in
response to change in the load. Since a power grid requires that generation and load
closely balance moment by moment, frequency adjustments to the output of
generators are necessary. The balance can be judged by measuring the system
frequency; if it is increasing, more power is being generated than used, which causes
all the machines in the system to accelerate. If the system frequency is decreasing,
more loads are on the system than the instantaneous generation can provide, which
causes all generators to slow down. In short, the control mechanism that is responsible
for returning the frequency to its nominal value is referred to as AGC.

3.2. Types of Automatic Generation Control (AGC)

There are two types of Automatic Generation Control (AGC);
1. Turbine-governor control (TGC)
2. Load-frequency control (LFC)

3.2.1. Turbine-governor control (TGC)

Turbine generators in a power system have stored kinetic energy due to their
large rotating masses. All the kinetic energy stored in power system in such rotating
masses is a part of the grid inertia. When system loads increases, grid inertia is
initially used to supply the load. This, however, leads to a decrease in the stored
kinetic energy of the turbine generators. Since the mechanical power of these turbines
correlates with the delivered electrical power, the turbine generators have a decrease
in angular velocity, which is directly proportional to a decrease in frequency in
synchronous generators. The purpose of the turbine-governor control is to maintain
the desired system frequency by adjusting the mechanical power output of the turbine.
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These controllers have become automated and at steady state, the frequency-power
relation for turbine-governor control is,
1
ΔP m = ΔPref − ×Δf
R (3.1)
Where,
ΔP m is the change in turbine mechanical power output

ΔP ref is the change in a reference power setting

Δf
− =−slope
R = ΔP m is the regulation constant which quantifies the sensitivity
of the generator to a change in frequency
Δf is the change in frequency.
For steam turbines, steam turbine governing adjusts the mechanical output of
the turbine by increasing or decreasing the amount of steam entering the turbine via a
throttle valve.

3.2.2. Load Frequency Control (LFC)

Load-frequency control is employed to allow an area to first meet its own load
demands, then to assist in returning the steady-state frequency of the system, Δf , to
zero. Load-frequency control operates with a response time of a few seconds to keep
system frequency stable.

3.3. Mathematical modeling of LFC systems

In this section transfer function model of each component of LFC/AGC in an
interconnected power system is presented. The various components of LFC systems
used in the power system model are (a) generator, (b) load, (c) governor, and (d)
prime mover.

3.3.1. Mathematical model of generator

In power system mathematical model of generator can be developed using
swing equation given by:
2GH d 2 Δδ
=ΔP M −ΔP E
w s dt 2 (3.2)
Where, H is the inertia constant in MJ/MVA,
 22

G is the rating of the machine in MVA,

w s is the synchronous angular speed in rad/sec,

Δδ is change in the rotor angle in rad,

ΔP M and ΔP E are the changes in mechanical input power and electrical output

power in MW respectively.

(3.3)

ΔP M ΔP
ΔP m= ΔP e= E
Here G and G are expressed in per unit.

2H

(3.4)

Here Δw is the angular speed deviation in per unit.

Taking Laplace transform on both sides of equation (3.4), we have
ΔP m ( s ) −ΔP e ( s )
s Δw ( s )= 2H

1
2 Hs
( ΔP m ( s )−ΔP e ( s ) )
(3.5)
The block diagram arrangement of equation (3.5) is shown in Figure 3.1

Figure 3.1 Transfer Function Model of Generator

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3.3.2. Mathematical Model of Load

Electrical load in power system are generally of two types i.e. load which is
independent of frequency known as frequency independent load & load which
depends on frequency known as frequency sensitive load. Heating and lighting loads
(resistive loads) are generally frequency independent. Whereas motor loads are
treated as frequency sensitive loads. Therefore, the total electrical load can be
expressed in Laplace transform as:

ΔP e ( s )= ΔP L ( s )+ Δ Dw ( s ) (3.6)
ΔP L ( s ) is the frequency independent load component

Δ Dw ( s ) is the frequency sensitive load component

From load speed characteristic D can be found by calculating the ratio of
percentage change in load to percentage change in frequency measured in Watt/
(rad/sec). Using equations (3.5) & (3.6), transfer function model of load and generator
can be formed and are shown in Figures 3.2-3.3. Figure 3.4 shows the simplified
transfer function model of combination of generator and load.

