Information Technology Fundamentals

Unit 1: Digital Computers and Digital Systems

Introduction to Number System: Decimal Number, Binary Number, Octal and Hexadecimal
Numbers, Number base conversion, Binary Codes, Complements, Binary Arithmetic.

Boolean Algebra: Basic Definitions, Axiomatic Definition, Basic Theorems and properties, Venn
Diagram.

Introduction to Number Systems

A Number is a mathematical value used for counting and measuring objects, and for performing arithmetic
calculations.
A Number System is a system representing numbers. It is also called the system of numeration and it defines
a set of values to represent a quantity. These numbers are used as digits.
A number system is defined as the representation of numbers by using digits or other symbols in a consistent
manner. The value of any digit in a number can be determined by a digit, its position in the number, and the
base of the number system.

Different Types of Number Systems

1. Decimal Number System (0 - 9) | Base 10

Types of 2. Binary Number System ( 0 & 1 ) | Base 2

Number 3. Octal Number System ( 0 - 7 ) | Base 8
System
4. Hexadecimal Number System ( 0 - 9, A - F ) | Base 16

Decimal Number System

The decimal number system uses ten digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8

and 9 with the base number as 10. The decimal number
system is the system that we generally use to represent
numbers in real life. If any number is represented without a
base, it means that its base is 10. For example: 72310, 3210,
425710 are some examples of numbers in the decimal
number system.

Binary Number System

The binary number system uses only two digits: 0 and 1. The
numbers in this system have a base of 2. Digits 0 and 1 are
called bits and 8 bits together make a byte. The data in
computers is stored in terms of bits and bytes. The binary
number system does not deal with other numbers such as
2,3,4,5 and so on. For example: 100012, 1111012, 10101012 are
some examples of number`s in the binary number system.

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Octal Number System

The octal number system uses eight digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7

with the base of 8. The advantage of this system is that it has
lesser digits when compared to several other systems, hence,
there would be fewer computational errors. Digits like 8 and 9
are not included in the octal number system. Just as the binary,
the octal number system is used in minicomputers but with
digits from 0 to 7. For example: 358, 238, 1418 are some
examples of numbers in the octal number system.

Hexadecimal Number System

The hexadecimal number system uses sixteen digits/alphabets:

0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and A, B, C, D, E, F with the base number as
16. Here, A-F of the hexadecimal system means the numbers
10-15 of the decimal number system respectively. This system
is used in computers to reduce the large-sized strings of the
binary system. For example: 7B316, 6F16, 4B2A16 are some
examples of numbers in the hexadecimal number system.

Conversion from one Number Base System to Another Number Base System

From

Binary to Decimal to Octal to Hexadecimal to

Decimal Binary Binary Binary

Octal Octal Decimal Decimal

Hexadecimal Hexadecimal Hexadecimal Octal

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1. Conversion from Binary Number System to Decimal Number System (From 2 to 10)
Example-1: Convert binary number 110010102 into decimal number.
Solution: Binary to decimal is,
= (11001010)2
= 1x27+1x26+0x25+0x24+1x23+0x22+1x21+0x20
= 128+64+0+0+8+0+2+0
= (202)10
Example-2: Convert binary number 1010.10112 into decimal number.
Solution: Binary to decimal is,
= (1010.1011)2
=1x23+0x22+1x21+0x20+1x2-1+0x2-2+1x2-3+1x2-4
= 8+0+2+0+0.5+0+0.125+0.0625
= (10.6875)10
2. Conversion from Binary Number System to Octal Number System (From 2 to 8)
Example-1 : Convert binary number 100101102 into octal number.
Solution: Method: Grouping Method
Binary to octal is,
= (1010111100)2
= (001 010 111 100)2
= (1 2 7 4)8
= (1274)8
Example-2: Convert binary number 0110 011.10112 into octal number.
Solution: Method: Grouping Method
Binary to octal is,
= (0110 011.1011)2
= (0 110 011 . 101 1)2
= (110 011 . 101 100)2
= (6 3 . 5 4)8
= (63.54)8
3. Conversion from Binary Number System to Hexadecimal Number System (From 2 to 16)
Example-1 : Convert binary number 1010101101001 2 into Hexadecimal number.
Solution: Method: Grouping Method
Binary to hexadecimal is,
= (1010101101001)2
= (1 0101 0110 1001)2
= (0001 0101 0110 1001)2
= (1 5 6 9)16
= (1569)16
Example-2 − Convert binary number 001100101.1101112 into hexadecimal number.
Solution: Method: Grouping Method
Binary to hexadecimal is,
= (001100101.110111)2
= (0 0110 0101 . 1101 1100)2
= (0110 0101 . 1101 1100)2 [ ∵ 12 = C, 13 = D in Hex]
= (6 5 . D C)16
= (65.DC)16

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4. Conversion from Decimal Number System to Binary Number System (From 10 to 2)

Example-1 : Convert Decimal number 2910 into Binary number.
Solution: Method: Successive Division by 2 Method

∴ 2910 = 111012
Example-2 : Convert Decimal fractional number 0.37510 into Binary number.
Solution: Method: Successive Multiplication by 2 Method
0.375 x 2 = 0.750 0 After Multiplication write down Integer part and read the integers
0.750 x 2 = 1.500 1 from top to bottom.
0.500 x 2 = 1.000 1 ∴ 0.375 10 = 0.0112
Example-3 : Convert Decimal fractional number 123.45610 into Binary number.
Solution: We convert the whole number and fractional parts separately and then combine the results.
Step 1: Convert 123 in Binary Step 2: Convert fraction 0.456 to binary
0.456 × 2 = 0.912
0.912 × 2 = 1.824
0.824 × 2 = 1.648
0.648 × 2 = 1.296
0.296 × 2 = 0.592
0.592 × 2 = 1.184
0.184 × 2 = 0.368
0.368 × 2 = 0.736
From top to bottom, write the integer parts of the
results to the fractional part of the number in base 2.
Write the remainders from bottom to top. (0.456)10 = (0.01110100...)2
(123)10 = (1111011)2 Step 3: Combine the whole number and
fractional parts to obtain the overall result.
(123.456)10 = (1111011)2 + (0.01110100...)2
= (1111011.01110100...)2
5. Conversion from Decimal Number System to Octal Number System (From 10 to 8)
Example-1 : Convert Decimal number 2910 into Octal number.
Solution: Divide the number repeatedly by 8 until the quotient becomes 0.

Write the remainders from bottom to top.

∴(29)10 = (35)8
Example-2 : Convert Decimal fractional number 123.45610 into Octal number.
Solution: We convert the whole number and fractional parts separately and then combine the results.
Step 1: Convert 123 in Octal Step 2: Convert fraction 0.456 to Octal
0.456 × 8 = 3.648
0.648 × 8 = 5.184
0.184 × 8 = 1.472
0.472 × 8 = 3.776
0.776 × 8 = 6.208
0.208 × 8 = 1.664
0.664 × 8 = 5.312
0.312 × 8 = 2.496

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Write the remainders from bottom to top. From top to bottom, write the integer parts of the
(123)10 = (173)8 results to the fractional part of the number in base 8.
(0.456)10 = (0.35136152...)8
Step 3: Combine the whole number and fractional
parts to obtain the overall result.
(123.456)10 = (173)8 + (0.35136152...)8
= (173.35136152...)8
6. Conversion from Decimal Number System to Hexadecimal Number System (From 10 to 16)
Example-1 : Convert Decimal number 2910 into Hexadecimal number.
Solution: Divide the number repeatedly by 16 until the quotient becomes 0.

• When 29 is divided by 16, the quotient is 1 and the remainder is 13 = D.

• When 1 is divided by 16, the quotient is 0 and the remainder is 1.
Write the remainders from bottom to top.
(29)10 = (1D)16
Example-2 : Convert Decimal fractional number 123.45610 into hexadecimal number.
Solution: We convert the whole number and fractional parts separately and then combine the results.
Step 1: Convert 123 in Hexadecimal Step 2: The fractional part of 123.456 is 0.456.
Multiply the fractional part repeatedly by 16 until it
becomes 0. Stop after a number of steps if the
fractional part does not become 0.
0.456 × 16 = 7.296
Write the remainders from bottom to top. 0.296 × 16 = 4.736
(123)10 = (7B)16 0.736 × 16 = 11.776
0.776 × 16 = 12.416
0.416 × 16 = 6.656
Step 3: Combine the whole number and 0.656 × 16 = 10.496
fractional parts to obtain the overall 0.496 × 16 = 7.936
result. 0.936 × 16 = 14.976
(123.456)10 = (7B)16 + (0.74BC6A7E...)16
From top to bottom, write the integer parts of the
= (7B.74BC6A7E...)16
results to the fractional part of the number in base 16.
(0.456)10 = (0.74BC6A7E...)16
7. Conversion from Octal Number System to Binary Number System (From 8 to 2)
Example-1 : Convert octal number 5408 into binary number.
Solution: Convert each digit of octal into binary
= (540)8
= (101 100 000)2
= (101100000)2
Example-2 − Convert octal number 352.5638 into binary number.
Solution: Convert each digit of octal into binary
= (352.563)8
= (011 101 010 . 101 110 011)2
= (011101010.101110011)2
8. Conversion from Octal Number System to Decimal Number System (From 8 to 10)
Example-1 : Convert octal number 5408 into Decimal number.
Solution: (540)8 = (5 × 82) + (4 × 81) + (0 × 80)
= 320 + 32
= (352)10
Example-2 − Convert octal number 352.5638 into Decimal number.
Solution: (352.563)8 = (3 × 82) + (5 × 81) + (2 × 80) + (5 × 8-1) + (6 × 8-2) + (3 × 8-3)

= (234.724609375)10

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9. Conversion from Octal Number System to Hexadecimal Number System (From 8 to 16)
Example-1 : Convert octal number 5408 into hexadecimal number.
Solution: Step 1: OCTAL TO BINARY Step 2: BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL
In the first step, we convert In the second step, we
the octal number to binary. convert the binary number to
To convert an octal number hexadecimal.
to binary, we write 3 bit Starting from the least significant bit, we partition the
binary equivalent of each octal digit in the binary number into groups of 4 bits and proceed to
same order. the left.
(540)8 = (101100000)2 ∴(101100000)2 = (160)16
Example-2 − Convert octal number 352.5638 into Hexadecimal number.
Solution: Step 1-OCTAL TO BINARY Step 2-BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL
In the first In the second
step, we step, we
convert the convert the
octal number to binary. binary number to hexadecimal. Starting from the
To convert an octal number to binary, we binary point, we partition the binary number into
write 3 bit binary equivalent of each octal groups of 4 bits. In the whole number part, we
digit in the same order. proceed to the left and in the fractional part, we
(352.563)8 = (011101010.101110011)2 proceed to the right.
(011101010.101110011)2 = (EA.B98)16
Step 3: Using the equalities, we obtained in steps 1
and 2, we reach the following result.
∴(352.563)8 = (EA.B98)16
10. Conversion from Hexadecimal Number System to Binary Number System (From 16 to 2)
Example-1 : Convert Hexadecimal number 156916 into Binary number.
Solution: To convert a hexadecimal number to binary, we write 4 bit binary
equivalent of each hexadecimal digit in the same order.
∴(1569)16 = (1010101101001)2
Example-2 : Convert Hexadecimal number 65.DC16 into Binary number.
Solution: To convert a hexadecimal number to binary, we write 4 bit binary
equivalent of each hexadecimal digit in the same order.
∴(65.DC)16= (01100101.11011100)2
11. Conversion from Hexadecimal Number System to Decimal Number System (From 16 to 10)
Example-1 : Convert Hexadecimal number 1D16 into Decimal number.
Solution: We multiply each digit with its place value and add the products.
(1D)16 = (1 × 161) + (13 × 160)
= 16 + 13
= (29)10
Example-2 : Convert Hexadecimal number 7B.74B16 into Decimal number.
Solution: We multiply each digit with its place value and add the products.
(7B.74B)16 = (7 × 161) + (11 × 160) + (7 × 16-1) + (4 × 16-2) + (11 × 16-3)

= (123.4558105468)10 ≈ (123.456)10
12. Conversion from Hexadecimal Number System to Octal Number System (From 16 to 8)
Example 1: Convert Hexadecimal number 1BC16 into an octal number.
Solution: STEP 1-HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY
In the first step, we convert the hexadecimal number to binary.

