Contents

1. Geological History of India

2. Physiography of India
3. Rivers of India
4. Seasons of India
5. Climatic regions of India
6. India’s economic geography

Geological History of India

About 150 ml yrs ago Indian plate broke from Gondwanaland and Started northward journey.Indian peninsula
moved over Reunion Islands.It led to Hotspot volcanism and thus Deccan lava plateau was formed.

Then collision between Indian plate and Eurasian plate led to upliftment of Himalayas.
The jerk due to collision activated a crack at western margin of the peninsula. This led to the breaking of
western part. One portion subsided. Thus peninsula is raised on western side and a horst developed on
western coast to form western ghats.A tilt developed from west to east direction. Thus most of the rivers flow
from West to East in the peninsula.

Physiography of India
It can be mainly divided into following parts -
1. Northern Himalayan Mountains
2. Northern Plains

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 1

 3. Peninsular Plateu
4. Coastal Plains
5. Indian deserts
6. Islands

Northern Himalayan Mountains

Himalayan mountain system include-
I. TransHimalaya​-These mountain ranges are beyond Himalaya and formed before Himalaya.They are
mainly igneous.Example- Zaskar, Ladakh, Karakoram, Hindukush, Kunlun, Kailash etc
II. Great Himalaya​-It is about 2500 km long.It is extended from Nanga parbat in the West to Namcha
Barua in the east. These are the highest and most continuous mountain range of the world.It is made
up of Crystalline rocks. It’s important peaks are Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaulagiri,
Mansalu, Annapurna,Nanda devi, Kamet, Gurla Mandhata.
III. Middle Himalaya​- These are also known as lesser Himalayas. These are discontinuous. Its ranges are
Pir Panjal, Dhaula Dhar, NagTibba, Masurie,Kumaon hills, Mahabharat(Nepal).
IV. Shivaliks​- Primarily formed of sedimentary deposits. Highly rugged and discontinuous. It disappears
after Gandak.
V. Eastern Hills and Mountains or Purvanchal ranges​- These are part of the Himalayan mountain
system having their general alignment from the north to the south direction. They are knownby different
local names. In the north, they are known as Patkai Bum, Naga hills, the Manipurhills and in the south
as Mizo or Lushai hills

Fig: Himalayan Mountains

Fig. Western and Eastern Himalayas

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 2

Extension of Purvanchal Himalaya is Arakan & Pegu Yoma mountains in Myanmar and Andaman & Nicobar
islands in Indian Ocean

Himalaya has gentle slope in northern face but in the southern

face slope is steep. Himalayan rivers are antecedent. Thus
their erosion is faster than uplift of Himalaya.Example-Indus,
Satluj, Brahmaputra, Kosi. Those rivers that change their path
due to uplift of the land is known as superimposed

“Duns” formation
When river is initially blocked by rising mountain. It spreads out to form lake. When dried these lakes are
known as doons.

Fig: Duns

Importance of Himalayas
Prevents cold Siberian wind to enter into India. If there were no Himalayas then there would be no Tibet. So
no rainfall and India would have been a desert. It is Source of perennial rivers and thus forms a great fertile
plain.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 3

Northern plains
The northern plains are formed by the alluvial deposits brought by
the rivers – theIndus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. These
plains extend approximately 3,200 km from the east to the west.
The average width of these plains varies between 150-300 km.
From the north to the south, these can be divided into three major
zones: the Bhabar, the Tarai and the alluvial plains. The alluvial
plains can be further divided into the Khadar and the Bhangar. It is
one of the largest, continuous and extensive plains. It is very fertile
plain with flat topography. It has very dense population.

Bhabhar is alluvial fans of Himalayan rivers. It is coarse deposition of large boulders. It has high porosity and
permeability. Here rivers disappear and it is not good for cultivation

Terai​: It is a region of bad drainage. Here Rivers re-appears and forms swamps, marshy land. Naturally sal
forest is found here.

Bangar- It is old floodplains of rivers. It forms dry land.

Khadar – It is new flood plains formed by fresh river deposition. It is highly fertile.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 4

In north Indian plain grain sizeof deposits decreases as we move from west to east. So in west UP we find
sandy soil, in East UP and Bihar we find silty, in Upper West Bengal we get clayey soil then in Gangetic delta
we find loamy soil.

Peninsular Plateau
Peninsula is a piece of land surrounded by water from three sides.
On the basis of the prominent relief features, the Peninsular plateau can be divided into three broad groups-
i. The Deccan Plateau
ii. The Central Highlands
iii. The Northeastern Plateau.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 5

Fig: : Physiography of India

The Deccan Plateau

It was formed when India passed over Reunion hot spot. The Basaltic lava flow layer over layer to form
Deccan trap. It looks like steps so it is called traps. This is bordered by the Western Ghats in the west, Eastern
Ghats in the east and the Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills in the north. Western Ghats are locally
known by different names such as Sahyadri in Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and
Anaimalai hills and Cardamom hills in Kerala. Western Ghats are comparatively higher in elevation and more
continuous than the Eastern Ghats. Their average elevation is about 1,500 m with the height increasing from
north to south. ‘Anamudi’ (2,695 m), the highest peak of Peninsular plateau is located on the Anaimalai hills of
the Western Ghats followed by Dodabetta(2,637 m) on the Nilgiri hills. Most of the Peninsular rivers have their
origin in the Western Ghats. Eastern Ghats comprising the discontinuous and low hills are highly eroded by the
rivers such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri, etc. Some of the important ranges include
the Javadi hills. the Palconda range, the Nallamala hills, theMahendragiri(highest) hills, etc. The Eastern and
theWestern Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri hills.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 6