Figure 3.2 Block Diagram of Load

Figure 3.3 Block Diagram of Generator and Load

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Figure 3.4 Simplified Block Diagram of Generator and Load

3.3.3. Mathematical Model of Governor

In modern power plant there is always a mismatch between generated power
and load demand. When the electrical load on a generator suddenly changes with
same mechanical input power, the turbine speed changes as a result the frequency of
generation also changes. Governor employed in generating system senses this change
in speed and accordingly the valve position is changed to adjust the steam in case of
thermal power plant and water input in case of hydro power plant to the turbine so as
to maintain rated frequency. Schematic diagram of a Watt governor system for
thermal power plant is shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5 Schematic Diagram of a Speed Governing System

The above speed governing system shown in Figure 3.5 consists of the
following essential parts as discussed below:
1. Speed governor: The main part of speed governing system is centrifugal
fly-ball that is driven directly or through gearing system employed in the
turbine shaft. Downward and upward motion of speed governing system is
directly proportional to change in speed of the turbine.
2. Linkage mechanism: As shown in Figure 3.5 there are four linkage arms
I1, I2, I3 & I4 and five linkage points A, B, C, D & E. I1 & I2 linkage arms
are stiffly coupled and also arms I 3 & I4. By the help of hydraulic
amplifier, linkage arms and linkage points the linkage mechanism system
gives movement to the turbine valve position which is directly
 25

proportional to change in turbine shaft speed and also that provides

feedback through the turbine valve movement.
3. Hydraulic amplifier: Large mechanical forces are necessary to drive the
water/steam valve against high water/steam pressure. These forces are
obtained in the process of various stages of hydraulic amplifier.
4. Speed changer: It comprises of vertical screw arrangement which is driven
by a servo motor and helps to move the linkage point A either up or down
as per the requirement to supply electrical power at nominal frequency.

Let small displacement of link point A be ΔY A in downward direction. This

creates an upward movement of link point C by

ΔY C &point D by ΔY D and a

downward movement of point E by ΔY E . Downward movement of link point E

causes the steam valve to open which in turn increases the mechanical power output
of the turbine as a result electrical power output of generator increases by an amount
ΔY C . Now due to rise in ΔY C , speed and hence the frequency of generator increases

by an amount Δf . Hence, it can be written as,

ΔY A = k ΔP C
C

Where,
kC is proportionality constant.
Net upward movement of link point C is due to

Initial downward movement of link point A by ΔY A and is given by

ΔY C =−k 1 ΔY A=−k 1 k C ΔPC (Upward)
Due to increase in speed, the link point B moves downward and hence link
point C by k2 Δf .
Therefore, net movement of link point C can be expressed as
ΔY C =−k 1 k C ΔPC +k 2 Δf (3.7)
Resultant movement of link point D depends on movement of link points C &
E and is expressed as
ΔY D =k 3 ΔYC +k 4 ΔYE (3.8)

The movement of link point E depends on quantity of pressurized oil through

pilot valve which is given by
 26

t
=k 5 ∫ (−ΔY D ) dt
ΔY E 0 (3.9)
Where, k1, k2, k3, k4 & k5 are proportionality constants.
Taking Laplace transform of both sides of equations (3.7-3.8) and after

simplifying for ΔY E we have

ΔY E ( s )
=
[ ][
Kg
1+sT g
× ΔPC ( s )−
1
R1
ΔF ( s )
] (3.10)

k1 k3 kC 1
K g= =
Where, k4 is the gain of speed governor, and T g
k 4 k 5 is the time
k1 kC
R1 = .
constant of speed governing system and k2

Equation (3.11) can be rewritten in simplified form as:

ΔP V ( s )
=
[ ][
1
1+sT g
1
× ΔPref ( s ) − Δw ( s )
R1 ] (3.11)

1
= ΔY ( s )
Where,
ΔP V ( s ) K g E , ΔP ref ( s )= ΔPC ( s ) and R= R ¿ 2 π is the speed regulation
1

of the governor which is the slope of governor characteristics.

ω nl −ω fl
=
R ω0 (3.12)
Where,
ω nl = steady state speed at no load

ω fl = steady state speed at full load

ω 0 = nominal or rated speed

(3.13)

1
ΔP g ( s ) = ΔPref ( s )− R Δw ( s ) (3.14)

1
= ΔP ( s )
ΔP V ( s ) 1+T g g (3.15)
 27

The transfer function model of speed governing system is shown in figure;

Figure 3.6 Transfer Function Model of Speed Governing System

Governors typically have a speed regulation of 6-7 percent from zero to full load.

3.3.3.1. Percentage speed regulation or droop R

The value of R determines the steady state speed versus load characteristics of
the generating unit as shown in figure below.

