RESEARCH METHODS

Prof. Mugisha PhD

Week One: Introduction to Research
Learning objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to understand
the following:
 Meaning of Research
 Nature and Scope of Research
 Importance,
 Characteristic
 Types of Research
Reflection

“Research is to see what everybody else has seen

and to think what nobody else has thought”
Albert Szent-Gyorgyi
 Introduction
 The process of answering questions by any person
can be either crude or organized.
 The organized way of answering has been classified
as factual, scientific and systematic.
 Research is about the scientific process of
collecting, organizing, analyzing, interprete and
reporting data.
 What is research?

Research is defined as a systematic process of

collecting, organizing, analyzing and
interpreting data for some purpose Schumacher
(1997)
 Such a purpose may be to solve a problem;
 To generate or expand knowledge, or and;
 Just for evaluation.
 Etc.
 What research isn’t
 Information gathering
 Gathering information from sources such as books
is not research
 Intelligence is not research
 No contribution of new ideas
 Transportation of facts
 No contribution to new knowledge
 Not going beyond facts to more general
knowledge/facts about human behaviour.
 Why is Research Scientific
 Search for knowledge: Something new about
something.
 Systematic: Follows procedures/plan and designs.
 Empirical: Evidence based & truth about the
information you have.
 Carefully designed: It is based on a clear problem,
new data answers, original research questions.
 Objective: Can be interpreted and verified and is
free from bias.
 Hallmarks/Symbols/Assurances of
Scientific Research summarized

 Purposiveness
 Rigour
 Testability
 Replicability
 Precision/exactness/accurate/correctness
 Objectivity
 Generalisability
 Parsimony
 Purposive
Aimed at solving a scientific problem.
 Rigorous
 Step by step,
 Logical,
 Organised,
 Methodological in:
 Identifying and solving problems;
 In data gathering,
 Analysis,

 Interpretation and;
 Drawing conclusions, recommendations; (not
based on experience or intuition alone).
 Good theoretical base and sound methodological
design.
 Connotes/suggests carefulness, high degree of
exactitude in research investigations;
exhaustiveness, minimum amount of bias.
 Testability
 Scientific research enables others interested in
researching and knowing about similar issues to do
research in similar situations and come up with
comparable findings.

 A researcher can develop certain hypotheses which

can then be tested. Hypotheses are intelligent
guesses that assist the researcher seeking the solution
to a problem.
 Scientific research thus lends itself to testing
logically developed hypotheses to see whether or
not the data supports or does not support the
hypotheses which have been developed after careful
study of the problem.
 Replicability

 The results of the tests of hypothesis should be

supported again and again when the research is
repeated in other similar circumstances (e.g.
other organisations);
 To the extent that the results are replicated
(repeated), this will give us more confidence in
our research being scientific;
 In other words, our hypotheses would not have
been supported merely by chance.
 Precision and Confidence

a) Precision
 Refers to how close the findings, based on sample,
are to ‘reality’;

 Reflects the degree of exactitude of the results

based on the sample to the phenomena being
studied as they exist in the universe.
b) Confidence
 Refers to the probability that our estimations are
correct; i.e., it is not merely enough to be precise,
but, one should be ‘confident’ that e.g. 95% of the
time, the results will be found to be accurate and
true and there is only a 5% chance of our results
being wrong.
 Objectivity

 The conclusions drawn through the interpretation

of the results of our data analysis should be
objective, i.e., based on the facts, results from the
actual data and not own subjective or emotional
values/feelings/opinions;

 The more objective the interpretation of the data,

the more scientific the research investigation
becomes.
 Generalizability
 Refers to the scope of applicability of the research
findings in one organisational setting to other
settings;

 The wider the range of applicability of the solutions

generated by research, the more useful the research
is to the users of such research knowledge
 Parsimony

 Refers to the simplicity and economy in

explaining the phenomena or problems that occur
and in the application of the solutions to the
problems rather than complex explanations, etc.