Fig: : Physiography of India

The Central Highlands:

They are bounded to the west by the Aravali range. In the south
Satpura range. It is a series of scarped plateaus. It forms the
northernmost boundary of the Deccan plateau. It is highly denuded
and forms discontinuous ranges. The general elevation of the
Central Highlands ranges between 700-1,000 m above the mean
sea level and it slopes towards the north and northeastern
directions. Most of the tributaries of the river Yamuna have their
origin in the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges. Banas is the only
significant tributary of the river Chambal that originates from the
Aravalli in the west. An eastern extension of the Central Highland
is formed by the Rajmahal hills, to the south of which lies a large
reserve of mineral resources in the Chotanagpur plateau.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 7

The Northeastern Plateau
In fact it is an extension of the main Peninsular plateau. Due to
the force exerted by the north eastward movement of the Indian
plate at the time of the Himalayan origin, a huge fault known as
Malda gap was created between the Rajmahal hills and the
Meghalaya plateau. Later, this depression got filled up by the
deposition activity of the numerous rivers. Thus Meghalaya and
Karbi Anglong plateau stand detached from the main Peninsular
Block. The Meghalaya plateau is further subdivided into three: (i)
The Garo Hills; (ii) The Khasi Hills; (iii) The Jaintia Hills.Similar to
theChotanagpur plateau, the Meghalaya plateau is also rich in
mineral resources like coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone and
uranium. This area receives heavy rainfall. As a result, the
Meghalayaplateau has a highly eroded surface. Cherrapunji
displays a bare rocky surface devoid of any permanent
vegetation cover.

Coastal plains
It can be broadly divided into two:
1. The western coastal plains;
2. The eastern coastal plains.
The western coastal plains are an example of submerged coastal
plain. Because of this submergence it is a narrow belt and
provides natural conditions for the development of ports and
harbours like Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port, Marmagao etc.
As compared to the western coastal plain, the eastern coastal
plain is broader and is an example of an emergent coast. There
are well developed deltas here, formed by the rivers flowing
eastward in to the Bay of Bengal. These include the deltas of the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri. Because of
its emergent nature, it has less number of ports and harbours.

Indian deserts
To the northwest of the Aravali hills lies the Great Indian desert. It
is a land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes
and barchans. This region receives low rainfall below 150 mm per
year; hence, it has arid climate with low vegetation cover. It is
because of these characteristic features that this is also known as
Marusthali.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 8

The Islands
The islands in Bay of Bengal are series of islands Known by name of Andaman and Nicobar islands. The
Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the south. They are separated by a water body which is called the
Ten degree channel. It is believed that these islands are an elevated portion of submarine mountains.
However, some smaller islands are volcanic in origin. Barren Island, the only active volcano in India is also
situated in the Nicobar islands. The islands in Arabian sea are coral in nature and they are known as
Lakshadweep islands. These are total 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited. These islands are located at a
distance of 280 km-480 km off the Kerala coast. Minicoy is the largest island.

Rivers of India
Indian rivers can be classified in to two types-
i. Northern Rivers ii. Peninsular Rivers

Major Northern rivers are Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra and their

tributaries.

Indus Water system

Indus water system includes Indus river and its 5 tributaries i.e.
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Satluj. In Indus water treaty with
Pakistan in 1960 Indus, Jhelum, Chenab went to Pakistan and
Ravi, Beas, Satluj remained with India. Land between two rivers
are known as doab, for example Chej, Rachna, Bari, Bist doabs.

Indus river
The Indus is the west flowing river of India. It originates from a
glacier near Bokhar Chu (31°15' Nlatitude and 81°40' E longitude)
in theTibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m in the Kailash
Mountain range. In Tibet, it is known as ‘Singi Khamban; or Lion’s
mouth.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 9

After flowing in the northwest direction between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges, it passes through Ladakh and
Baltistan. It cuts across the Ladakh range, forming a spectacular gorge near Gilgit in Jammu and Kashmir.
Then it enters into Pakistan. The Indus receives a number of Himalayan tributaries such as the Shyok, the
Gilgit, the Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the Shigar, theGasting and the Dras. It finally emerges out ofthe hills
near Attock where it receives the Kabul river on its right bank. The other important tributaries joining the right
bank of the Indus Are the Khurram, the Tochi, the Gomal, the Viboa and the Sangar. They all originate in the
Sulaiman ranges.

Jhelum River

The Jhelum, an important tributary of the Indus, rises from a spring

at Verinag situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern
part of the valley of Kashmir. It flows throughSrinagar and the Wular
lake before entering Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge. It joins
the Chenab in Pakistan.

Chenab River

The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus. It is formed by two streams,
the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal
Pradesh. Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga. The river flows for 1,180
km before Entering into Pakistan.

Ravi River

The Ravi is another important tributary of the Indus. It rises west of the
Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through the
Chamba valley of the state. Before entering Pakistan and joining the
Chenab

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 10

Beas River

The Beas is another important tributary of the Indus, originating from the
Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 m above the
mean sea level. The river flows through the Kullu valley and forms gorges at
Kati and Largi in the Dhauladhar range. It enters the Punjab plains where it
meets the Satluj near Harike.