The ratio of speed deviation (

Δw r )
or frequency deviation ¿f) to change in
valve/gate position ¿Y) or output power ¿P) is equal to R. The parameter R is referred
to speed regulation or droop. It can be expressed in percent as
Percent R= percent speed or frequency change/percent power output change ¿100
= [w (nl)-w (fl)]/w0 ¿ 100 (3.16)
Where,
w (nl) = steady state speed at no load
w (fl) = steady state speed at full load
w0 = nominal or rated speed
for example 5% speed drop or regulation means 5% frequency deviation causes 100%
change in power output.
In figure speed drop characteristics of governor is shown. A typical value of speed
droops in the governor is 5% . These governors’ responses from each unit in the
control area collectively to stabilize the system frequency at a new equilibrium.
 28

Figure 3.7 Ideal Steady State Characteristics of Governor with Speed Drop
These two response, load damping and governor response; help the system
interconnection to be more stable. In short the system frequency goes up when the
generation output is relatively bigger than the loads and the vice versa. This can be
understood as a strong natural inertia to stay on equilibrium. The governor speed
droop characteristics intentionally put to help this natural process to be more
effective. These responses are mathematically modeled as D and R respectively and

are combined into one frequency response characteristics β .

β=∑ ( R1 + D ) . (3.17)

3.3.4. Mathematical Model of Prime Mover

Input to the steam turbine is taken as steam pressure and output is considered
as mechanical power. Hence, mathematical modeling of the steam turbine is
analogous to that of a steam vessel. Figure 3.8 shows the schematic block diagram of
steam vessel.

Figure 3.8 Steam Vessel

 29

ΔP m ( s ) 1
G T ( s )= =
ΔP V ( s ) 1+ sT t (3.18)

Where,
T t is the turbine time constant.
The transfer function model is;

Figure 3.9 Transfer Function Model of Steam Turbine

The time constant

T t is in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 seconds.

3.3.5. Mathematical Model of Hydro Turbine

Two basic types of hydro turbines used in hydro power plant are impulse
turbine and reaction turbine. In impulse type turbine which is also known as pelton
wheel, runner is at atmospheric pressure. The total pressure drops in stationary
nozzles which converts potential energy into kinetic energy. The deviation in
momentum produces the torque for driving the runner and the energy supplied being
totally kinetic. In reaction turbine, the pressure is above atmospheric within the
turbine. The energy supplied are in the form of potential (pressure head) and kinetic.
The performance of hydraulic turbine is effected by the property of water
inertia, compressibility and elasticity of pipe wall. To develop transfer function model
of hydraulic turbine certain assumptions are to be made such as:
1. Hydraulic resistance is negligible.
2. Water is incompressible and penstock pipe is inelastic.
3. Water velocity varies in direct proportion with gate opening and with
square root of net head.
4. Output power from turbine is proportional to product of volume of
water flow and head.
Velocity of water (v) in the penstock is expressed by

V=kVG√ H (3.19)
Where, G is the gate position,
H is head of water at gate,
kV is a proportionality constant.
 30

Figure 3.10 Transfer Function Model of Hydraulic Turbine

The combined block diagram of governor, turbine, alternator and load for a
thermal power plant and hydroelectric power plant are shown in Figure 3.11 and 3.12
respectively.

Figure 3.11 Transfer Function Model of LFC of an Isolated Thermal Power System
The open-loop transfer function of the block diagram in figure;
1 1
R ( 2 Hs+ D ) ( 1+ sT g )( 1+ sT t )
KG(s)H(s) = (3.20)

The close-loop transfer function relating the load change ΔP L to the frequency

deviation Δw is
( 1+sT g )( 1+ sT t )
Δw ( s ) 1
=
−ΔP L ( s ) ( 2 Hs+ D ) ( 1+ sT g )( 1+ sT t ) + R (3.21)
Δw ( s )=− ΔP L ( s ) T ( s ) (3.22)
1
=lim S →0 sΔw ( s )=(−ΔP L )
1
D+
Δw ( s ) R (3.23)

It is clear that for the case with no load frequency-sensitive load (i.e., with
D=0), the steady–state deviation in frequency is determined by the governor speed
regulation, and is
Δw ss=( −ΔP L ) R
(3.24)
 31

1
Δw ss=( −ΔP L )
1 1 1
D+ + +. . .
R1 R2 Rn (3.25)

