19.

Frequency Control and Longterm Dynamics problems as

beingthe most relevant ones from the
operator's point of view. Other important control problems
Following a major fault the transient stabilityis typically related to resource optimization. security enhancement and
determined within oneorseveralseconds. Even if the environmental protection have been excluded due to space
system remains initially
synchronized,
faultinduced limitation. Due to the enormous capital
investments,
problems often occurwhich make themselves known within changes in power systems technology tend to be
of
several seconds or possibily minutesandwhich will give evolutionary rather than revolutionary nature. We presently
rise to longterm frequency dynamics. identify some of the areas that probably will be subject to
Forexample,thelinetrip in theaboveexample may increased futureattention by control andsystems re-
cause voltage swings so severe that a feedwaterpumpmotor searchers.
will trip making it necessary to take G 2 out of service, thus The graph in Fig. 2 depictsone of the basic problems
creating a systemwide generation shortage of 200 MW. If facingthe power systems planner-disparity between
the system were partof a power pool, support power would maximumand minimum loading-which results.on the
immediately flow in overthetie-lines. If thesystem is average, in poor utilization of generating equipment. In an
operating alone the 200 megawatts will be taken from the earlierand moreplentiful energy era the electricutilities
kinetic storage resulting in a rapid frequency deterioration. never attempted to interfere with the customer's power use
Power balance must be rapidlyrestoredand permanent habits.However.adding new generatingcapacity is ex-
loadshedding will often be the last resort. It can be done ceedinglyexpensive in bothmonetaryandenvironmental
manually by the operator or automatically upon command terms. By shaving the demand peaks it is possible to either
from underfrequency relays. cancel or at least postpone for several yearsthe construction
Simulation of the frequency dynamicscould,theo- of new plants and/or the installation of expensive peaking
retically, be performed by extending the integration of the units. Controlling the power demand. or load management,
swing equations (40). now rewritten in the frequency form hasthus today becomea very high priority item on the
engineering agenda of most utility industries.
Load control can in principle be achieved in a number of
ways ranging from the totally voluntaryapproach to
compulsory shutoff (ref's. 13, 13). Using microprocessors
As some of the generators are performing relatively fast in combination withnovelrate schedules(ref. 15) offers
intermachineswingsthisintegration procedurerequires new possibilities. The industry is looking urgently for new
smallintegrationsteps (zO.01 s). Aconsiderably more and imaginative ideas in this field.
practical approachis to turn theattention to the average Areawide blackouts
although
rare have
dramatic
frequency of all the area generators. impacts
and
often
serious
consequences. Increased
We thus define a lumped area generator having lhe inertia operating security thus is high on the industry priority list.
Finding improved methodsforpredictingtransient and
frequency stability- and developing new emergency control
methods are tasks singularly suited to the control specialist.
and its rotor position ("center of inertia") defined by Determination of transient stability has classically been
performed indirectl! by integration of the swing equations.
Time-domain simulation is
computationally costly
and
places a constraint upon the number of contingensies that
can bestudied. Direct stabilityanalysismethodsseem to
offerbetter promise in thisregard.These methodsare
The frequency of this imaginary machine then equals known under
the
acronymTESA (Transient
Energy
StabilityAnalysis).Directstability assessmentmethods
exemplified by the famous "equal area criterion" (ref. 3)
have been used by powerengineersfor many years.The
TESA methods based as they all are upon Lyapunov theory
and can be integrated from a "lumped" swing equation are not new either. However, recentcontributors(ref. 16)
claim a "breakthrough" in the use of these methods as a
resultofphysicallybasedenergyfunctionsandamore
intuitiveinterpretation of computerresults. An ultimate
goal in TESA researchwould be to developamethod
whereby the system operator could assess in real time the
As the frequency, f,,.is a fairly slowly changing variable degree of stabilitycharacterizingthe system at acertain
the integration steps can now be chosen fairly large ( 2 I 5 ) . operating time and in a certain operating configuration.
In sect. 18 we brieflymentioned the new emergency
20. Future Trends
controlschemes the theory of which has been recently
In this brief exposition of power system control we have studied by ZaborszkyandMeisel (ref's. 1 1 . 12). Those
focused on the normal and
emergency
state
control methods represent
distinct
a departure from existing

14