Satluj River

The Satluj originates in the Rakas lake near Mansarovar at an altitude of

4,555 m in Tibet where it is known as Langchen Khambab. It flows almost
parallel to the Indus for about 400 km before entering India near the
ShipkiLa pass on the Himalayan ranges and enters thePunjab plains. It is
an antecedent river. It is avery important tributary as it feeds the Canal
System of the Bhakra Nangal dam.

The Ganga System

The Ganga is the most important river of India both from
the point of view of its basin and cultural significance. It
rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the
Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. Here, it is known as the
Bhagirathi. It cuts through the Central and the Lesser
Himalayas in narrow gorges. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi
meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the Ganga.
The Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth glacier
above Badrinath. The Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and
the Vishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath or Vishnu

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 11

Prayag. The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as the Pindar joins it at Karna Prayag while Mandakini or Kali
Ganga meets it at Rudra Prayag. The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar. The Yamuna, the western most
and tributary of the Ganga, has its source in the Yamunotri glacier on the western slopes of Bandarpunch peak
(6,316 km). It joins the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). The Gangariver system is the largest in India having a
number of perennial and non-perennial rivers originating in the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsula in the
south, respectively. The Son is its major right bank tributary. The important left bank tributaries are the
Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda. The river moves from
Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar, West Bengal. Theriver finally discharges itself into the Bay of Bengal near the Sagar
Island.

Fig: Ganga Basin

Fig: Ganga and Brahmputra

Important tributaries of The Ganga -

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 12

Chambal
The Chambal rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and flows northwards through a
gorge upwards of Kotain Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar dam has been constructed. From Kota, it
traverses downto Bundi, Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur, and finally joins the Yamuna. The Chambal is
infamous for its badland topography called the Chambal ravines.

The Gandak river

The Gandak comprises two streams, namely Kaligandaki and Trishul
Ganga. It rises in the Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiriand Mount
Everest and drains the central part of Nepal. It enters the Ganga plain
inChamparan district of Bihar and joins theGanga at Sonpur near Patna.

The Ghaghara river

The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo. After collecting
the waters of its tributaries – Tila, Seti and Beri, it comes out of the mountain, cutting a deep gorge at
Shishapani. The river Sarda (Kali or Kali Ganga) joins it in the plain before it finally Meets the Ganga at
Chhapra. and Ghagra Rivers

The Kosi river

The Kosi is an antecedent river with its source to the north of Mount Everest
in Tibet, where its main stream Arun rises. After crossing the Central
Himalayas in Nepal, it is joined by the Son Kosi from the West and the
Tamur Kosi from the east.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 13

The Ramganga River
The Ramganga is comparatively a small river rising in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain. It changes its course to
the southwest direction after crossing the Shiwalik and enters into the plains of Uttar Pradesh near Najibabad.
Finally, it joins the Ganga near Kannauj.

The Damodar River

The Damodar occupies the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur

Plateau where it flows through a rift valley and finally joins the Hugli.
The Barakar is its main tributary. Once known as the ‘sorrow of
Bengal’, the Damodar has been now tamed by the Damodar Valley
corporation, a multipurpose project.

The Son River

The Son is a largest south bank tributary of the Ganga, originating in

the Amarkantak plateau. After forming a series of waterfalls at the edge
of the plateau, it reaches Arrah, west of Patna, to join the Ganga.

The Brahmaputra River System

The Brahmaputra has its origin in the Chemayungdung glacier of the
Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake. From here, it traverses
eastward longitudinally for a distance of nearly 1,200 km in a dry and flat
region of southern Tibet, where it is known as the Tsangpo, which means
‘the purifier.’ It emerges as a turbulent and dynamic river after carving out
a deep gorge in the CentralHimalayas near Namcha Barwa (7,755
m).The river enters India under the name of Siang or Dihang. It enters
India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh. Here its name is Dihang or
Siang.Flowing southwest, it receives its main left bank tributaries, viz.,
Dibang or Sikang andLohit. Then it enters the sadiya town of Assam.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 14

thereafter, it is known as theBrahmaputra.Its major left bank tributaries are the Burhi Dihing and
Dhansari(South) whereas the important right bank tributaries are the Subansiri, Kameng, Manasand Sankosh.
The Subansiri which has its origin in Tibet, is an antecedent river. TheBrahmaputra enters into Bangladesh
nearDhubri and flows southward. In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is
known as the Jamuna. It finally merges with Gangain Bangladesh. Then it is known as the river Padma, which
falls in the Bay of Bengal.

The peninsular drainage system

The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one. The Western Ghats running close to the
western coast act as the water divide between the major Peninsular rivers, discharging their water in the Bay
of Bengal and as small rivulets joining the Arabian Sea. Thus Peninsular rivers are classified in to two types-
1. West flowing like Narmada,Tapi
2. East Flowing like Godavari,Krishna, Cauvery.

Fig: Peninsular rivers

Some west flowing important rivers are-

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 15

Narmada
Its source is Amarkantak plateau. It flows in rift valley
between Vindhyan and Satpura ranges.It flows
throughMadhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujrat. It forms
Duandhar fall in MP. It merges in sea near Bharuch in
GJ Sardar Sarovar dam is built on it.

Tapi
Its Source is Betul plateau on Satpura range. It flows south
of Satpura.Its Important tributary is Purna river.Its merges
into sea near Surat. It flows through MadhyaPradesh,
Maharashtra, Gujrat. Other west flowing rivers are
Sabarmati from Aravali range and Mahi from Vindhyas.
Mandovi and Zuari flows from Western ghats in Goa.