To convert a hexadecimal number to binary, we write 4-bit binary equivalent of each

hexadecimal digit in the same order.
(1BC)16 = (000110111100)2

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STEP 2-BINARY TO OCTAL

In the second step, we convert the binary number to octal.

Starting from the least significant bit, we partition the binary number into groups of 3 bits and
proceed to the left.
∴(000110111100)2 = (674)8
Example 2: Convert Hexadecimal number EA.B9816 into an octal number.
Solution: STEP 1-HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY
In the first step, we convert the hexadecimal number to binary.

To convert a hexadecimal number to binary, we write 4 bit binary equivalent of each hexadecimal
digit in the same order.
(EA.B98)16 = (11101010.101110011000)2
STEP 2-BINARY TO OCTAL
In the second step, we convert the binary number to octal.

Starting from the binary point, we partition the binary number into groups of 3 bits. In the whole
number part, we proceed to the left and in the fractional part, we proceed to the right.
∴(11101010.101110011000)2 = (352.563)8

Binary Codes: The symbolic arrangement of data or instructions in a computer program or the set of such
instructions. Binary Codes help us to represent characters in a coded form in the memory of computer. These
codes represent specific formats which are used to record data. Many Coding Schemes have been developed
over the years, but in our study, we will discuss the following coding techniques:

Computer Codes

BCD Gray Code ASCII Unicode

BCD or Binary Coded Decimal

Binary Coded Decimal, or BCD, is another process for converting decimal numbers into their binary
equivalents.
• It is a form of binary encoding where each digit in a decimal number is represented in the form of bits.
• This encoding can be done in either 4-bit or 8-bit (usually 4-bit is preferred, so sometimes it is called
8421 code).
• It is a fast and efficient system that converts the decimal numbers into binary numbers as compared
to the existing binary system.
• These are generally used in digital displays where is the manipulation of data is quite a task.
Thus, BCD plays an important role because the manipulation is done treating each digit as a separate single
sub-circuit.
Many decimal values, have an infinite place-value representation in binary but have a finite place-value in
binary-coded decimal. For example, 0.2 in binary is .001100… and in BCD is 0.0010. It avoids fractional errors
and is also used in huge calculations.

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Table for Decimal digit and corresponding Binary Coded Decimal (8421 Code)

BCD
Decimal Digit
8421
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
In the BCD numbering system, the given decimal number is segregated into chunks of four bits for each
decimal digit within the number. Each decimal digit is converted into its direct binary form (usually
represented in 4-bits).
Example 1: Convert 12310 in BCD. Example 2: Convert (101100111)BCD = ( ? )10
Solution: From the truth table above, Solution: From the truth table above,
1 - 0001 0001 0110 0111
2 - 0010
1 6 7
3 - 0011
∴ BCD of 12310 is 0001 0010 0011 ∴ (101100111)BCD = (167)10

Gray Code
The Gray Code is a sequence of binary number systems, which is also known as reflected binary code. We
Call it after Frank Gray. It is Unweighted Code. The reason for calling this code as reflected binary code is the
first N/2 values compared with those of the last N/2 values in reverse order. In this code, two consecutive
values are differed by one bit of binary digits. Gray codes are used in the general sequence of hardware-
generated binary numbers. These numbers cause ambiguities or errors when the transition from one number
to its successive is done. This code simply solves this problem by changing only one bit when the transition is
between numbers is done.
The gray code is a very light weighted code/ Unweighted Code because it doesn't depend on the value of the
digit specified by the position. This code is also called a cyclic variable code as the transition of one value to
its successive value carries a change of one bit only.
Generally referred as Odd one detector or Unit difference/distance detector/code or Reflective Binary Codes
(RBC)/ Cyclic Code/Minimum Distance Code.
How to generate gray code?
The prefix and reflect method are recursively used to generate the Gray code of a number. For generating
gray code:
1. We find the number of bits required to represent a number.
2. Next, we find the code for 0, i.e., 0000, which is the same as binary.
3. Now, we take the previous code, i.e., 0000, and change the most significant bit of it.
4. We perform this process reclusively until all the codes are not uniquely identified.
5. If by changing the most significant bit, we find the same code obtained previously, then the second
most significant bit will be changed, and so on.

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Gray Code Table

Decimal Number Binary Number Gray Code

0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0011
3 0011 0010
4 0100 0110
5 0101 0111
6 0110 0101
7 0111 0100
8 1000 1100
9 1001 1101
10 1010 1111
11 1011 1110
12 1100 1010
13 1101 1011
14 1110 1001
15 1111 1000

Example 1: Convert 12310 to Gray Code

Solution: Step 1: Convert decimal to binary

∴ (123)10 = (1111011)2
Step 2: Convert binary to Gray Code
Method 1:
Binary code: 1111011
Method-1:
g6=b6=1
g5=b6⊕b5=1⊕1=0
g4=b5⊕b4=1⊕1=0
g3=b4⊕b3=1⊕1=0
g2=b3⊕b2=1⊕0=1
g1=b2⊕b1=0⊕1=1
g0=b1⊕b0=1⊕1=0
∴ Gray code : 1000110
Method-2:
b6 b5 b4 b3 b2 b1 b0 Binary
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 code
b6 b6⊕b5 b5⊕b4 b4⊕b3 b3⊕b2 b2⊕b1 b1⊕b0
1 1⊕1 1⊕1 1⊕1 1⊕0 0⊕1 1⊕1
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓

1 0 0 0 1 1 0 Gray
g6 g5 g4 g3 g2 g1 g0 code
∴ Gray code: 1000110
∴ (123)10 = (1000110)GrayCode

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Example 2: Convert 11100 Gray Code to Decimal

Solution: Step 1: Gray code to Binary Step 2: Binary to Decimal
b4=g4=1 =1×24+0×23+1×22+1×21+1×20
b3=b4⊕g3=1⊕1=0 =1×16+0×8+1×4+1×2+1×1
b2=b3⊕g2=0⊕1=1 =23
b1=b2⊕g1=1⊕0=1 ∴ (10111)2 = (23)10
b0=b1⊕g0=1⊕0=1
∴ Binary : 10111 ∴ (11100)GrayCode = (23)10

ASCII
ASCII, abbreviation of American Standard Code for Information Interchange, a standard data-transmission code that
is used by smaller and less-powerful computers to represent both textual data (letters, numbers, and punctuation
marks) and noninput-device commands (control characters). Like other coding systems, it converts information into
standardized digital formats that allow computers to communicate with each other and to efficiently process and store
data.

The ASCII code was originally developed for teletypewriters but eventually found wide application in personal
computers. The standard ASCII code uses seven-digit binary numbers; i.e., numbers consisting of various sequences of
0’s and 1’s. The code can represent 128 different characters, since there are 128 different possible combinations of
seven 0’s and 1’s. The binary sequence 1010000, for example, represents an uppercase “P,” while the sequence
1110000 represents a lowercase “p.”

Digital computers use a binary code that is arranged in groups of eight rather than of seven digits, or bits. Each such eight-
digit group is called a byte. Because digital computers use eight-bit bytes, the ASCII code is commonly embedded in an
eight-bit field consisting of the seven information bits and a parity bit that is used for error-checking purposes or to
represent special symbols. The use of an eight-bit system increased the number of characters the code could represent
to 256. The eight-bit system, which is known as the extended ASCII code, was introduced in 1981 by the International
Business Machines Corporation (IBM) for use with its first model of personal computer. This extended ASCII code soon
became the industry-wide standard for personal computers. In it, 32 code combinations are used for machine and
control commands, such as “start of text,” “carriage return,” and “form feed.” The next group of 32 combinations is
used for numbers and various punctuation symbols. Another group of 32 combinations is used for uppercase letters
and a few other punctuation marks, and the last 32 are used for lowercase letters. This the table for ASCII Characters.

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Unicode

• Unicode is a universal character encoding standard for the representation of text which includes letters,
numbers and symbols in multi-lingual environments. The Unicode consortium based in California developed
the Unicode standard.
• Unicode uses 32 bits to represent a symbol like data
• Unicode allows 232 = 4294967296 different combinations
• Unicode can uniquely represent any character or symbol present in any language like Chinese, Japanese
etc., in addition to letters; mathematical and scientific symbols are also represented in Unicode codes.
• An advantage of Unicode is that it is compatible with ASCII-8 codes. The first 256 codes in Unicode are
identical to the ASCII-8 Codes.
• Unicode is implemented by different character encodings. UTF-8 is the most commonly used encoding
scheme. UTF stands for Unicode Transformation Format. UTF-8 uses 8 bits to 32 bits per code.

Binary Arithmetic
Binary arithmetic is basically the mathematics of binary numbers allow to perform various arithmetic
operations on binary numbers. We know that the binary number system has two digits, i.e., 0 and 1 which
are used to represent the ON or OFF states of the digital systems. Hence, binary arithmetic forms the
foundation of the digital computing.
The following four main binary arithmetic operations −
✓ Binary Addition
✓ Binary Subtraction
✓ Binary Multiplication
✓ Binary Division
Let’s discuss each of these binary arithmetic operations in detail along with solved examples.

Binary Addition
In binary arithmetic, the process of adding two binary numbers is called binary addition. Where, the binary
numbers consist of only 0 and 1. In the binary addition, a carry is generated when the sum is greater than 1.
Rules of Binary Addition
The addition of two binary numbers is performed according to these rules of binary arithmetic –

Example 1: Add two binary numbers, 1101 and 1110.

Solution: The binary addition of the given binary numbers is described below −

Explanation
➢ Add 1 (rightmost bit of first number) and 0 (rightmost bit of the second number). It gives 1 + 0 = 1
(thus, write down 1 as sum bit).

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➢ Add 0 (second rightmost bit of first number) and 1 (second rightmost bit of the second number). It
gives 0 + 1 = 1 (write down 1 as sum bit).
➢ Add 1 (third rightmost bit of first number) and 1 (third rightmost bit of second number). It gives 1 +
1 = 10 (write down 0 as sum and 1 as carry).
➢ Add 1 (leftmost bit of the first number), 1 (leftmost bit of second number) and 1 (carry). It gives 1 +
1 + 1 = 11 (write down 1 as sum and 1 as carry).
➢ Write the end around carry 1 in the sum.
Thus, the result is 11011.

Example 2: Add 1010 and 11011.