Figure 3.12 Transfer Function Model of LFC of an Isolated Hydroelectric Power

System
The LFC block as shown in Figure 3.11 and 3.12 are known as primary
control loop of turbo- and hydro-alternator respectively. In an interconnected power
system the action of the LFC i.e. primary control loop may not be sufficient enough to
regain the nominal system frequency. Therefore, in addition to primary control loop,
an additional control is also required called secondary control loop which is equipped
with an integral controller. The integral controller monitors the mean error over a
specific time period and produces necessary control actions to reduce the steady state
error in frequency. In this process the generation of power is adjusted automatically
for any load perturbation and the nominal frequency is re-established. This scheme of
restoration of frequency is known as automatic generation control (AGC). AGC in
interconnected power system distributes the loads economically among various
stations, individual generators and systems. In addition, it also helps in maintaining
the scheduled tie line power flow. Sometimes due to sudden and large change in
loading condition, AGC scheme is bypassed and nominal frequency is restored by
load shedding which is known as emergency control scheme. An isolated power
system equipped with AGC is shown in Figure 3.13.
 32

Figure 3.13 Block Diagram of an Isolated System Equipped with AGC

3.4. AGC of two-area system

Figure3.14 shows schematic diagram of two area power system which consists
of two control areas connected through a lossless tie-line. Each control area is
represented by a voltage source behind an internal reactance known as source
reactance.

Figure 3.14 Schematic Diagram of a Two-Area Interconnected Power System

The real power flow through the interconnected tie-line is given by:
|E1||E2|
P12= cosδ 12
X 12 (3.26)

Where, δ 12=δ 1−δ 2 is the load angle and X 12= X 1+ X 2 + X tieis the transfer reactance.
|E ||E | 0
ΔP 12= 1 2 cosδ 12× Δδ12
X 12 (3.27)
ΔP 12 =P s ×Δδ 12
ΔP 12 =P s ×( Δδ 1 −Δδ 2 ) (3.28)
 33

ΔP 12 =P s ×(∫ Δw 1 dt−∫ Δw 2 dt ) (3.29)

The transfer function of tie-line is

Ps
ΔP 12 ( s ) = ×( Δw 1 ( s )−Δw 2 ( s ) )
s (3.30)

Figure 3.15 Block Diagram of Tie-Line

Δw= Δw 1= Δw2
ΔP m 1 −ΔP 12− ΔP L1 =Δ wD 1 (3.31)
ΔP m 2 + ΔP12= ΔwD 2 (3.32)
− Δw
ΔP m 1 =
R1
− Δw
ΔP m 2 =
R2
The per unit steady state frequency deviation is;
−ΔP L 1 −ΔP L 1
Δw ss= =
( )( )
1 1 B1 + B2
D1 + + D2 +
R1 R2
(3.33)
Tie-line power variation in terms of frequency bias factors is given by:
B2
B1 + B 2 (
ΔP 12= − ΔP L1 )
(3.34)
Where,

B1 =
( 1
R1
+ D1
) and
(
B2 =
1
R2
+ D2
)
B1 is the frequency bias factor of area-1, and B 2 is the frequency bias factor of
area-2.
 34

A two area interconnected power system with primary LFC loop is presented
in Figure 3.16. In this case an increased load demand in area-1 is being supplied by
increase in generation in both areas as a result the scheduled tie-line power changes
and also frequency of system is affected. However, the change in load must be met
without change in nominal frequency. In order to maintain rated frequency individual
area should supply its own load variation and there by maintaining scheduled tie-line
power flow.

Figure 3.16 Two-Area Interconnected Power System with Primary LFC Loop
In an isolated electrical power system output of the integral controller is area
control error (ACE) which makes the steady state error of frequency to be zero. In a
two area interconnected power system the steady state error of tie-line power can also
be reduced to zero by employing integral control loop for each area. Therefore, in
interconnected power system ACE can be expressed as linear combination of change
in tie-line power and frequency error and is expressed by:

ACE1 = ΔP 12+B1 Δw1 (3.35)

ACE2 = −ΔP 12+B 2 Δw 2= ΔP21 +B2 Δw 2 (3.36)

Figure 3.17 shows a two-area interconnected thermal power system equipped
with integral controller in both areas.
Dynamic performance of the AGC of an interconnected power system is
largely influenced by the selection of proper controllers along with optimal
 35

parameters. Figure 3.17 demonstrates the two-area interconnected power system

equipped with integral controller in the secondary control loop. From the literature it
is known that integral controller completely eliminates the steady state error however,
it makes the system slower, and oscillating with larger undershoots and overshoots
and may degrade the stability of the system. Hence, in order to enhance the
performance of the AGC in interconnected system, PID controller which is most
effective and simpler is employed in the place of integral controller. Suitable design
of the gain of the PID parameters is now a day’s a challenge for design engineers. In
early days the PID parameters were obtained using hit and trial approach or by using
some classical techniques like Cohen Coon approach, Ziegler-Nichols approach, etc.
However in the last few decades the design of PID controller has been widely used
using various soft computing techniques.