Kalinadi and Sharavathi are West flowing rivers in Karnataka. Jog fall on Sharavathi river is the highest fall in
India. Preiyar and Pamba are west flowing rivers in Kerala.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 16

Fig: Periyar and pamba

Some of the important east flowing rivers are-

Damoda
Its source is the Chota Nagpur plateau. It’s important tributary is Barakar. It is good source of electricity for
nearby Iron and Steel industry

Mahanadi
Its source is Danadkarnya plateau. Its left bank tributaries are Sheonath, Hasdo and Mand Its right bank
tributaries are Tel, Jonk, Ong.Hirakud dam is built on it.

Rishikulya River
Its Source is Nayagar hills in Orissa. Its mouth is known for the hatching site of Olive ridley turtles Its mouth is
near Chilika lake.Chilika lake is largest brackish water lake of india Olive Ridley turtles-They are smallest and
most abundant of all sea turtles found in the world.

They are known for their unique mass nesting called “Arribada”. Thousands of females come together on the
same beach to lay eggs. Orissa coast is the largest mass hatching site of live ridley turtles in the world They
are known for their unique mass nesting called “Arribada”.Thousands of females come together on the same
beach to lay eggs. Orissa coast is the largest mass hatching site of Olive ridley turtle in the world.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 17

Fig: Arribada

Godavari
Its source is Trimbak plateau. Its left bank tributaries are
Penganga, Wardha, Wainganga (combined they are called
Pranhita), Indravati , Sabari and sileru Right bank tributaries is
Manjira.

Krishna
Its source is Mahabaleshwar.Its left bank tributaries are Bhima .
Musi.Its right bank tributaries are Ghat prabha, Malprabha,
Tungbhadra, Hagari.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 18

River linking project
First time recommended by Sir Arthur Cotton in the 19th century.Aims to transfer surplus water of some rivers
to water deficit river basins.

Currently proposed Interlinking Project-

Transfer of water of Ganga and Brahmaputra towards west and south using 14 canals.In peninsula plateau
linking of rivers using 16 canals.

Successfully completed projects-

Krishna-Godavari linking project built on Polavaram dam and Ken –Betwa Linking project are two
successful project. Largest inter-basin transfer of water in the world if executed.Project will take 50-100 years
to complete. It may produce 35GW of power.It will also supply drinking water and expand irrigation network.It
will also manage draught and flood.

Challenges
1. Plateau higher (upland) than northern plains – difficult pumping of water from plains to peninsula.
2. It will require large amount of energy and canals.
3. It will lead to submergence of forests and villages.
4. Blocking of rivers cause damage to riverine ecosystem.
5. May lead to International water disputes and inter-state water disputes.

Seasons of India
There are mainly three seasons in India i.e. Summer,Monsoon,Winter.
Summer season is prevalent in India from the month of April to June. It is due to shift sun from equator
(equinox 21 March) to Tropics of Cancer (Summer solstice 21 June).
Then there is the onset of Monsoon season. This season is prevalent from June to September. It is a unique
weather phenomenon derived from the term Mausam that means reversal of winds.

Fig: The reversal of wind

The origin and mechanism of Indian Monsoon.

The differential heating of land and sea at the time when the sun makes an apparent northward movement is
the main cause of the Indian monsoonal regime. This creates a low pressure zone on the Indian subcontinent.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 19

This low pressure zone attracts moisture laden winds from adjacent oceanic areas to cause rainfall on the
land. This monsoonal rainfall is intensified when this low pressure region merges with ITCZ. ITCZ is the belt
where trade winds from north and south meet.

Fig.:Low pressure Zone in Summer Fig.: ITCZin winter and summer

Monsoon winds separate in to two branches-

1. Arabian sea branch- It hits western coast of India. It further bifurcates into three sub branches.
a. Branch moving parallel to Aravali ranges- This leads to rainless western Rajasthan since winds
flow without obstruction. These winds cause rainfall in the foothills of Himalaya.
b. Branch hitting Konkan coast-This causes heavy rainfall in the windward side of western ghats
for example area around Mumbai. But less rainfall on the leeward side. Rainfall in Mumbai is
about 200cm while in Pune is just around 50 cm despite the fact that these are only 160 km
apart.
c. Branch hitting Kerala coast-This branch brings heavy rainfall in the windward side of Western
ghat hills in kerala like Nilgiri and Anamalai hills.
2. Bay of Bengal Branch-Its one sub branch bifurcates and causes rainfall in central India while the other
branch causes rainfall in the foothills of Meghalayan hills. It causes heavy rainfall in Meghalaya. Its
sub-branch strikes the Garo and Khasi hills of Meghalaya. The hills of Garo, Khasi and Jaintia are
expanded in a funnel shape with an opening towards the sea. So the moist winds coming from the Bay
of Bengal undergo a sudden rise here and cause excessive rainfall. Mawsynram, located on the crest
of Khasi hills, receives the highest average annual rainfall in the world (1141cm).

From October Monsoon starts retreating​.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 20

Dry North east monsoon winds blow over Indian subcontinent. This makes winter dry in India. Only coastal tip
of Tamil Nadu receives some rainfall since the retreating monsoon picks some moisture from bay of Bengal
and causes rainfall.