Solution
The binary addition of given numbers is explained below −

Explanation
✓ Add 0 (rightmost bit of first number) and 1 (rightmost bit of second number). It gives 0 + 1 = 1 (write
down 1 as sum).
✓ Add 1 (second rightmost bit of first number) and 1 (second rightmost bit of second number). It gives
1 + 1 = 10 (write down 0 as sum and 1 as carry).
✓ Add 0 (third rightmost bit of first number), 0 (third rightmost bit of second number), and 1 (carry). It
gives 0 + 0 + 1 = 1 (write down 1 as sum).
✓ Add 1 (leftmost bit of first number) and 1 (second leftmost bit of second number). It gives 1 + 1 = 10
(write down 0 as sum and 1 as carry).
✓ Add 1 (leftmost bit of second number) and 1 carry. It gives 1 + 1 = 10 (write down 0 as sum and 1 as
the end around carry).
✓ Hence, the sum of 1010 and 11011 is 100101.

Binary Subtraction
In binary arithmetic, binary subtraction is a mathematical operation used to find the difference between
two binary numbers.
In binary subtraction, each bit of the binary numbers is subtracted, starting from the rightmost bit.
Also, a borrow bit can be taken from higher bits if require.
Rules of Binary Subtraction
The binary subtraction is performed as per the following rules of binary arithmetic –
0–0=0
1–0=1
0 – 1 = 1(borrow 1 from the next higher bit)
1–1=0
Example 1: Subtract 1100 from 1101.
Solution: The subtraction of given binary numbers is given below −

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Explanation
✓ Subtract 0 (rightmost bit of second number) from 1 (rightmost bit of first number). It gives 1 – 0 = 1
(write down 1 as difference).
✓ Subtract 0 (second rightmost bit of second number) from 0 (second rightmost bit of first number). It
gives 0 – 0 = 0 as result.
✓ Subtract 1 (third rightmost bit of second number) from 1 (third rightmost bit of first number). It
gives 1 – 1 = 0 as result.
✓ Subtract 1 (leftmost bit of second number) from 1 (leftmost bit of first number). It gives 1 – 1 = 0 as
result.
✓ Thus, the difference of 1101 and 1100 is 0001.

Example 2: Subtract 1011 from 1101.

Solution: The binary subtraction of 1101 and 1011 is given below –

Explanation
✓ Subtract rightmost bits: 1 – 1 = 0.
✓ Subtract second rightmost bits: 0 – 1 = 1. A borrow 1 is taken from the next higher bit.
✓ Subtract third rightmost bits: 0 – 0 = 0. The 1 borrow is given to previous bit.
✓ Subtract leftmost bits: 1 – 1 = 0.
✓ Thus, the difference of 1101 and 1011 is 0010.

Binary Multiplication
In binary arithmetic, binary multiplication is the process of multiplying two binary numbers and obtain their
product.
In binary multiplication, we multiply each bit of one binary number by each bit of another binary number
and then add the partial products to obtain the final product.
Rules of Binary Multiplication
The multiplication of two binary numbers is performed as per the following rules of binary arithmetic −
0×0=0
0×1=0
1×0=0
1×1=1
It is clear that the binary multiplication is similar to the decimal multiplication.
Example 1: Multiply 1101 and 11.
Solution: The binary multiplication of given numbers is described below –

Explanation
✓ Multiply the rightmost bit of the second number, 1 by each bit of the first number (1101).
✓ Now, shift the partial product one position to the left to perform the next multiplication.

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✓ Multiply the leftmost bit of the second number, 1 by each bit of the first number (1101).
✓ Finally, sum up all the partial products to obtain the final product.
✓ Hence, the product of 1101 and 11 is 100111.

Example 2: Multiply 11011 and 110.

Solution: The multiplication of given binary numbers is demonstrated below –

Explanation
✓ Multiply rightmost bit of the second number (0) by each bit of the first binary number (11011).
✓ Shift the partial product one position to the left.
✓ Multiply the second rightmost bit of the second number (1) by each bit of the first binary number
(11011).
✓ Again, shift the partial product one position to the left.
✓ Multiply the leftmost bit of the second number (1) by each bit of the first number.
✓ Then, sum up all the partial products to obtain the final product.
✓ Hence, the product of 11011 and 110 is 10100010.

Binary Division
Binary division is one of the basic arithmetic operations used to find the quotient and remainder when
dividing one binary number by another.
Rules of Binary Division
The following rules of binary arithmetic are utilized while diving one binary number by another −
0 ÷ 0 = Undefined
0 ÷ 1 = 0 with Remainder=0
1 ÷ 0 = Undefined
1 ÷ 1 = 1 with Remainder=0
Binary Division Procedure
• Start dividing from the leftmost bits of the dividend by the divisor.
• Multiply the quotient obtained by the divisor and subtract from the dividend.
• Bring down the next bits of the dividend and repeat the division process until all the bits of given
divided are used.
Example 1: Divide 110011 by 11.
Solution: The division of the given binary numbers is given below –

In this example of binary division, the quotient obtained is 10001 and the remainder is 0

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 Information Technology Fundamentals

Example 2: Divide 11011 by 10.

Solution: The binary division of 11011 by 10 is given below –

In this example, the quotient is 1101 and the remainder is 1.

1’s and 2’s complement of a Binary Number

In computer science, binary number representations like 1’s complement and 2’s complement are essential for
performing arithmetic operations and encoding negative numbers in digital systems.

What is 1’s Complement?

1’s complement of a binary number is another binary number obtained by toggling all bits in it, i.e., transforming the
0 bit to 1 and the 1 bit to 0.
Example: Let numbers be stored using 4 bits
✓ 1's complement of 7 (0111) is 8 (1000)
✓ 1's complement of 12 (1100) is 3 (0011)

Advantages of 1’s Complement

✓ Easy to compute by flipping bits.
✓ Suitable for basic arithmetic operations with a simpler hardware design.
Disadvantages of 1’s Complement
✓ 1’s complement has two representations of zero (0000 and 1111), which can cause complications in
calculations.
✓ Addition requires an end-around carry, which can complicate arithmetic operations.
✓ Not as efficient in representing negative numbers compared to 2’s complement.

What is 2’s Complement?

2’s complement is another binary number representation technique used widely in modern computers. To obtain the
2’s complement of a binary number, you invert all the bits (similar to 1’s complement) and add 1 to the least
significant bit.
2’s complement of a binary number is 1 added to the 1’s complement of the binary number.
Examples: Let numbers be stored using 4 bits
2's complement of 7 (0111) is 9 (1001)
2's complement of 12 (1100) is 4 (0100)
Advantages of 2’s Complement
• Only one representation of zero, which simplifies arithmetic operations.
• No need for an end-around carry when adding numbers; subtraction can be done by adding the negative.
• Negative numbers have the most significant bit as 1, providing a clear distinction.
Disadvantages of 2’s Complement
• Requires an additional step of adding 1 after inverting the bits.
• The range of negative numbers is one larger than the range of positive numbers, which can affect precision.

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The main difference between 1’s complement and 2’s complement is that 1’s complement has two representations of
0 (zero) — 00000000, which is positive zero (+0), and 11111111, which is negative zero (-0); whereas in 2’s complement,
there is only one representation for zero — 00000000 (0) because if we add 1 to 11111111 (-1), we get 100000000,
which is nine bits long. Since only eight bits are allowed, the left-most bit is discarded(or overflowed), leaving 00000000
(-0) which is the same as positive zero.

Difference Between 1’s Complement Representation and 2’s Complement Representation

Feature 1’s Complement 2’s Complement
Inverts all bits and adds 1 to the least
Definition Inverts all bits of the binary number.
significant bit.
Representation of Zero Two representations (0000 and 1111). One unique representation (0000).
Negative Number
Most significant bit (MSB) is 1. Most significant bit (MSB) is 1.
Indication
No need for end-around carry, simplifying
Arithmetic Operations Requires end-around carry during addition.
addition and subtraction.
Symmetrical range; equal number of Asymmetrical range; one more negative
Range
positive and negative values (e.g., -7 to +7). number than positive (e.g., -8 to +7).
Zero Value Has both +0 and -0. Only one zero (0).
Slightly more complex (inversion plus
Complexity Easier to calculate (simple inversion).
adding 1).
Usage Rarely used in modern systems. Widely used in modern computer systems.
Less efficient due to double zero and end- More efficient due to unique zero and
Efficiency
around carry. simpler arithmetic operations.
Clearly handled, with well-defined
Overflow Handling Can cause ambiguity due to double zero.
behavior.

9's and 10's Complement

If the number is binary, then we use 1's complement and 2's complement. But in case, when the number is a decimal
number, we will use the 9's and 10's complement.

9's Complement
The 9's complement is used to find the subtraction of the decimal numbers. The 9's complement of a number
is calculated by subtracting each digit of the number by 9.
For example, suppose we have a number 1423, and we want to find the 9's complement of the number. For
this, we subtract each digit of the number 1423 by 9.
So, the 9's complement of the number 1423 is 9999-1423= 8576.

10's Complement
The 10's complement is also used to find the subtraction of the decimal numbers. The 10's complement of a
number is calculated by subtracting each digit by 9 and then adding 1 to the result. Simply, by adding 1 to its
9's complement we can get its 10's complement value.
For example, suppose we have a number 1423, and we want to find the 10's complement of the number. For
this, we find the 9's complement of the number 1423 that is 9999-1423= 8576, and now we will add 1 to the
result.
So, the 10's complement of the number 1423 is 8576+1=8577.

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Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra is a division of mathematics that deals with operations on logical values and incorporates
binary variables. Boolean algebra traces its origins to an 1854 book by mathematician George Boole.
The distinguishing factor of Boolean algebra is that it deals only with the study of binary variables. Most
commonly Boolean variables are presented with the possible values of 1 ("true") or 0 ("false"). Variables can
also have more complex interpretations, such as in set theory. Boolean algebra is also known as binary
algebra or Switching algebra.

The axiomatic definition of Boolean algebra is a set of postulates that establish the fundamental properties
and operations of Boolean algebra. Boolean algebra is a mathematical structure that deals with logical
operations on binary variables, usually represented as 0 and 1.
Features:
• Boolean algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with operations on logical values with binary
variables.
• The Boolean variables are represented as binary numbers to represent truths: 1 = true and 0 = false.
• Elementary algebra deals with numerical operations whereas Boolean algebra deals with logistical
operations.
• Boolean algebra utilizes conjunction, disjunction, and negation, as opposed to addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.
• The primary modern use of Boolean algebra is in computer programming languages.
• In finance, Boolean algebra is used in binomial options pricing models, which helps determine when an
option should be exercised.

Boolean Algebra Rules

Following are the important rules used in Boolean algebra:
• Only two values (1 for high and 0 for low) are possible for the variables used in Boolean algebra.
• The symbol (‘) is used for representing the complement variable. So, the complement of C is
represented as C’.
• The plus (+) operator is used to represent the ORing of the variables.
• The dot (.) operator is used to represent the ANDing of the variable.

Boolean Algebra with Truth Tables

As well as a standard Boolean Expression, the input and output information of any Logic Gate or circuit can
be plotted into a standard table to give a visual representation of the switching function of the system.
The table used to represent the Boolean expression of a logic gate function is commonly called a Truth Table.
A logic gate truth table shows each possible input combination to the gate or circuit with the resultant output
depending upon the combination of these input(s).
For example, consider a single 2-input logic circuit with input variables labelled as A and B. There are “four”
possible input combinations or 22 of “OFF” and “ON” for the two inputs. However, when dealing with Boolean
expressions and especially logic gate truth tables, we do not general use “ON” or “OFF” but instead give them
bit values which represent a logic level “1” or a logic level “0” respectively.
Then the four possible combinations of A and B for a 2-input logic gate is given as:
Input Combination 1. – “OFF” – “OFF” or ( 0, 0 ) Input Combination 3. – “ON” – “OFF” or ( 1, 0 )
Input Combination 2. – “OFF” – “ON” or ( 0, 1 ) Input Combination 4. – “ON” – “ON” or ( 1, 1 )

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Then the Truth tables for a 2-input AND Gate, a 2-input OR Gate and a single input NOT Gate are given as:

Logic Gate Description Symbol and Truth Table

For a 2-input AND gate, the output
Q is true if BOTH input A “AND”
input B are both true, giving the
Boolean Expression of: ( Q = A and
AND Gate B ).
Note that the Boolean Expression
for a two input AND gate can be
written as: A.B or just simply AB
without the decimal point.