 Connected ideas, logical

 E.g. economy refers to building into our research a
lesser number of research variables than a complex
set of variables that would marginally add to the
results required.
Purpose of research (Why?)
1. Basic/ Fundamental Research
 Generate/expand knowledge
 Explain a phenomena (how/why)
 Test/prove/ disapprove theories (Cause-effect)

2. Applied Research
 For use or application in real life
 Provides solution to problems

3. Evaluation
 Test or develop idea
4. Curiosity
5. Government directive
6. Employment
7. Problem solving
8. Academic award
9. Understand human behaviour and action
 Types of research

1. Basic/Fundamental/Pure research
 Comparative research
A research methodology that aims to make
comparisons across different countries or cultures
 Descriptive research
Used to describe the characteristics of a population
or phenomenon being studied
 Causal or Explanatory research
Is the investigation of cause and effect relationships
2. Applied research
 Action research
 Evaluation research
 Social impact assessment
 Applied/Instrumental research
 Experimental Research
 Characteristics of good research
 Disciplinary embedding
 Is the broad area of research, the theme and topic
clear? What discipline are you contributing too?
 Relevance
 Will the research lead to new information/ current/
topical (newsworthiness)?
 What is its usefulness?
 Is the statement informative enough (scope)?
 Would this study substantially revise or extend
existing knowledge or lead to some useful change
in best practice?
 Precision
 Are the units of analysis clear?
 How large is the population affected, and how
important, influential, or popular is this
population?
 What are the key variables and dimensions
 Functionality
 What is your research type (basic/applied)?
 Does the structure of the problem or the study
design reflect its function?
 Consistency
 Is the discipline of the research, the reason and
strategy logically laid out
 Is there evidence or authoritative opinion from
others to support the need for this research?
 Verification
 Open to confirmation by others
 Empirical
 Evidence based
 Research is systematic; that is, it is structured and
carried out following specific rules, steps and
procedures.
 Research is logical; meaning that the researcher
employs logic or systematic reasoning at many
points of the research process.
 Research is reductive; This means that when a
researcher applies analytical procedures to collect
data, the confusion of individual events and objects
are reduced to more understandable categories and
concepts.
 Research is transmittable; meaning that the
results of a given study can be employed in
understanding or solving a problem outside that
specific area or context of study.
 Research is replicable; that is, a study can be
redone or repeated, if need be.
 Research is cyclical; meaning that it does not end
with the finding of solutions to an identified
problem.
 How the Criteria Fits

Relevance Significance
(Reason) Justification of the study
Motivation
Disciplinary Introduction
embedding Theoretical framework
Literature review

Functionality, Research design

Research structure Methodology
Precision
RESEARCH PROCESS AND GUIDELINES
FOR RESEARCH PROPOSAL WRITING
 The research process - cyclic
 Problem identification
 Preliminary review of literature
 Main hypothesis,
 Research objectives/questions/hypotheses that further
clarify the research problem.
 Review of related literature
 Methodology (research design, population, sample,
data collection etc.)
 Data collection
 Data analysis (Presentation, analysis and
interpretation)
 Writing report/Dissemination
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS FOR BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH/SUMMARY
(1)
OBSERVATION
Broad area of
research
interest

(4) (7)
(3) THEORETICAL (5) (6) DATA
PROBLEM FRAMEWORK GENERATION SCIENTIFIC GENERATION,
DEFINITION OF HYPOTHESIS RESEARCH ANALYSIS, AND
Research Variables clearly DESIGN INTERPRETATION
problem identified and
delineated labelled

(8)
(2) DEDUCTION
PRELIMINARY Hypotheses
DATA substantiated?
GATHERING Research
Interviewing question
Literature answered?
survey

No Yes

(11)
(9) (10) Managerial
Report Report Decision
Writing Presentation Making
Research paradigms/Approaches to
Research
 Research paradigms/Approaches to
Research
 Research is looked at from the philosophical or
Doctrinal positions
 These positions are based on
 Epistemology “knowledge of what is right”,
 Ontology “the nature of Reality” and,
 Axiology “the ethical conduct of research”
 The differences between positivism and
interpretivism; qualitative and quantitative
approaches.
 What is a research paradigm?
 Research paradigm
 A comprehensive belief system that guides
research and practice in a field.
 Three main philosophical underpinnings of
research paradigms :
 Epistemology
 Ontology
 Axiology
 Common paradigms
 Positivism and interpretivism;
 Qualitative and quantitative approaches
 Understanding further Philosophical
underpinnings
1. Epistemology:
 It is a branch of philosophy that deals with the
study of knowledge.
 It concerns itself with how people know what
they say they know.
 How should one go about studying the world?
 What is meaningful evidence?
Basic epistemological questions are:
 To what extent can knowledge exist before
experience?
 By what process does knowledge arise?
 How does one separate fact from fantasy?
 What constitutes meaningful statement about reality?
 Two epistemological schools
Empiricism
 Senses are supreme
 World view 1:Reality is distinct from human beings
 Scientific
Rationalism
 The mind is supreme
 World view 2. People play an active role in creating
knowledge
 Subjectivity
 2. Ontology