The factors which affect the intensity of monsoon are–

1. El Nino and La Nina Effects​-These affects the latitudinal walker cell in the Pacific Ocean and rainfall
pattern in the Asian region. During El Nino Year weak push to Monsoon winds towards India causes
less rainfall and draught where as During La Nina years, the push is stronger and causes heavy rain
and floods.

Fig. :Walker cell

During La Lina year Trade winds are strong in the region.It causes pilling of warm water in the Indian
ocean region near Australia and Indonesia coast. It increases moisture content of the monsoon winds
hitting the Indian coast. Then over period of two years trade winds weaken. It also weakens the Walker
cell. Further almost after two years Trade winds become more weak thus expanded water from
Australian coast flow towards Peru coast. This almost reverses walker Cell. Cool water accumulated in
Indian ocean leads to weakening of Monsoon. This is known as El Nino year.
2. Strengths of low pressure over Tibet and high pressure over Southern Indian Ocean​- The
strengths of low pressure over Tibetan plateau due to intense heating and high pressure over Southern
Indian Ocean known as Mascrene high has always positive effect on Indian monsoon and have high
rainfall. Opposite to it has weak monsoon and hence less rainfall.

Note- Mascrene high is a high pressure region formed over Indian ocean near Madagascar in
Southern hemisphere. A low pressure created over Tibetan plateau causes uplift of air. This upward
wind subside near Mascrene high to form a local jet stream known as Tropical Easterly Jetstream. This
strengthens Mascarene high and pushes wind outside towards low pressure Indian subcontinent. This
strengthens Monsoon winds.

Fig: Tropical Easterly Jetstream

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 21

 3. Somali Jet (Findlater Jet) and Somali Current (Findlater Current) – These effect the intensity of
high pressure cell in the Southern Indian Ocean and flow of moisture laden winds to the subcontinent.

Fig: Somali Jet and Somali current

4. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) –It is defined by the difference in sea surface temperature between
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. The greater than average sea-surface temperatures in Arabian Sea is
responsible for greater monsoon rainfall in India.

After Monsoon winter season begins in India. It is prevalent from the months of October to February. This is
because of shift of ITCZ in southern hemisphere.

Climatic Regions of India

India’s climate can be classified as following types of climatic zones-
i. Tropical Evergreen Forest or Tropical Wet climate
ii. Tropical Deciduous forests or Tropical wet and dry climate
iii. Tropical Thorn forests or Dry and semi dry climate
iv. Montane forests and climate

Vegetation in a region depends on the climate. Thus name of the climatic region are also kept on the name of
dominant local vegetation.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 22

Fig: Climatic Zones of India

1. Tropical wet or Evergreen climate

These climates are found in the western slope of the Western Ghats,
hills of the northeastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
They are found in warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation
of over 200 cm and mean annual temperature above 22degree
celsius. Forests in these climatic zones are well stratified, with layers
closer to the ground and are covered with shrubs and creepers, with
short structured trees followed by a tall variety of trees. In these
forests, trees reach great heights up to 60 m or above. There is no
definite time for trees to shed their leaves, flowering and fruiting. As
such these forests appear green all the year round. Species found in
these forests include rosewood, mahogany, aini,ebony, etc.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 23

 Fig.:five layered evergreen forest

2. Tropical Deciduous forests or Tropical

wet and dry climate
These are the most widespread forests and climatic
zones in India. Deciduous trees shed their leaves once
in a year to prevent excessive loss of water.They
Spread over regions which receive rainfallbetween
70-200 cm. On the basis of the availability of water,
these regions are further divided into moist and dry
deciduous Those areas that receive rainfall 100-200
cm are moist while those having 70-100 cm are known
as dry deciduous. Teak, sal, shisham, hurra,mahua,
amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood etc. are the main
species of these forests.This forest cover largest portion
of India.

3. Tropical Thorn forests or Dry and semi dry climate

Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which receive rainfall less
than 50 cm. These consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It
includes semi-arid areas of south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Important species found
are babool, ber, and wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, etc.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 24

4.Montane forest and Climate
In mountainous areas, the decrease intemperature with increasing altitude leads to a corresponding change in
natural vegetation. The Himalayan ranges show a succession of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra,with
change in the altitude.

In south as forest are closer to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the sea level,thus vegetation is temperate
in the higher regions, and subtropical on the lower regions of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala,
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The temperate forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills.
Some of the other trees of this forest of economic significance include, magnolia, laurel, cinchona and wattle.
Such forests are also found in the Satpura and the Maikal ranges.

Water Resource in India

Water resources can be classified into 2 types-
1. Surface water resource
2. Ground water resource

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 25

Surface water resource
70% of India’s useable water is surface water resource. Its sources are Rivers, lakes and ponds.Rivers are
most important for water resource.

Comparison of Himalayan and Peninsular rivers

Himalayan rivers Peninsular rivers

Perennial Seasonal

Antecedent Superimposed

Large and Wide Small and narrow

Flood prone Less flood

Ground water resource

Water present in pore spaces of permeable rock below the surface of earth is known as Ground Water.
Rainwater/ river water percolate the soil through pores and cracks and reach till aquifer. Aquifer are storage
pool of Ground Water.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 26

Ground water reserves is about 30-40 ml ha in India.Groundwater is not found everywhere but only in 4 most
prominent regions. They are -
1. Alluvium sedimentary deposits- These are found in Northern plains, peninsular river basins, deltas of
rivers. Here water table is high.

Fig.:Area of high water table in India

2. . Bhabhar region in foothills of Himalayas - This is coarse topography. So not important for agriculture.