For a 2-input OR gate, the output

OR (Inclusive Q is true if EITHER input A “OR”
OR) Gate input B is true, giving the Boolean
Expression of: ( Q = A or B ).

For a single input NOT gate, the

output Q is ONLY true when the
NOT Gate input is “NOT” true, the output is
(Inverter) the inverse or complement of the
input giving the Boolean
Expression of: ( Q = NOT A ).

Note: The NAND and the NOR Gates are a combination of the AND and OR Gates respectively with that of
a NOT Gate (inverter). And these gates are called UNIVERSAL GATES, because any kind of logic circuit can
be constructed using these gates.

For a 2-input NAND gate, the

output Q is NOT true if BOTH input
NAND (Not A and input B are true, giving the
AND) Gate Boolean Expression of: ( Q = not(A
AND B) ).

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For a 2-input NOR gate, the output

NOR (Not OR) Q is true if BOTH input A and input
Gate B are NOT true, giving the Boolean
Expression of: ( Q = not(A OR B) ).

Note: As well as the standard logic gates there are also two special types of logic gate function called an
Exclusive-OR Gate and an Exclusive-NOR Gate. The Boolean expression to indicate an Exclusive-OR or
Exclusive-NOR function is to a symbol with a plus sign inside a circle, ( ⊕ ).

For a 2-input Ex-OR gate, the

output Q is true if EITHER input A
EX-OR or if input B is true, but NOT both
(Exclusive OR) giving the Boolean Expression of: (
Gate Q = (A and NOT B) or (NOT A and
B) ).

For a 2-input Ex-NOR gate, the

output Q is true if BOTH input A
EX-NOR and input B are the same, either
(Exclusive true or false, giving the Boolean
NOR) Gate Expression of: ( Q = (A and B) or
(NOT A and NOT B) ).

Summary of 2-input Logic Gates:

The following Truth Table compares the logical functions of the 2-input logic gates above.

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Boolean Algebra Properties

These are the following properties of Boolean algebra:

1. Annulment property: When the variable is AND with 0, it will give the result 0, and when the variable is OR with 1,
it will give the result 1, i.e.,

B.0 = 0
B+1=1
2. Identity property: When the variable is AND with 1 and OR with 0, the variable remains the same, i.e.,

B.1 = B
B+0=B
3. Idempotent property: When the variable is AND and OR with itself, the variable remains the same or unchanged,
i.e.,

B.B = B
B+B=B
4. Complement property: When the variable is AND and OR with its complement, it will give the result 0 and 1
respectively.

B.B’ = 0
B + B’ = 1
5. Double negation property: This law states that, when the variable comes with two negations, the symbol gets
removed and the original variable is obtained.

((B’))’ = B

Boolean Algebra Laws

The following are the laws of Boolean algebra:

Distributive Law:
According to distributive law, if we perform the OR operation of two or more variables and then perform the AND
operation of the result with a single variable, the result will be similar to performing the AND operation of that single
variable with each two or more variable and then perform the OR operation of that product. For three variables, the
distributive law is written as:
A(B + C) = AB + AC
A + (B.C) = (A + B)(A + C)
Associative Law:
The associative law states that the operation can be performed in any order when the variable’s priority is the same.
As ‘multiplication’ and ‘division’ have the same priority. For three variables, the associative law is written as:
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
A.(B.C) = (A.B).C
Commutative Law:
This law states that no matter in which order we use the variables. It means the order of variables doesn’t matter. For
two variables, the commutative law is written as:
A+B=B+A
A.B = B.A
Absorption Law:
This law allows us to absorb similar variables. The absorption law is written as:
B + (B.A) = B B.(B + A) = B A + A’.B = A + B A.(A’ + B) = A.B

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AND Law:
These laws use the AND operation. Therefore, they are known as AND laws. The AND law is written as:
A.0 = 0
A.1 = A
A.A = A
A.A’ = 0
OR Law:
These laws use the OR operation. Therefore, they as known as OR laws. The OR law is written as:
A+0=A
A+1=A
A+A=A
A + A’ = 1

Venn Diagrams for AND, OR and NOT Operations:

Boolean Algebra Table

Given Below is the Expression for the Boolean Algebra
Operation Symbol Definition
AND Operation ⋅ or ∧ Returns true only if both inputs are true.
OR Operation + or ∨ Returns true if at least one input is true.
NOT Operation ¬ or ∼ Reverses the input.
XOR Operation ⊕ Returns true if exactly one input is true.
NAND Operation ↓ Returns false only if both inputs are true.
NOR Operation ↑ Returns false if at least one input is true.
XNOR Operation ↔ Returns true if both inputs are equal.

Important terminologies of Boolean algebra:

Boolean Variables

Variables used in Boolean algebra that store the logical value of 0 and 1 are called the boolean variables. They are
used to store either true or false values.

Boolean Function

A function of the Boolean Algebra that is formed by the use of Boolean variables and Boolean operators is called the
Boolean function. It is formed by combining Boolean variables and logical expressions such as AND, OR, and NOT.

Literal

A variable or the complement of the variable in Boolean Algebra is called the Literal.

Complement

The inverse of the Boolean variable is called the complement of the variable. The complement of 0 is 1 and the
complement of 1 is 0.

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Unit 2: Operating Systems

Operating Computer using GUI Based Operating System: Basics of Popular Operating Systems; The User Interface,
Using Mouse; Using right Button of the Mouse and Moving Icons on the screen, Use of Common Icons, Status Bar, Using
Menu and Menu-selection, Running an Application, Viewing of File, Folders and Directories, Creating and Renaming of
files and folders, Opening and closing of different Windows; Using help; Creating Short cuts, Common utilities.

Operating Systems: Introduction, Functions of an operating System, Classification of Operating Systems, System
programs, Application programs, Utilities, The Unix Operating System, Basic Unix commands and booting.

What is a GUI-Based Operating System?

A Graphical User Interface (GUI)-based operating system is one that uses visual elements like windows, icons,
buttons, and menus to interact with the computer, rather than relying only on text commands (like in Command-Line
Interfaces). Examples include Windows, macOS, and Linux distros like Ubuntu.
Key Features of GUI-Based Operating Systems:
1. Ease of Use
GUI systems are user-friendly, allowing users to interact through visuals without needing technical
knowledge.
2. Visual Representation
Use of icons, menus, and windows to represent files, applications, and commands.
3. Point-and-Click Interaction
Input devices like a mouse or touchpad enable intuitive actions like dragging, dropping, and clicking.
4. Multitasking
Allows users to open and work on multiple applications simultaneously in different windows.
5. Accessibility
Features like screen magnifiers, voice assistants, and customizable displays make them more inclusive.
Advantages of GUI-Based Systems:
• User-Friendly: Requires minimal training.
• Quick Learning Curve: Easy for new users to adapt to.
• Visual Feedback: Helps users know actions are successful (e.g., progress bars).
Disadvantages:
• Resource Intensive: Needs more RAM, CPU, and GPU compared to text-based systems.
• Complex to Develop: More complicated than a Command-Line Interface.
• Slower for Advanced Users: Power users may find text commands faster.
Examples of GUI-Based Operating Systems:
• Windows: Most widely used, supports a vast range of software.
• macOS: Known for its sleek design and ecosystem integration.
• Linux Distros: Ubuntu, Fedora, etc., with customizable GUIs like GNOME or KDE Plasma.

Using Mouse
Using a mouse with a GUI-based operating system is straightforward and allows for intuitive interaction.
Parts of a Mouse:
1. Left Button: Used for selecting and clicking on items.
2. Right Button: Opens context menus (a list of options related to
the item clicked).
3. Scroll Wheel: Allows for scrolling through content.
4. Additional Buttons (on some mice): Used for navigation or
custom actions.

Mouse Actions in a GUI:

1. Pointing
Move the mouse to position the pointer (cursor) over an item on the
screen.
• Example: Hover over an icon to see its name or description.

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 Information Technology Fundamentals

2. Clicking
• Single-Click (Left): Select an item or open a menu.
o Example: Click a file to highlight it.
• Double-Click (Left): Open files, folders, or applications.
o Example: Double-click a Word document to open it.
• Right-Click: Opens a context-specific menu.
o Example: Right-click on the desktop to access "Display Settings."
3. Drag and Drop
• Click and Hold: Click on an item, hold the button, move the mouse, then release to "drop."
o Example: Dragging a file into a folder.
4. Scrolling
• Roll the scroll wheel to move up or down through pages or lists.
o Example: Scrolling through a website or a document.
5. Selecting Multiple Items
• Click and Drag: Hold the left button while dragging to create a selection box.
• Ctrl + Click: Select multiple non-adjacent items.
• Shift + Click: Select a range of items.
6. Mouse Shortcuts
• Double-Click on Title Bar: Maximizes or restores the window.
• Right-Click + Drag: Often opens an action-specific menu when you drop the item.

Tips for Efficient Mouse Use:

1. Sensitivity Settings: Adjust the pointer speed in the system settings for precise movement.
2. Custom Buttons: Program extra buttons on advanced mice for shortcuts (e.g., back in a browser).
3. Practice: Familiarity comes with practice, especially for tasks like dragging and dropping.

Using a Right Button of Mouse

Using the right button of a mouse is an essential part of interacting with a GUI-based operating system.
What Happens When You Right-Click?
The right button of the mouse typically opens a context menu, which provides options or actions specific to the item
you clicked on.
Common Uses of the Right Mouse Button:
1. Desktop Actions
• Right-Click on Desktop: Opens options like:
o "View" (to adjust icon size or arrangement).
o "Display Settings" (to change screen resolution).
o "New" (to create folders, files, or shortcuts).
2. File and Folder Management
• Right-Click on a File/Folder: Options like:
o Open: Opens the selected item.
o Rename: Change the name of the file/folder.
o Delete: Moves the file/folder to the recycle bin.
o Properties: View file details (size, creation date, etc.).
o Copy/Paste/Shortcut: Copy the file or folder to another location.
3. Applications and Taskbar
• Right-Click on an Application Icon:
o Open the program.
o Pin or unpin it from the taskbar or Start menu.
o "Run as Administrator" for elevated permissions.
o View recent documents or files (in some apps).

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 Information Technology Fundamentals

4. Web Browsing
• Right-Click on a Web Page:
o Options include:
▪ "Back" or "Forward" to navigate.
▪ "Reload" to refresh the page.
▪ "View Page Source" (advanced users).
• Right-Click on Links: Open in a new tab or copy the link.
• Right-Click on Images: Save, copy, or inspect the image.
5. Text Editing
• Right-Click in Text Areas: Provides options like:
o Cut, Copy, or Paste text.
o Change formatting (in some text editors).
o Spell check or dictionary suggestions.
6. Specialized Uses
• Right-Click on Task Manager (Taskbar):
o Access options like "Task Manager" or customize the taskbar.
• Right-Click in Software:
o Access specific features depending on the software (e.g., layers in Photoshop or charts in Excel).
How to Customize Right-Click Options
Some operating systems allow customization of the context menu:
• Windows: Use third-party tools like "ShellExView" to manage context menu entries.
• macOS: Customize through System Preferences for certain apps.