Figure 3.17 Two-Area Interconnected Power System Equipped with Integral

Controller in Each Area

3.5. PID Controller

A proportional-integral-derivative controller (PID) is a control loop feedback
mechanism (controller) widely used in industrial control systems. A PID controller
calculates an error value as the difference between a measured process variable and a
 36

desired set point. The controller attempts to minimize the error by adjusting the
process through use of a manipulated variable.
The PID controller algorithm involves three separate constant parameters, and
is accordingly sometimes called three-term control: the proportional, the integral and
derivative values, denoted. Simply put, these values can be interpreted in terms of
time: P depends on the present error, I on the accumulation of past errors, and D is a
prediction of future errors, based on current rate of change. The weighted sum of
these three actions is used to adjust the process via a control element such as the
position of a control valve, a damper, or the power supplied to a heating element.
In the absence of knowledge of the underlying process, a PID controller has
historically been considered to be the most useful controller. By tuning the three
parameters in the PID controller algorithm, the controller can provide control action
designed for specific process of the controller to an error, the degree to which the
controller overshoots the set point, and the degree of system oscillation. Note that the
use of the PID algorithm for control does not guarantee optimal control of the system
or system stability.
Some applications may require using only one or two action to provide the
appropriate system control. This is achieved by setting the other parameters to zero. A
PID controller will be called a PI, PD, P or I controller in the absence of the
respective control actions. PI controllers are fairly common, since derivative action is
sensitive to measurement noise, whereas the absence of an integral term may prevent
the system from reaching its target value due to the control action. The structure of
PID controller is shown in figure;

Figure 3.18 Structure of PID Controller

The PID controller is simple and easy to implement. It is used to improve the
dynamic response as well as to reduce or eliminate the steady-state error. The
 37

derivative controller adds a finite zero to the open-loop plant transfer function and
improves the system type by one and reducing the steady-state error due to a step
function to zero.
The PID controller transfer function is
Ki
C ( s )=K p + +Kd s
s (3.37)
Where,
K p : Proportional gain
K i : Integral gain

K d : Derivative gain

3.5.1. Proportional Loop

The purpose of the proportional gain is to create a change to the system output
that is directly proportional to the system’s current error value. A large gain value will
yield a large change in a system output for a given error, and thus gain can be used to
amplify the speed with a controller that reacts to a certain state condition. However, it
the gain value is too large, the system can become unstable very quickly.
On the other hand, if the gain is too small, the controller will have a
subsequently small response to an error value. The small value of proportional gain
will result in a less sensitive controller, which may not respond correctly to error
disturbance. A system will not settle at the set point value, but will retain a steady
state error that is a function of the proportional and process gain.

3.5.2. Integral Loop

The value contribute from the integral loop is proportional to both magnitude
and duration of the error. Adding the recent error values over time gives the offset
value that should have been previously corrected. This accumulated error value is
then multiplied by the integral gain and added to the controller output. When added to
the proportional term, the integral loop accelerates the response of the process
towards the set point value and eliminates the residual steady-state error of a
proportional only controller. The integral loop is only responding to the summation of
 38

recent errors, however, which will cause the response to overshoot the set point value
and thus create an error in the opposite direction.

3.5.3. Derivative Loop

The derivative loop calculates the rate at which the error is changing by
calculating the slope of the error. This is done by calculating the change in error over
time the first derivative gain.
3.6. Working of Integral Controller
Integral control is the control mode where the controller output is proportional
to the integral of the error with respect to time. To remove the steady state frequency
error the speed changer setting should be adjusted automatically by monitoring the
frequency changes. For this purpose, a signal from Δf is fed through an integrator to
the speed changer resulting in the block diagram configuration. Integral action is
generally applied with proportional control, so called proportional and integral
control. This combination of favorable in that some of the advantages of both types of
control action is available. The main advantages of P+I is that it can eliminate the
offset in proportional control. The integral controller is used to minimize the
frequency deviation and tie-line power deviation.