Fig.: Bhabar region

3. East and west coastal plains - Eastern coastal plain broader and receive large amount of rivers.Both
are vulnerable to salinity.
4. Peninsular gneissic and granitic rocks-These are Impermeable rocks and water is stored in
cracks.Once water is extracted it is difficult to recharge. Such regions are Telangana, Dharwad, Bastar,
Rayalaseema.

Excessive use of dug well and tubewell has led to depletion in Ground Water level. Highest use of tubewell
and dugwell in the states of Punjab, Haryana,Rajasthan,Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.So aquifers are drying up.
In these states rate of usage very higher than rate of replenishment.

Ground water pollution

1. Fluoride-Northern plains,Telangana,Golconda due to excessive use of hand pumps.
2. Arsenic – Due to the leather industry. Found in Up, Bihar, Bengal.
3. Nitrate-Due to excessive use of fertilizer. It is found all across the country.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 27

Fig.: Ground water pollution
Means to increase ground water recharge​-
1. Rainwater harvesting
2. Artificial recharge

Issues related to water

Current water availability is 2000 cum/person/year.By 2050, water demand
would be 3500 cum/person/year. But actual availability will be
1200/cum/person/year.Potential water crisis in the future.

Solution to drought
i. Expansion of irrigation facility
ii. Use ground water in water-crisis situation
iii. Rainwater harvesting
iv. Check-dams
v. Watershed- management

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 28

Soil
Soil forming factors-
i. Rock
ii. Climate
iii. Relief
iv. Biota
v. Time
Soil is made up of erosion of parent rock.

Movement of minerals in the soil is of two types-

i. Capillary action or Upward movement-It mainly happens in hot and dry climate.
ii. Leaching or Downward movement-It will mainly happen in hot and humid climate.

Capilliary action-In hot and dry climate evaporation is faster. Salts within the soil come at the upper layer. It
causes salinity of the Soil. Here evaporation is faster than precipitation.

Fig.: Capilliary action in soil

Leaching-In hot and humid climate due to heavy rainfall Silica within soil
move downward but Iron and aluminum remain at upper layer. Thus soil
becomes acidic and reddish. Mainly found in Lateritic soil.

Soil Profile
Soil have different layers with different physical and chemical
properties.Management of soil horizons is important for soil conservation.
Soil erosion Removal of soil from A and E layer is known as soil erosion.
Human induced reason for soil erosion are -
1. Deforestation
2. Sand mining
3. brick making
4. Overgrazing

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 29

 5. Faulty-agro-practices like lack of crop rotation(it causes loss of soil nutrition) or ploughing along the
slope with no barriers. It causes loss to the top soil.

Fig. : Soil profile

Some solution to soil erosion-

1. Stone pitching
2. Wire Netting
3. Tripods on coastal areas
4. Terrace farming
5. Contour Bunding
6. Afforestation Fig.90:Stone Pitching
7. Mulching
8. Strip Farming

Salinity of the soil-

It can happen because of either excessive evaporation or due to bad drainage and water logging. It leads to
white patches on surface of the land due to excessive salts.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 30

Fig.: Soil Salinity
Salinity of soil can also increase due to seepage of seawater from nearby region. Salinity of the soil reduces
fertility of the soil. To remove salinity sometimes the soil is washed.

Fig.: Washing of soils

Desertification-
Loss of moisture from land is known as desertification.Desertification cannot be reversed,it can only be
prevented from spreading in other areas.

Fig. Desertification
Measures to control extension of deserts-
1. Construction of retaining walls
2. Cultivation of trees on the margins of desert
3. Transverse farming
4. Cultivation of grass on sandy land for sand dunes stabilization
SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 31
Fig.: Grass grown to control desertification

Soils of India
1) Alluvial soil
2) Red soil
3) Black soil
4) Lateritic soil
5) Mountainous soil
6) Desert soil
7) Saline –alkaline soil
8) Mangrove soil

1.Alluvial soil
It covers 42% of Indian soil. They are brought as
deposition of rivers. They are most fertile.They rich in
organic material, micro-nutrients, well-drained. They lacks
Phosphorus. But they are rich in Potassium and Nitrogen.
Area under alluvial soil are Northern Plains, east coast,
Gujrat except Kathiawar region.
2.Red soil
It covers 25% of Indian soil area. It is Most wide-spread.It is Formed due to erosion of Granite and Gneissic
rocks having iron and Nickel. It best-drained soil so least susceptible to waterlogging. It is rich in lime, iron,
Potash, humus but lack in Nitrogen and Phosphorus.It can support maximum crop-diversity. This soil is most
vulnerable to soil-erosion. It is used for Brick-making.

Fig.:alluvial soil

3. Black soil
SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 32
Itcovers 15% of Indian soil. It is formed by weathering of lava rocks of
Deccan plateau. It is rich in Ferro-magnesium-silicate, lime and
potash But lack Nitrogen and Phosphorus. It develops cracks when
dry and is sticky when wet.Cracks allow air to reach into depth. So
this soil is known as self ploughing soil.It has high water retentivity so
good for cotton cultivation.
4.Laterite soil
It covers 4.5% areas of India. It is formed by alternate wet-dry
weather. Four months of monsoon rainfall causes leaching of the
silica while iron and Aluminium remain on the top. It is also known as
Patland. It is acidic soil.Not suitable for agriculture. But some special
Crops like Tapioca and cashew nuts are grown. It is rich in iron –
support tea, coffee and rubber plantation with fertilizers.These soil are rich in Bauxite and are found in Eastern
Ghats, Telangana and Karnataka plateau.