Troubleshooting Right-Click Issues

• Mouse Not Working?
o Ensure the mouse is properly connected.
o Check the settings in the control panel or system preferences.
o Replace batteries if using a wireless mouse.
• Context Menu Not Appearing?
o Could be due to system lag; restart your system.
o Check if specific software is disabling context menus.

Moving Icons
Moving icons on the screen is a simple and commonly used feature in GUI-based operating systems. Here's how you
can do it:
Steps to Move Icons:
1. Select the Icon
o Point the mouse cursor to the icon you want to move.
o Press and hold the left mouse button.
2. Drag the Icon
o While holding the left button, move the mouse to drag the icon to the desired location on the screen.
3. Release the Button
o Let go of the left mouse button to drop the icon in the new location.

Tips for Moving Icons:

1. Enable Icon Movement:
o Ensure that "Auto Arrange Icons" or "Align to Grid" is disabled if the system automatically snaps icons
into place.
▪ Windows: Right-click on the desktop → Select "View" → Uncheck "Auto Arrange Icons" or
"Align Icons to Grid."

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 Information Technology Fundamentals

▪ macOS: Right-click on the desktop → Select "Show View Options" → Adjust alignment
settings.
2. Avoid Overlapping:
o Icons may not overlap other icons. If there isn't enough space, the system may rearrange them.
3. Use Keyboard Shortcuts (Optional):
o Select the icon → Press Ctrl + Arrow Keys (Windows) or use specific settings (macOS/Linux).
4. Group Icons into Folders:
o If you’re organizing, you can create a folder to store multiple related icons.

Troubleshooting Icon Movement Issues:

1. Icons Not Moving?
o Ensure "Auto Arrange Icons" is disabled.
o Check if you have the necessary permissions on the desktop (e.g., user restrictions).
2. Icons Snap Back to Their Original Place?
o Check for display settings like "Align to Grid."
o Ensure the screen resolution is set properly to accommodate icon arrangements.
3. Mouse Issues?
o If the drag-and-drop feature isn't working, check the mouse connection or try another mouse.

Use of Common Icons

Icons in GUI-based operating systems represent files, applications, or system functions, making it easier to navigate
and perform tasks.

1. Desktop Icons

These are shortcuts to commonly used applications, files, or system tools.

• Computer/My Computer/This PC
o Provides access to drives, devices, and file management tools.
o Use: Double-click to open and browse storage devices or manage files.
• Recycle Bin
o Stores deleted files temporarily.
o Use: Double-click to view and restore deleted files or empty the bin to permanently delete them.
• File/Folder Icons
o Represent documents, images, or other stored data.
o Use: Double-click to open; right-click for options like copy, move, or delete.

2. Taskbar/Start Menu Icons

Icons on the taskbar or Start menu allow quick access to frequently used applications.

• Browser Icons (e.g., Chrome, Firefox)

o Use: Open web browsers to access the internet.
• Email Clients (e.g., Outlook)
o Use: Manage emails, calendars, and contacts.
• Settings/Control Panel
o Use: Access system configuration tools like display, network, or user settings.

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 Information Technology Fundamentals

3. System Tray Icons

These icons display the status of system services.

• Volume
o Use: Adjust sound levels or mute audio.
• Battery/Power
o Use: Check battery status or power options (for laptops).
• Wi-Fi/Network
o Use: Connect to or manage networks.

4. File Explorer Icons

Used within file managers to navigate and organize files.

• Folder
oRepresents a container for organizing files.
oUse: Double-click to open and view contents.
• Document Icon
o Represents a text file or Word document.
o Use: Open the file in its respective application.

5. Application Icons

Icons for specific software or tools.

• Paint, Photoshop, etc.

o Use: Open graphic design or editing tools.
• Word Processors (e.g., Word)
o Use: Open for writing and editing documents.

6. Common Icons in Context Menus

Icons may appear in menus when you right-click:

• Cut/Copy/Paste
o Use: Manage files by cutting, copying, or pasting them to a new location.
• Delete (Trash Icon)
o Use: Remove files.

Note: Icons can be customized in many operating systems to change their appearance or replace them with user-
preferred designs.

Status Bar

The status bar is an essential component of many GUI-based applications and operating systems. It provides
information about the current state of the application or system and may include quick access to certain features.

What is a Status Bar?

A status bar is a horizontal bar typically located at the bottom of an application window or screen. It displays real-
time information about the current state of the application, system, or a specific task.

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 Information Technology Fundamentals

Common Features of a Status Bar

1. Application-Specific Information
o Shows details relevant to the active application, such as:
▪ Word Processors (e.g., MS Word): Word count, page number, language settings.
▪ Browsers (e.g., Chrome): Link previews when hovering over a hyperlink.
▪ Media Players: Track duration, playback status.
2. System Status Indicators
o Provides updates about system operations, such as:
▪ Network connectivity.
▪ Battery status.
▪ Background processes.
3. Progress Indicators
o Displays the progress of tasks like file downloads, installations, or uploads.
4. Shortcut Tools
o Includes quick access buttons to commonly used features like zoom, layout options, or file saving.
5. Error and Warning Messages
o Alerts users about errors, warnings, or updates directly in the status bar.

Examples of Status Bar Usage

1. Web Browsers
o Displays the target URL when hovering over a link.
o Shows loading progress for web pages.

2. File Explorers
o Indicates the number of selected files or the size of the selected files.
3. Image Editors (e.g., Photoshop)
o Shows the current zoom level, file size, and color mode.
4. Taskbar in Operating Systems
o Acts as a global status bar showing notifications, time, volume, and quick access to settings.

Customizing the Status Bar

1. Enable or Disable
o Many applications allow you to hide or show the status bar through their View menu.
2. Modify Features
o Advanced applications let you choose what information appears on the status bar.

Why is the Status Bar Useful?

• Real-Time Updates: Keeps users informed about the application's state or task progress.
• Quick Access: Offers shortcuts to essential features.
• Efficiency: Saves time by providing useful insights at a glance.

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 Information Technology Fundamentals

Menu and Menu Selection

In GUI-based operating systems and applications, menus and menu selection are essential components that help
users interact with the system or software by offering organized options for various actions.

What is a Menu?

A menu is a list of options or commands presented to the user. Menus are typically displayed when a user interacts
with a part of the interface, such as by clicking on a menu bar, right-clicking, or selecting a button.

Types of Menus in GUI:

1. Menu Bar
o A horizontal bar at the top of the screen, often found in most applications.
o Contains menu items that, when clicked, reveal further options.
o Example menu items: File, Edit, View, Help.
2. Contextual (Right-Click) Menus
o Pop up when you right-click on an item or area.
o Show options relevant to the specific context.
o Example: Right-click on a file might show options like Open, Rename, Delete.
3. Drop-Down Menus
o A menu that appears below a menu bar item when clicked or hovered over.
o It usually contains sub-options.
o Example: File → Save As, View → Zoom In.
4. Pop-up Menus
o Appear when triggered by specific actions (e.g., clicking a button or right-clicking on an area).
o Temporary and disappear when an option is selected.
5. Submenus
o Menus that appear when a menu item is selected, revealing additional options.
o Example: File → New → Document (a submenu under the "New" option).
6. Toolbar Menus
o Small icons arranged on a toolbar, often for quick access to frequently used functions (e.g., saving,
printing).
o Clicking an icon triggers a command directly.

Menu Selection Process:

1. Mouse Interaction:
o Clicking: Click on a menu item to select an option.
o Hovering: Hovering over a menu item may reveal a submenu or highlight the option.
2. Keyboard Interaction:
o Alt + Key Shortcut: In many programs, pressing Alt along with an underlined letter will open the
associated menu item. For example, Alt + F to open the File menu.
o Arrow Keys: After opening a menu, you can use arrow keys to navigate through options.
o Enter: Press Enter to select an option from the menu.
o Esc: Press Esc to close the menu without selecting.

Examples of Common Menu Items:

1. File Menu
o New: Create a new document or project.
o Open: Open an existing file.
o Save/Save As: Save the current work or save it with a new name.
o Exit/Close: Close the application.

BCA-Toppersnotes 28
 Information Technology Fundamentals

2. Edit Menu
o Undo/Redo: Revert or apply changes.
o Cut/Copy/Paste: Move or duplicate text/data.
o Find/Replace: Search for text or data.
3. View Menu
o Zoom In/Out: Adjust the zoom level.
o Toolbars: Show or hide specific toolbars.
o Full Screen: Toggle full-screen mode.
4. Help Menu
o Help Topics: Access documentation or help guides.
o About: View information about the software (version, credits).

Keyboard Shortcuts for Menu Selection:

• Alt + F: Open the File menu.

• Ctrl + N: Create a new file/document.
• Ctrl + O: Open an existing file.
• Ctrl + S: Save the current file.
• Ctrl + P: Print the document.
• Ctrl + Z: Undo the last action.

Advanced Menu Features:

1. Accelerators (Hotkeys):
o Specific keyboard shortcuts assigned to menu items (e.g., Ctrl + C for Copy, Ctrl + V for Paste).
2. Mnemonics:
o A letter within a menu option is often underlined to indicate that it can be activated by pressing Alt +
[Letter].
o Example: In the File menu, Alt + F opens the menu.
3. Dynamic Menus:
o Menus can update based on user context or changes in the application.
o Example: In a word processor, the Insert menu might show options for tables only when you're
editing a document.

Why are Menus Important?

• Organized Navigation: Menus provide a structured way to access functions, making it easier for users to find
what they need.
• Efficiency: They allow quick access to features with minimal effort, especially when using keyboard shortcuts.
• Consistency: Most operating systems and applications use similar menu structures, so users can apply their
knowledge across different software.

Running an Application:
1. Running an Application Using the Start Menu (Windows) or Applications Folder (macOS/Linux)
Windows:
1. Click the Start Menu:
o On the taskbar, click the Start button (Windows icon) or press the Windows key on your keyboard.
2. Search for the Application:
o Type the name of the application (e.g., Microsoft Word, Notepad) in the search bar.
3. Select the Application:
o From the search results, click the application you want to run. This will launch the application.
macOS:
1. Open the Applications Folder:
o Click the Finder icon (smiley face) in the Dock, then go to Applications from the sidebar or Go >
Applications from the top menu.
2. Double-Click the Application:

BCA-Toppersnotes 29
 Information Technology Fundamentals

o Find the app you want to open and double-click it to run.

Linux (e.g., Ubuntu):
1. Use the Application Menu:
o Click the Activities or Applications button, or press the Super key (usually the Windows key).
2. Search or Browse:
o Type the name of the application, or browse through categories to find it.
3. Click to Open:
o Select the application from the list to launch it.
2. Running an Application Using Desktop Shortcuts
If you have a shortcut icon for an application on your desktop, running the application is easy:
1. Locate the Icon:
o Find the application shortcut icon on your desktop.
2. Double-Click:
o Double-click on the icon to launch the application.