 This is concerned with the nature of reality

 Key questions in this perspective are:
 What is reality?
 Can reality be there before it is found?
 Is reality independent of the observer?
 What kind of reality exists
 In simple terms
 Epistemology is concerned with the questions
“What do you know?” and “How do you know
it?”, whilst
 Ontology is concerned with “What is there?”.
Both act as the foundations of our approach to a
research question
 Both range from positivist stances (deductive and
more scientific views – “counting and
measuring” quantitative research methods) to
interpretivist stances (inductive “deeper truth”
reasoning views – observational qualitative
research methods) (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill,
2007).
 3.Axiology
 It is the branch of philosophy that examines values of
the researcher and the extent to which such values
enter into the research process.
 Key questions:
 Can theory be (researcher’s) value free?
 To what extent does the practice of inquiry
influence what is being studied?
 To what extent should scholarship attempt to
achieve social change?
 Research paradigms (Positivism &
Interpretivism)

 The 3 philosophical underpinnings

(epistemology, ontology, & axiology)
underline the differences between the
two research paradigms i.e. Positivism
& Interpretivism.
 Positivism-existence of an objective
world
 Interpretivism-external reality does
not exist. It is socially constructed
 Summary of key differences from
philosophical perspective
Assumptions Positivist Interpretivism

Epistemology Objective reality exists Knowledge is

beyond human mind constituted through
experience
Ontology Person & reality Person and reality
separate inseparable
Axiology Research object Research object
independent of interpreted in
researcher values researcher’s
experience
 Positivism vs. interpretivism
 Positivism believe
 There is an objective external world that is real and
independent of those who observe it
 The objects that inhabit the world are knowable
through our senses ...
 Observed facts and events are independent of the
value system, state of knowledge and experience of
the observer
 The results of experiments are experimenter
independent, value free and repeatable
 The objects in the real world are related to each
other and their behaviour is governed by general
laws independent of time, space and observers …
Positivism …
 Positivism…
 These relationships and laws are discoverable
by observation of facts and events and
generalization from them.
 Objects and systems in the real world are the
sum of their parts and can be understood (as a
whole) by decomposition followed by analysis
of the separate parts ...
 Causal and predictive theories can be built to
explain and control the real world.
Positivism
 Key elements of positivism
 An objective truth exits
 Truth revealed trough use of scientific method
 Quantification-empiricism
 Researcher is independent from what is
researched
 Deductive
 Some methods with positivism basis
 Laboratory experiments; Field experiments
 Surveys; Simulation
 Formal theorem proof; Case studies (this one is
arguable)
Positivism Vs Interpretivism
 Interpretivism believes:
 External reality does not exist. Reality is created or
constructed by each viewer of it according to their own
experiences & understanding, subjective biases & value
system
 The same event or experience will, in general, be
interpreted or understood differently by different
observers, depending on their various constructions of
the world ...
 Reality created by our representations interpreted to
explain the social world
 Interpretivism…
 Interpretivism…
 Explanations of how & why the world works as it
does are observer & situation dependent
 Generalization is difficult because each set of
circumstances is to at least some degree unique
 Systems may exhibit emergent properties that
cannot be understood by inspecting and analysing
only their parts ...
 Theories about the world are approximate &
contingent
 Empirical verification of theories is difficult so
they are evaluated by their logical coherence and
plausibility.
 Key elements of Interpretivism…
 Individuals construct own version of reality-no
objective reality
 Aim of research is to understand and interpret
how individuals make sense of that constructed
reality
 Researcher has influence on the context in which
they study
 Some Methods with an Interpretivist basis….
 Action research
 Ethnographic studies
 Case studies
 Discourse analysis and Conversational analysis
 Summary of other differences
Aspect Positivist Interpretivism

Method Statistics, quantitative Ethnography

Theory of truth Correspondence theory of Truth is constructed

truth based on life
experience
Validity and Certainty: data measures Defensive
Reliability reality and research results knowledge claims
can be reproduced and researchers
recognize their
subjectivity
 Summary of other differences
Assumptions Positivist Interpretivism

Focus Description and Understanding and

explanation meaning, why and
how

Analytical technique Quantitative, Qualitative

deductive inductive
Research sample Surveys, large Small sample, in-
sample depth analysis
Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
Quantitative Qualitative
 Quantitative researchers are  Qualitative researchers interact,
detached from the sometimes very intimately, with
phenomenon they are studying the subjects of their study

 More of Positivism  More of post positivism

 Hypothesis developed before  Hypothesis developed as the study
conducting study (Deductive) is on (Inductive)