Fig.: Area of Laterite soil

5.Mountain Soil
They are very thin layer of soil. These are under-developed soil horizon.Soil at steep gradient cannot support
agriculture but can support grasses or shrubs.Not good for agriculture but good for forestry and lumbering. It
has cold climate so bacterial process is slow.Thus humus content is high.
6.Desert soil
it issandy, loose soil. It has coarse texture thus low water holding capacity. It has low nutrient and low
fertility.So cannot support agriculture.Indian desert soil is unique It is made up of alluvium, fine loessic
deposits. So good in micro-nutrients hence support agriculture under irrigation. So irrigation with help Indira
Gandhi canal has helped in improving agricultural productivity of Rajasthan.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 33

7.Mangrove soil
They are found along tidal region of coastal areas. It is swampy soil. It has Bluish-green colour due to
sulphide. It is not suitable for agriculture but support mangroves.

Land use pattern in India

Total geographical area is 328 ml ha.India has 17% of world population on 2.4% of land.
Forest-23% Net Sown area-46% Fallow land-12.5%
Net sown area (46%) is 141 ml ha.Gross sown area is 199 ml ha. 58 ml ha area sown more than once. Net
irrigated area is 63.6 ml ha.

India’s economic geography

Economic geography can be studied under two headings mainly.

1. Agriculture
2. Mines and Minerals

Agriculture
Agriculture with fisheries, livestock and forest produce contribute about 19% of India’s GDP. But India’s 49%
population depends upon agriculture and allied activities.
Some features of Indian agriculture-

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 34

 i. Subsistence Agriculture- Here majority of farmers are marginal with less than 2 hactare of agricultural
land. So their agricultural surplus is low. They consume majority of their production. Hence it is known
as Subsistence agriculture.
ii. Rain-fed agriculture- More than 50% of agricultural land depend on Monsoon for irrigation.
iii. Mixed farming is practiced i.e. agriculture,livestock,fishery,poultry.
iv. Non-mechanised
v. Low productivity per unit person due to disguised employment in agriculture sector. Productivity per
unit area is high due to intensive farming.
vi. Low agro-investment hence,poor forward and backward linkages,under-developed food-processing
industry,poor agro-infrastructure: Cold-storages, refrigerated vans etc.

Fig. : Subsistence farming in India

Agricultural season in India

3 main seasons of cultivation in India
1) Kharif
2) Rabi
3) Zaid

Kharif crops Rabi crops Zaid crops

Monsoon season Winter season Dry summer season

Rice,sugarcane,Bajra,Jawar Wheat, gram, linseed, pea and Vegetables and fruits.

etc. Mustard etc.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 35

Major crops
Rice
It is major staple food of India.India has the largest area under rice in the world. It requires temperature about
21-25 deg celcius( warm conditions).It is water intensive crop so grown in wetter parts. Productivity is low
compared to wheat.Assam has three rice growing seasons known as Aas,Aman,Boro.

Wheat
It is a Rabi crop. It requires temperature about 17-20 deg C. It is not a water intensive crop. It is grown in
Sub-tropical areas. Its productivity is highest in India after green revolution.Western disturbances help in wheat
ripening. Wheat is grown in winter in India in North and north-western part of India.

Pulses
Pulses are major source of protein. Hence it helps in maintaining food Security. There are different variety of
pulses -

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 36

 crop Area of cultivation

Moong Eastern Indian like

Odissa,West Bengal

Arahar (Tuar) North India like UP,Bihar

and MP

Urad (Black gram) South India

Gram (Chana) Punjab(Rabi crop)

Issues with pulses production-After Green revolution, cultivation of

rice and wheat was promoted. So high MSP given on grains.
Pulses pushed to marginal lands so Pulse production declined / stagnant and India depend heavily on pulse
import.

Jowar
Jawar is 3rd most important crop after rice and wheat. It is both Kharif and Rabi Crop. It is suitable for rainfed
areas. It requires around 30 cm rainfall. Grown in Maharashtra, MP, Karnataka, Arunachal Pradesh.

Fig.: Jowar producing areas

Cotton
It is a dry crop so not much rain is needed. But requires adequate and timely supply of water to roots. Black
soil is highly water retentive thus keeping roots moist.Hence cotton grown in dry regions of black soil.
Traditional cotton areas are Western India ie Gujarat and Maharashtra.But high profitability led to shift in
Punjab and Kaveri basin regions of Tamil Nadu.

Sugarcane

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 37

It is water intensive cash-crop.Traditional sugarcane areas are Northern plains. But in North India sugar
content is low in sugarcane.Sugarcane in south India has high sugar content due to moisture in the winds. So
sugar industry is slowly shifting to south India.

Fig.: Sugarcane growing areas.

Tea
Need high rainfall more than 200cm. Tea- roots cannot tolerate water-logging so they are grown on slopes –
1. Himalayan slopes
2. Nilgiri

India is the largest producer of Tea. 70% of total production is domestically consumed. Introduced by British in
India.It is Labour intensive sector and is Important for women employment.

India’s mines and minerals

Minerals are those naturally occurring rocks from which important natural
resources can be extracted. Minerals can be classified as following-
a. Metallic and Non-Metallic minerals
b. Energy minerals
Metallic minerals and Non- Metallic minerals are used for industrial productions
and day to day life.