3. Running an Application via the Taskbar (Windows) or Dock (macOS)

Windows:
1. Click on the Icon in the Taskbar:
o If the application is pinned to the taskbar (the bar at the bottom of the screen), click its icon to open
it.
macOS:
1. Click the Application in the Dock:
o If the application is pinned to the Dock (the bar at the bottom of the screen), click its icon to launch
it.
4. Running an Application Using Keyboard Shortcuts
Windows:
• Press Win + R to open the Run dialog.
• Type the name of the application (e.g., chrome for Google Chrome) and press Enter to open it.
macOS:
• Press Command + Space to open Spotlight.
• Type the name of the application and press Enter to run it.
Linux:
• Press Alt + F2 to open the Run dialog, type the application name (e.g., firefox), and press Enter to run it.

5. Running an Application from a File Explorer or Finder (Windows/macOS/Linux)

You can also open applications directly from the file manager by navigating to the installation folder.
Windows:
1. Open File Explorer:
o Open File Explorer and go to the folder where the application is installed (usually under C:\Program
Files).
2. Double-Click the Executable:
o Find the application’s executable file (e.g., notepad.exe), and double-click to launch it.
macOS:
1. Open Finder:
o Go to Applications or navigate to where the app is stored.
2. Double-Click:
o Double-click the application to launch it.
Linux:
1. Open File Manager:
o Navigate to the application folder (usually under /usr/share/applications or /opt).
2. Double-Click the Executable:
o Find and double-click the application to run it.

6. Running an Application Using Command Line (Advanced Users)

For power users, many operating systems allow you to run applications through the Command Prompt (Windows) or
Terminal (macOS/Linux).

BCA-Toppersnotes 30
 Information Technology Fundamentals

Windows (Command Prompt):

1. Open Command Prompt (press Win + R, type cmd, and press Enter).
2. Type the application name (e.g., chrome for Google Chrome) and press Enter.
macOS/Linux (Terminal):
1. Open Terminal.
2. Type the name of the application (e.g., firefox) and press Enter to run it.

7. Running Applications from the App Store (Windows/macOS/Linux)

Windows:
1. Open Microsoft Store:
o Click the Microsoft Store icon from the Start menu.
2. Search for the Application:
o Use the search bar to find and install applications.
macOS:
1. Open the App Store:
o Click the App Store icon from the Dock.
2. Search for the Application:
o Use the search bar to find and install apps from the App Store.
Linux:
1. Open Software Center:
o Open the Software Center or Snap Store (depending on your distro).
2. Search for Applications:
o Use the search tool to find and install applications.

Troubleshooting:
• Application Not Launching:
o Make sure the application is installed correctly.
o Check if the application has any pending updates.
o Try restarting your system or reinstalling the app if necessary.
• Permissions Issues:
o Some applications may require administrator privileges. Right-click on the application and select Run
as Administrator (Windows) or use Sudo in Linux/macOS Terminal.

Viewing Files, Folders and Directories

Viewing files, folders, and directories is a fundamental task in any GUI-based operating system. Here's a guide to how
you can navigate, view, and manage files and folders on different systems:
1. Viewing Files and Folders in GUI (Windows, macOS, Linux)
Windows:
1. File Explorer:
o To view files and folders, open File Explorer (press Windows + E or click the File Explorer icon from
the taskbar).
2. Navigating Folders:
o Quick Access: Displays recently used files and folders.
o This PC: Shows your local drives, such as the C: drive, Documents, Pictures, and Downloads.
o Left Sidebar: Use the sidebar to quickly navigate to common locations like Desktop, Documents,
Downloads, or connected devices.
3. Viewing Files:
o Icons View: Click View in the top menu and choose from different layouts like Large Icons, Medium
Icons, or List to change how files are displayed.
o Preview: You can see a preview of a file by clicking on it (for supported file types like images, text
files).
4. Opening Folders:
o Double-Click a folder to open it and view its contents.

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 Information Technology Fundamentals

macOS:
1. Finder:
o Open Finder (click the smiley face icon in the Dock).
2. Navigating Folders:
o Sidebar: Use the sidebar in Finder to quickly navigate to locations like Documents, Desktop,
Downloads, and connected drives.
o Go Menu: Use the Go menu at the top to access specific locations like Applications, Home, or
Network.
3. Viewing Files:
o Icons View: In Finder, you can choose Icon View, List View, or Column View to organize how files and
folders are displayed.
o Preview: You can press the Spacebar to see a quick preview of a file without opening it.
4. Opening Folders:
o Double-Click a folder in Finder to open it and view its contents.
Linux (Ubuntu):
1. File Manager (Nautilus):
o Open File Manager (also called Nautilus in Ubuntu) by clicking the File icon in the launcher.
2. Navigating Folders:
o Home Folder: By default, you start in the Home directory, which contains your personal files and
folders.
o Sidebar: The sidebar provides quick access to Documents, Downloads, Pictures, and Other Locations
(including network drives).
3. Viewing Files:
o Icons View: You can switch between different views like Icon View, List View, or Grid View from the
toolbar or right-click context menu.
4. Opening Folders:
o Double-Click on a folder to open and view its contents.

2. Viewing Files in Detail

Windows:
• Details View:
o Click View and select Details to see information about the files like size, date modified, type, and
more.
o You can sort files by name, date, type, etc., by clicking the column headers.
macOS:
• List View:
o Select List View to see a detailed list of your files, including file size, date modified, and other
metadata.
o You can sort files by Name, Date Modified, Size, etc.
Linux:
• List View:
o Use List View for detailed information, such as file permissions, size, and modification date.
o You can also right-click on a file to view its properties (e.g., file type, size, creation date).

3. Searching for Files and Folders

Windows:
1. Search Box:
o Use the search box in the top-right corner of File Explorer to search for specific files or folders by
name or file type.
2. Search Filters:
o You can filter results by file type, size, and date by using the Search Tools in the ribbon.
macOS:
1. Spotlight Search:
o Press Command + Space to open Spotlight and start typing the name of the file or folder you’re
looking for.

BCA-Toppersnotes 32
 Information Technology Fundamentals

2. Finder Search:
o In Finder, type in the search bar at the top-right and filter by Name, Kind, or Date Modified.
Linux:
1. Search Bar in File Manager:
o Use the search bar in the top-right corner of Nautilus to search for files or folders.
2. Find Command (Terminal):
o You can use the find command in the Terminal for advanced searching. For example:
find /path/to/search -name "filename"

4. Organizing Files and Folders

Windows:
1. Drag-and-Drop:
o To move a file, click and drag it to a new folder.
2. Right-Click Options:
o Use Cut, Copy, and Paste to move or duplicate files/folders.
macOS:
1. Drag-and-Drop:
o Drag a file to a different folder to move it.
2. Right-Click Options:
o Right-click a file or folder and select Copy, Move to Trash, or Get Info for more details.
Linux:
1. Drag-and-Drop:
o Similar to other systems, you can drag files to move them between folders.
2. Right-Click Options:
o Use Cut, Copy, and Paste to move or duplicate files.

5. Viewing Hidden Files and Folders

Windows:
1. Show Hidden Files:
o In File Explorer, go to the View tab, and check Hidden items to show hidden files and folders.
macOS:
1. Show Hidden Files:
o Press Command + Shift + . to toggle visibility of hidden files and folders in Finder.
Linux:
1. Show Hidden Files:
o In Nautilus, press Ctrl + H to toggle the visibility of hidden files (those starting with a dot, like .bashrc).

6. File Properties and Info

Windows:
1. Right-Click and Select Properties:
o Right-click a file or folder and select Properties to view details like size, location, permissions, and
more.
macOS:
1. Get Info:
o Right-click a file or folder and select Get Info to view file details, including size, location, and
permissions.
Linux:
1. Properties:
o Right-click a file or folder and select Properties to view information about the file, including size,
permissions, and modification dates.

BCA-Toppersnotes 33
 Information Technology Fundamentals

Creating and Renaming Files and Folders:

Creating and renaming files and folders are basic tasks that are essential for organizing your data. Here's a detailed
guide on how to do both in different operating systems:

1. Creating Files and Folders

Windows:
1. Creating a File:
o Right-Click on an empty area in a folder or on the desktop.
o Select New from the context menu.
o Choose the type of file you want to create, such as Text Document, Word Document, Excel
Spreadsheet, etc.
o After selecting the file type, a new file will appear with a default name (e.g., New Text
Document.txt).
o You can then type your content or open it in the appropriate application.
2. Creating a Folder:
o Right-Click on an empty area in a folder or on the desktop.
o Select New and then click Folder.
o A new folder will appear with a default name, like New Folder.
o You can immediately type to rename it.
macOS:
1. Creating a File:
o In Finder, open the folder where you want to create the file.
o Right-Click in an empty space and select New Document (if available) or open an app (e.g., TextEdit,
Pages) to create a new file manually.
o Alternatively, you can use Command + N in applications like TextEdit or Pages to create a new file.
2. Creating a Folder:
o In Finder, navigate to the location where you want the new folder.
o Right-Click on an empty space and select New Folder.
o You can also press Command + Shift + N to create a folder quickly.
o A new folder will be created with a default name, such as untitled folder.

Linux (Ubuntu):
1. Creating a File:
o Open a file manager (e.g., Nautilus).
o Navigate to the directory where you want to create a new file.
o Right-Click in an empty area and select Create Document (if available) or use a text editor like Gedit
or LibreOffice Writer to create a new file manually.
o After creating the file, you can choose a name for it and save it.
2. Creating a Folder:
o In Nautilus (file manager), navigate to the directory where you want the folder.
o Right-Click in an empty area and select New Folder.
o A new folder will appear with the name Untitled Folder or something similar, and you can
immediately rename it.

2. Renaming Files and Folders

Windows:
1. Renaming a File or Folder:
o Right-Click the file or folder you want to rename.
o Select Rename from the context menu.
o The name will become editable. Type the new name and press Enter to confirm.
Alternatively:
o Click once on the file or folder name to highlight it, then click again (not a double-click) to make it
editable.
2. Tips for Renaming:
o Make sure not to change the file extension unless you're certain about it (e.g., changing .txt to .docx
could make the file unusable).

BCA-Toppersnotes 34
 Information Technology Fundamentals

o Use short, descriptive names without special characters that might cause issues.

macOS:
1. Renaming a File or Folder:
o Right-Click the file or folder in Finder.
o Select Rename from the context menu.
o The name will become editable. Enter the new name and press Enter.
Alternatively:
o Click on the file or folder name to highlight it, then click again to edit the name.
2. Tips for Renaming:
o Be mindful of file extensions, as changing them can make files unreadable.
o You can use spaces, but avoid special characters in the file/folder name.

Linux (Ubuntu):
1. Renaming a File or Folder:
o Right-Click the file or folder in Nautilus.
o Select Rename from the context menu.
o The name will become editable. Type the new name and press Enter.
Alternatively:
o Click once on the file or folder name to highlight it, then click again to edit the name.
2. Tips for Renaming:
o Avoid using special characters in names to prevent issues with the system (e.g., *, ?, |, etc.).
o Be cautious about changing file extensions unless you're certain about the file type.

3. Keyboard Shortcuts for Renaming Files/Folders

Windows:
• F2: Select a file or folder, and press F2 to rename it directly.
macOS:
• Return (Enter): Select a file or folder, and press Return to rename it.
Linux:
• F2: Select a file or folder, and press F2 to rename it.

4. Troubleshooting Common Issues

• Can't Rename a File/Folder:
o Ensure the file or folder is not in use. Close any programs using the file or folder.
o Check if the file or folder is marked as Read-Only. In that case, you’ll need to change the permissions.
• Invalid File Name:
o Avoid using special characters that are not allowed by the operating system (e.g., *, /, :, ?).
o Make sure the name doesn’t exceed the system’s character limit (typically 255 characters).