 Statistical analyses (Non  Judgmental conclusions

Judgmental)
 Requires deeper understanding More of prediction
of phenomena
Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
Quantitative Qualitative
 Commonly used on small  Used on bigger projects that
projects and not much time require a lot of time
needed
 More of statistical/Numerical  Focus is more on human values
 Used in open environments  Used in more closed environments

 Uses experimental designs  Uses non experimental designs

 Uses probabilistic sampling  Uses non probabilistic sampling
techniques techniques
 Applicable when population  Can be used even when population
size is more than 30 elements is less than 30 elements
Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
Quantitative Qualitative
 Allows flexibility  Too rigid
 Uses closed ended questions  Use of open ended questions
 Allows for generalizability  Specificity common and agreed approach
 May be from an artificial  Real situations/scenario
environment
 Scientific and formal.  Scientific and neutral.
 Reduced to scores.  Presented in a narrative description.
 Concrete, conceptual and  Experiential, contextual and best expressed
precise. Can be tested. Seeks by the owners.
proof.

 Linear, from stage to stage.  Cyclic and sophisticated.

 Manipulates variables to prove  Understands patterns of occurrences in order
hypothesis. to identify variables.
 Asks how much, how many.  Asks why, who, when, etc.
 Uses a random sample.  Uses theoretical samples & bounded cases.
Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
Quantitative Qualitative
 Experimental, manipulates  Multimodal, multi stranded.
conditions.
 Statistical.  Interpretative.
 Objective, singular &  Subjective & multiple as seen by the
independent of the researcher.
researcher.
 Withdrawn and independent  Interacts with that being researched.
of that being researched.
 Value free and unbiased.  Value laden and biased.
 Deductive: cause-effect.  Inductive: mutual, simultaneous
Generalizations leading to studying of factors. Generation of
explanations, understanding, theories.
etc. (Nomethetic)  Particularization of cases (Ideographic).

 An objective truth exists  No one agreed truth

Triangulation

 Also known as “mixed methods”

 Attempts to integrate both qualitative and
quantitative methods
 Takes advantages of each method
 Inadequacies of each method are minimized
 More valid and reliable
 Confirms that data generated is not due to
chance or circumstances
 Triangulation

Between methods (simultaneous)

 Using two or more methods to test hypotheses-
cross validation-looking for comparable data
 Testing external validity
 Observation, interviews , survey
Triangulation continued

Within methods
 Using multiple techniques within a method to
collect data
 Testing internal consistency or reliability
 Multiple scales measuring same dimension
Selecting a research topic
 Researcher’s interests
 Relevancy to area of specialization
 Researcher’s competence
 Resource envelope
 Funders
 Topic not over-researched
 Importance and urgency
 Not reproducing other works (plagiarism)
Reference Books

 Amin, M.E (2005). Social Science Research:

Conception, Methodology and Analysis”: Makerere
University Printery, Kampala.
 Babbie,E.(1995, 2004)The Practice of Research,
Wadsworth Singapore
 Neuman,W,.L.(2003),Social Science Research
Methods:Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, A
and B, London.
 Sekaran,U.(2003),Research Methods for Business:A
Skills Building Approach,John Wiley & Sons,Illinois
 Miller R, L. and Brewer J,D.(2003) A-Z of Social
Research. Sage publications ltd, London EC2A 4PU
 Bell, J. (1999).How to complete your Research project
successfully. New Delhi, UBSPD.
 Cresswell, J.W (1994). Research Designs: Qualitative &
Quantitative Approaches. London, Sage Publications.
 Kothari, C. R. (2009). Research Methodology: Methods and
Techniques. India, New Delhi: New Age Publications India.
 Mugenda, O. M & Mugenda, A. G. (1999). Research Methods:
Quantitative & Qualitative Approaches. Nairobi: Acts Press.
 Neauman, W.L. (2003). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches, London
 Odiya, J. N. (2010). Scholarly writing in APA and MLA style.
Kampala: Makerere University Printery.
 Revision questions

1. With examples distinguish these two terms:

“Positivism”, “Interpretivism”
2. With examples distinguish these two terms:
ontology, epistemology.
3. What are the strengths and weakness of qualitative
and quantitative approaches
4. Is there a one best research paradigm?
5. What advantages would triangulation take from
both quantitative and qualitative methods? And what
inadequacies would be minimized from both
methods.
Coursework
 Identify any management problem in an organization of your
choice .Select a topic with an Independent and a Dependent
variable. Write a research proposal using IUEA Guidelines (With
three chapters and References). Plagiarism will lead to
discontinuation from the module.
 Show scholarly reading and referencing.
 Do not exceed 15 pages including references.
 Font 12
 Spacing 1.5 Times New Roman
 END

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