Following are mineral rich regions in our country-

1. Northern and North Eastern belt
2. Central belt
3. Southern region
4. SW region
5. NW region

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 38

1.North and North Eastern belt
Chota Nagpur Plateau- Iron (90%), Chromium (90%), Mica (75%), coal (70%). Other minerals found
Manganese, Copper,Limestone.
Assam- Petroleum reserve, Lignite Coal
2.Central Belt
It is found in Chhattisgarh region. It is extension of Chhota Nagpur plateau. Minerals found here Iron,
limestone. In Godavari- Wardha valley lignite coal field is found.
3.South- East region
It is found in Eastern Karnataka i.e. Bellary-Hospet region- iron is found.
In Andhra Pradesh in Cuddapah, Kurnool, Nellore (AP) – Mica, Manganese, lignite coal is extracted.
In Telangana and Chhattisgarh - Bauxite is extracted from Laterite soil.
In Tamil Nadu lignite coal is extracted from Neyveli district. It is found in Cauvery valley.
4.South- West region
In Karnataka Iron, Manganese, Limestoneis found in Dharwad, Shimoga, Chitradurg, Tumkur, Chikmaglur
district.
Important mines in Karnataka is Kudremukh mines for Iron ore.
In Goa also iron ore is extracted. Iron ores are extracted from Ratnagiri hills of Maharashtra.
5.North-West region
In Kutch of Gujarat Salt(NaCl,MgCl2) Khetri mines And Petroleum is found.
Lake Sambhar, Lake Didwana of Rajasthan is important source of salt.
Khetri mines of Rajasthan Kutch is important source of Copper production.

Important Iron reserves

State Mineral rich regions / mines

Jharkhand Hazaribaug (Lohardaga)

Singhbhum [Noamundi, Kariburi, Mahaburi, Gua]
Daltongunj

Odisha Bonai Sukinda, Badampahar, Gurumahisani

Karnatka Shimoga, Chitradurg, Chikmaglur, Tumkur

Kemangundi and Kudremukh mines

Chhatisgarh Dalli rajhara (to Bhilai steel plant)

Bailadila (to Vishakhapatnam steel industries)

Maharashtra Ratnagiri

Andhra Pradesh Kurnool, Anantpur

Copper reserves in India

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 39

 State Mineral rich regions

Jharkhand Raka mines

Mosabani mines

Rajasthan Khetri and Dariba

Andhra Pradesh Kurnool, Guntur(Telangana), Nellore

Himachal Pradesh Kangra valley, Kullu valley

West Bengal Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling

Bauxite Reserves in India

State Mineral rich regions

Jharkhand Garhjat hills

Odisha Panchampatmali hills, Niyam giri,

Gandhmardhan hills

MP Balaghat, Amarkantak

Maharashtra Ratnagiri

Energy Resources of India

Energy resources are those reserves that are utilized to produce energy in different forms like heat energy,
nuclear energy etc.
Some important energy resources are-
i. Coal
ii. Petrolium
iii. Uranium
iv. Thorium

Coal is of four types

a. Peat- It is least quality coal. Its calorific value(kj/kg) is low. It has high sulphur content. So it causes
more environmental pollution. Its carbon content is below 40%.
b. Lignite- Its overall quality is better than Peat.Its carbon content is between 40-60%.
c. Bituminous- Its quality is better than Lignite and has carbon content between 60-80%.
d. Anthracite- It is the best quality coal. It has high calorific value. It produces less smoke. Its carbon
content is more than 80%.

Important coal fields of India

Lignite coal fields
Assam- Makum, Tamil Nadu-Neyveli, Rajasthan-Palana, Gujrat-Umarsa

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 40

Bituminous coal fields
Jharkhand-Damodar Valley(Bokaro,Jharia,Girdih,Daltonganj), West Bengal- Raniganj,Darjelling, Odissa-
Mahanadi valley Chattisgarh-Narmada-Son rift

India’s coal is not of high grade. So India mainly depends on import.

Petroleum Reserves of India

Petroleum is found in following regions of India-

1. Saurashtra region- It includes Kachchh of Gujarat (Kheda,
Mehsana), Gulf of Khambhat and Bombay High.
2. Upper Assam(Digboi,Naharkatia,Dibrugarh)
3. Krishna-Godavari basin (Rava oil field)

Uranium Reserves in India

Uranium is used to produce nuclear energy through fission process.

Fig.: Fission and fusion reaction

Uranium sources in India are

Jharkhand-Jaduguda,Nawapahar,Bhaitin,Turamdin.
Meghalaya- Domiyasat,wakhin
Andhra Pradesh-Tummalapalli,Pedagattu
Karnatka- Gogi
Rajasthan-Rohil
Uranium corporation of India ltd. (UCIL)– extract uranium and process Uranium to make yellow cake
(Magnesium diuranate).

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 41

Yellow cake then sent to Nuclear Fuel Complex (Hyderabad) for fuel fabrication (make Uranium dioxide). Then
Nuclear Fuel Complex sends fuel to all nuclear reactors of India.

Thorium reserves in India

Thorium will be utilized as fuel in India’s third stage nuclear reactor. India has the largest reserve of Thorium
in the world.
I​mportant sources of Thorium in India are
Monozite sand of kerala beach.
Coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,Odisha.

SPM IAS ACADEMY, GUWAHATI; PHONE - 6901269799 PAGE - 42