5. Additional Tips for Creating and Renaming Files/Folders

• Organize Files:
o Use folders to group related files together. For example, create a Work folder, a Personal folder, and
subfolders for specific projects or categories.
• File Extensions:
o When renaming a file, ensure the correct file extension is maintained (e.g., .jpg, .docx). This is
particularly important when opening files with specific applications.
• Batch Renaming:
o On Windows, you can select multiple files and press F2 to rename them all at once. They will
automatically be given sequential names like File (1), File (2), etc.
o On macOS, third-party apps like A Better Finder Rename can help batch rename files.
o On Linux, tools like Thunar or Nautilus allow for bulk renaming as well.

BCA-Toppersnotes 35
 Information Technology Fundamentals

Opening and Closing of different windows:

1. Opening Windows
Windows:
1. Opening a Window (Application or File):
o Start Menu: Click the Start button (Windows icon) at the bottom-left corner, search for an app, and
click it to open.
o Taskbar: If an application is pinned to the Taskbar, click its icon to open it.
o File Explorer: Open File Explorer by clicking its icon on the taskbar or pressing Windows + E. Navigate
to the folder you want to open.
o Keyboard Shortcut: Press Win + R to open the Run dialog, type the name of the application or folder,
and press Enter.
o Double-Click: Double-click any file, folder, or shortcut on the desktop or in File Explorer to open it.
2. Multiple Windows:
o You can have multiple applications or files open at the same time. Each one will open in a separate
window.
o Alt + Tab: Use Alt + Tab to cycle through open windows and select the one you want.
macOS:
1. Opening a Window (Application or File):
o Spotlight Search: Press Command + Space to open Spotlight. Type the name of the application or file
and press Enter.
o Dock: Click on an application icon in the Dock to open it.
o Finder: Open Finder, navigate to the folder you want to open, and double-click it.
o Applications Folder: Open the Applications folder in Finder and double-click on an app to launch it.
2. Multiple Windows:
o macOS supports multiple windows for each app. For example, you can open multiple Finder windows
or different documents in Microsoft Word.
o Command + Tab: Use Command + Tab to switch between open applications.
Linux (Ubuntu):
1. Opening a Window (Application or File):
o Application Menu: Click the Activities or Show Applications button to search for an application or
browse your installed programs.
o File Manager: Open Nautilus or any file manager, navigate to a folder, and double-click it to open.
o Terminal: Press Ctrl + Alt + T to open a Terminal window.
o Keyboard Shortcut: Press Alt + F2, type the name of the application (e.g., firefox), and press Enter to
open it.
2. Multiple Windows:
o Linux allows you to open multiple windows of the same application (e.g., multiple terminal windows
or file manager windows).
o Alt + Tab: Use Alt + Tab to switch between open windows.

2. Closing Windows
Windows:
1. Closing a Window (Application or File):
o Click the X: Click the X button at the top-right corner of a window to close it.
o Alt + F4: Press Alt + F4 to close the active window or application. If no windows are open, it will bring
up the Shut Down dialog.
o Taskbar: Right-click the application icon in the Taskbar and select Close window.
2. Closing All Windows (Minimized/Multiple):
o Task View: Click the Task View button next to the Start menu or press Win + Tab to see all open
windows and close them individually or select to close all from the Task Manager.

BCA-Toppersnotes 36
 Information Technology Fundamentals

macOS:
1. Closing a Window (Application or File):
o Click the Red Button: In the top-left corner of the window, click the red close button to close the
window.
o Command + Q: Use Command + Q to quit the entire application (closing all windows within that app).
o Command + W: Use Command + W to close the current window within an application, but leave the
app running.
2. Close All Windows of an App:
o Force Quit: If an application is unresponsive, press Command + Option + Esc to open the Force Quit
Applications window and select the app to force close it.
Linux (Ubuntu):
1. Closing a Window (Application or File):
o Click the X: In the top-right corner of a window, click the X button to close the window.
o Ctrl + Q: Use Ctrl + Q to quit the active application (if supported).
o Alt + F4: Press Alt + F4 to close the current window or application.
2. Close All Windows of an App:
o System Monitor: If an application is not responding, you can open System Monitor (similar to Task
Manager in Windows) and force-close the application from there.

3. Managing Multiple Windows

Windows:
1. Arrange Windows:
o Snap Windows: Drag a window to the left or right edge of the screen to automatically snap it to half
the screen. This is useful for comparing two windows side by side.
o Win + Arrow Keys: Use Win + Left Arrow or Win + Right Arrow to snap windows to the left or right
side of the screen.
o Win + D: Press Win + D to minimize all windows and show the desktop.
2. Task View:
o Press Win + Tab to see all open windows in Task View and select the window you want to bring to
the forefront.
macOS:
1. Mission Control:
o Swipe up with three or four fingers on your trackpad or press F3 to activate Mission Control. This
shows all open windows and allows you to switch between them.
2. Split View:
o Hold the green maximize button in the top-left corner of a window and drag it to one side of the
screen to enable Split View. This allows you to use two windows side by side.
3. Minimize Windows:
o Click the yellow Minimize button in the top-left corner to send the window to the Dock.
Linux (Ubuntu):
1. Switching Between Windows:
o Alt + Tab: Use Alt + Tab to switch between open windows.
o Ctrl + Alt + Arrow Keys: Switch between different workspaces or desktops.
2. Snap Windows:
o Drag a window to the left or right edge of the screen to snap it into place.
o You can also use Super + Left Arrow or Super + Right Arrow (where Super is the Windows key) to
snap windows.

4. Keyboard Shortcuts for Opening and Closing Windows

Windows:
• Win + D: Show desktop (minimize all windows).
• Alt + Tab: Switch between open windows.

BCA-Toppersnotes 37
 Information Technology Fundamentals

• Alt + F4: Close the current window.

• Win + Tab: Open Task View.
macOS:
• Command + Space: Open Spotlight to search for apps or files.
• Command + Tab: Switch between open applications.
• Command + Q: Quit the active application (closes all windows of the app).
• Command + W: Close the current window.
Linux (Ubuntu):
• Alt + Tab: Switch between open windows.
• Alt + F4: Close the current window.
• Super + D: Show the desktop.

5. Troubleshooting Common Issues

• Window Not Responding:
o Try closing the window using Alt + F4 (Windows/Linux) or Command + Q (macOS).
o If the app is still unresponsive, use Task Manager (Windows), Activity Monitor (macOS), or System
Monitor (Linux) to force close the application.
• Minimized Windows:
o On Windows and Linux, you can click on the minimized window in the taskbar to restore it.
o On macOS, click the application icon in the Dock to bring up the window.

Using Help
Using the Help feature is essential for troubleshooting, learning about software functionality, and finding solutions to
common issues. Here's a description on how to access and use the Help feature in Windows, macOS, and Linux
operating systems:

1. Using Help in Windows

Help in Applications:
• F1 Key: In most Windows applications (like Microsoft Word, Excel, or browsers), pressing F1 opens the Help
documentation related to the app.
• Search Help:
o In many modern apps, you can click on the Search bar (usually at the top) or use Ctrl + F to search for
help topics, guides, or FAQs.
o Microsoft Office applications have a built-in Help feature that provides tutorials, FAQs, and support
articles.
Windows System Help:
• Search Box: In Windows 10 and 11, you can use the Search Box next to the Start Menu. Type in what you're
looking for (e.g., "help with file explorer" or "troubleshoot Wi-Fi"), and Windows will show relevant help
topics and solutions.
• Windows Settings Help:
o Open Settings from the Start Menu.
o In the top-right corner, there is often a Search Settings box where you can type in queries like
"network issues" or "display settings" for system-related help.
Get Help App:
• Windows 10/11:
o Open the Start Menu and search for Get Help.
o The Get Help app will provide guided solutions, contact support options, and help with system
problems.
Microsoft Support Website:
• You can also go to the Microsoft Support website and search for help topics, troubleshooting guides, or live
support options.

BCA-Toppersnotes 38
 Information Technology Fundamentals

2. Using Help in macOS

Help in Applications:
• Menu Bar Help:
o In most macOS applications, you can find the Help option in the Menu Bar at the top-left corner of
the screen.
o Click on Help in the menu bar, and a search box will appear where you can type keywords or
commands to find related help topics.
• F1 Key: In some apps (such as Safari or Finder), you can press the F1 key for context-specific help.
macOS System Help:
• Spotlight Search:
o Press Command + Space to open Spotlight and type "Help" or the specific problem you're facing
(e.g., "how to reset password").
o Spotlight will show a list of help topics, articles, and relevant system preferences.
• macOS Support Website:
o For more extensive help, visit the Apple Support website. Here, you can search for troubleshooting
guides, user manuals, and community forums.
Help in System Preferences:
• Open System Preferences by clicking the Apple icon in the top-left corner and selecting System Preferences.
• Within each section (e.g., Network, Sound, Display), you will find help information by clicking the Help
button or searching for specific topics.

3. Using Help in Linux (Ubuntu)

Help in Applications:
• F1 Key: In most Linux applications (like LibreOffice or Firefox), pressing F1 opens the application's help
documentation.
• Help Menu: Many applications have a Help menu at the top of the window where you can find options like
Contents, Search, Support, or About for help.
System Help:
• Search:
o In Ubuntu, you can use Activities (or Super key/Windows key) to search for help topics. Type "help"
or "manual" into the search bar to find system-wide help and tutorials.
• Help Center:
o In Ubuntu, you can open the Help Center by searching for Help in the Activities overview or by
pressing Super + H (in some distributions). The Help Center contains articles on common tasks and
troubleshooting.
Terminal Help:
• man Command:
o If you’re working in the terminal, you can use the man (manual) command to access help for Linux
commands. For example: man ls
This will show you the manual page for the ls command, detailing how to use it and its options.
• --help Flag:
o Most commands in Linux also support the --help flag. For example: ls --help
This will display help about the ls command directly in the terminal.
Ubuntu Help Website:
• Visit the official Ubuntu Help site for extensive troubleshooting, guides, and manuals.

4. Additional Help Resources for All Systems

• Online Forums:
o Windows: Microsoft has a community forum where you can ask questions and read solutions from
other users.
o macOS: Apple’s Apple Support Communities are helpful for troubleshooting.
o Linux: Many Linux distributions (e.g., Ubuntu, Fedora) have dedicated forums where you can post
questions.
• Knowledge Bases:
o All major operating systems have detailed Knowledge Bases filled with frequently asked questions,
troubleshooting guides, and how-to articles:

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▪ Windows: Microsoft Support

▪ macOS: Apple Support
▪ Linux: Ubuntu Documentation or respective distro websites.
• Contacting Support:
o If you cannot resolve an issue using online resources, you can always contact official support for your
system (e.g., Microsoft, Apple, or your Linux distribution’s support).

5. Tips for Using Help Effectively

• Be Specific: When using the search box in help sections, be as specific as possible (e.g., "how to reset Wi-Fi
settings" rather than just "Wi-Fi").
• Use Keywords: In system help (whether in macOS, Linux, or Windows), use keywords related to the issue or
task (e.g., "file management," "display settings," "keyboard shortcuts").
• Community Forums: Often, other users have had similar issues. Searching community forums can give you
insights and solutions that official help might not cover.

Creating Shortcuts:
Creating shortcuts is a great way to quickly access files, folders, applications, and even websites without having to
navigate through multiple menus or folders. Below is a description on how to create shortcuts in Windows, macOS,
and Linux operating systems.

1. Creating Shortcuts in Windows

Creating a Shortcut for a File, Folder, or Application:
1. Right-click on the File or Folder:
o Navigate to the file, folder, or application that you want to create a shortcut for.
o Right-click on it.
2. Select "Create Shortcut":
o From the context menu, select Create shortcut.
o Windows will automatically create a shortcut in the same location as the original file, usually with the
word “Shortcut” appended to the name.
3. Move the Shortcut to a Convenient Location:
o Drag the shortcut to the Desktop or any other location where you want to keep it for easy access.
o Alternatively, you can Right-click the shortcut and select Cut and then Paste it where you want it.
Creating a Shortcut from the Start Menu:
1. Find the App in the Start Menu:
o Open the Start Menu and find the app you want to create a shortcut for.
2. Right-click the App:
o Right-click on the app, then select More > Open file location.
3. Create a Shortcut:
o Once the app’s location opens in File Explorer, right-click on the app and select Create shortcut.
o Move the shortcut to the desktop or another folder.
Keyboard Shortcut for Apps:
1. Right-click on the Shortcut:
o Right-click on the shortcut for which you want to assign a keyboard shortcut.
2. Select Properties:
o Click on Properties from the context menu.
3. Set a Keyboard Shortcut:
o Under the Shortcut tab, find the Shortcut key field.
o Click in the field and press the key combination you want to use (e.g., Ctrl + Alt + S).
o Click Apply, then OK.

2. Creating Shortcuts in macOS

Creating a Shortcut for a File, Folder, or Application:
1. Find the File, Folder, or App:
o Navigate to the file, folder, or application you want to create a shortcut for.
2. Right-click or Control-click:
o Control-click (or Right-click) on the file, folder, or application.

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3. Create Alias:
o From the context menu, select Make Alias.
o An alias (shortcut) will be created in the same location as the original file, with the word "alias"
appended to the name.
4. Move the Alias to the Desktop:
o Drag the alias to the Desktop or any location where you want it for quick access.
Creating a Shortcut for an Application in the Dock:
1. Drag the Application to the Dock:
o Find the application in Finder (or Launchpad) and drag it to the Dock.
o This will create a shortcut in the Dock for quick access.

3. Creating Shortcuts in Linux (Ubuntu)

Creating a Shortcut (Symbolic Link) for a File or Folder:
1. Using File Manager:
o Open File Manager (Nautilus).
o Right-click on the file or folder you want to create a shortcut for.
o Select Make Link or Create Shortcut from the context menu.
o A symbolic link (shortcut) will appear in the same folder, with the word "link" appended to the name.
2. Move the Shortcut:
o You can drag the symbolic link to the Desktop or another convenient location for easy access.
Using the Terminal to Create a Shortcut:
1. Open the Terminal:
o Press Ctrl + Alt + T to open the terminal.
2. Use the ln Command:
o You can create a symbolic link (shortcut) using the ln command. The basic syntax is:
ln -s /path/to/original/file /path/to/shortcut
o For example, to create a shortcut for the Documents folder:
ln -s ~/Documents ~/Desktop/DocumentsShortcut
o This will create a shortcut named "DocumentsShortcut" on your Desktop.
Creating Application Shortcuts for the Desktop:
1. Create a .desktop File:
o In Ubuntu, you can create custom application shortcuts using a .desktop file.
2. Steps:
o Open Text Editor and create a file with the following contents:
[Desktop Entry]
Name=ApplicationName
Exec=/path/to/application
Icon=/path/to/icon.png
Type=Application
o Save the file with the .desktop extension (e.g., MyApp.desktop) on the Desktop.
3. Make the File Executable:
o Right-click the .desktop file on the Desktop, select Properties, then check the box that says Allow
executing file as program.

4. Organizing Shortcuts
1. Folder for Shortcuts:
o You can create a Shortcut folder (e.g., on your Desktop or Start Menu) where you can place all your
shortcuts for easy access.
2. Group Shortcuts:
o On Windows, you can right-click on your Desktop, select New > Folder, and then group related
shortcuts in this folder.
o On macOS, you can create a folder on the Desktop and move your aliases (shortcuts) into it.
3. Pinning Shortcuts:
o On Windows, you can pin a shortcut to the Taskbar or Start Menu for quicker access.
o On macOS, you can pin application shortcuts to the Dock.

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o In Linux, you can create a launcher or pin shortcuts to the Panel (using the GNOME or Unity desktop
environments).

5. Customizing Shortcuts
• Change the Name: You can right-click on a shortcut and select Rename to give it a more meaningful name.
• Change the Icon: In Windows and macOS, you can change the icon of a shortcut:
o Windows: Right-click on the shortcut > Properties > Change Icon.
o macOS: Right-click on the alias > Get Info > click the icon and paste a new icon.

Common Utilities
Common utilities are essential programs or tools that help users perform basic tasks, troubleshoot issues, or manage
system resources on an operating system. These utilities are typically included by default in most operating systems
or can be easily installed. Here’s a breakdown of common utilities across Windows, macOS, and Linux.

1. Common Utilities in Windows

File Explorer
• Description: A graphical utility that allows users to navigate, manage, and organize files and folders.
• Key Features:
o Copy, move, delete, and rename files and folders.
o Search for files and folders.
o Access shared network locations and cloud storage.
Task Manager
• Description: A system monitoring and management tool that provides information about processes, system
performance, and network usage.
• Key Features:
o View running applications and processes.
o End tasks and processes that are unresponsive.
o Monitor system performance (CPU, memory, disk, network).
Control Panel
• Description: A collection of administrative tools for configuring and managing system settings and hardware.
• Key Features:
o Adjust system settings (e.g., display, sound, power options).
o Manage installed programs, update drivers, and configure user accounts.
Command Prompt (CMD)
• Description: A command-line interface for performing various tasks and executing commands.
• Key Features:
o Run system commands, scripts, and batch files.
o Troubleshoot network issues and system problems (e.g., ipconfig, ping, chkdsk).
Windows Defender
• Description: A built-in antivirus and anti-malware tool to protect against threats.
• Key Features:
o Real-time protection.
o Malware scanning and removal.
o Firewall management.
Disk Cleanup
• Description: A utility that helps clean up unnecessary files from your hard drive.
• Key Features:
o Delete temporary files, system files, and old Windows installations.
o Free up disk space and improve system performance.
System Configuration (msconfig)
• Description: A tool to manage startup programs, services, and troubleshoot system boot issues.
• Key Features:
o Enable or disable startup programs.
o Change boot options for troubleshooting.

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2. Common Utilities in macOS

Finder
• Description: The default file management tool that allows users to browse, organize, and manage files and
folders.
• Key Features:
o Access files and folders in a graphical interface.
o Use search and tags to organize files.
o Open network shares and cloud storage.
Activity Monitor
• Description: A utility for monitoring system resources and managing processes.
• Key Features:
o View running processes and their impact on CPU, memory, and disk usage.
o Force quit unresponsive applications.
o Monitor network and system performance.
System Preferences
• Description: A central location for configuring macOS system settings and preferences.
• Key Features:
o Adjust hardware and software settings (e.g., display, network, security).
o Manage users, notifications, and other system preferences.
Terminal
• Description: A command-line interface used for running shell commands.
• Key Features:
o Run Unix-based commands, scripts, and automate tasks.
o Access advanced system configurations and settings.
Disk Utility
• Description: A tool for managing disks and storage devices.
• Key Features:
o Format, partition, and repair disk errors.
o Mount/unmount volumes and create disk images.
Time Machine
• Description: A built-in backup utility for macOS that automatically backs up files and system data.
• Key Features:
o Schedule backups and restore files or entire system states.
o Access previous versions of files and folders.
Security & Privacy Settings
• Description: A utility to manage privacy, security, and permissions.
• Key Features:
o Enable and configure macOS firewall.
o Set up FileVault encryption and app permissions.

3. Common Utilities in Linux (Ubuntu)

Nautilus (File Manager)
• Description: The default file manager for GNOME, allowing users to browse and organize files and folders.
• Key Features:
o Navigate and manage files and directories.
o Open network shares and cloud storage.
o Customize file and folder views.
System Monitor
• Description: A utility that displays system resource usage and running processes.
• Key Features:
o Monitor CPU, memory, disk, and network usage.
o End processes and check system performance.
Terminal
• Description: A command-line interface for running system commands and scripts.
• Key Features:
o Run shell commands, manage files, and interact with the system.

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o Use package managers (e.g., apt, yum) to install software.

Disk Utility (GNOME Disks)
• Description: A tool to manage disks, partitions, and file systems.
• Key Features:
o Mount, unmount, and format drives.
o Create disk partitions and manage disk health.
GParted (Partition Editor)
• Description: A tool for partitioning disks and managing file systems.
• Key Features:
o Resize, create, and delete partitions.
o Format and check the health of disk partitions.
Software Center
• Description: A GUI utility to manage and install software packages.
• Key Features:
o Install, update, and remove software.
o Browse repositories and install new applications.
Network Manager
• Description: A utility for managing network connections and settings.
• Key Features:
o Connect to Wi-Fi, Ethernet, VPN, and mobile networks.
o Configure network settings and troubleshoot connection issues.
Backup Utility (Deja Dup)
• Description: A simple backup tool for creating and restoring backups.
• Key Features:
o Schedule regular backups.
o Encrypt and restore files or system states.

4. Cross-Platform Utilities
Web Browsers (Chrome, Firefox, Edge)
• Description: Essential utilities for accessing the internet.
• Key Features:
o Browse websites, manage bookmarks, and use extensions.
o Sync data (bookmarks, passwords) across devices.
o Manage browsing history and privacy.
Text Editors (Notepad++, Sublime Text, VS Code)
• Description: Tools for editing plain text and code.
• Key Features:
o Syntax highlighting for code editing.
o Advanced search and replace functions.
o Extensions for various programming languages.
Cloud Storage (Google Drive, Dropbox, OneDrive)
• Description: Cloud services for storing and syncing files across devices.
• Key Features:
o Upload, download, and share files securely.
o Synchronize files between multiple devices.
o Access files from any web browser or app.
Compression Tools (WinRAR, 7-Zip, The Unarchiver)
• Description: Utilities for compressing and decompressing files.
• Key Features:
o Create and extract compressed archives (ZIP, RAR, TAR).
o Password protection and encryption for archives.
o Multi-platform support for sharing compressed files.
5. Utility Apps for Troubleshooting
Antivirus/Malware Tools
• Windows: Windows Defender, Malwarebytes
• macOS: Malwarebytes, Avast

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• Linux: ClamAV, Sophos

Backup and Restore
• Windows: File History, Backup and Restore
• macOS: Time Machine
• Linux: Deja Dup, rsync
Disk Management/Repair
• Windows: Disk Cleanup, CHKDSK
• macOS: Disk Utility
• Linux: fsck, GParted
System Monitoring
• Windows: Task Manager, Resource Monitor
• macOS: Activity Monitor
• Linux: System Monitor, htop

Operating System:
The Operating System is a system program −
• An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the computer
hardware.
• It is an integrated set of specialized programs used to manage overall resources and operations of
the computer.
• It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that reside
in the computer, including application programs and other system software.
Objectives of Operating System
The objectives of the operating system are −
• To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.
• To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
• To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
• To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the users to access
and use other resources.
• To manage the resources of a computer system.
• To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and mediating conflicting
requests from different programs and users.
• To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.
**Characteristics of Operating System
Here is a list of some of the most prominent characteristic features of Operating Systems −
• Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of it is in use by whom,
what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory when a process or program requests it.
• Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and deallocates the processor
when it is no longer required.
• Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O controller that decides
which process gets the device, when, and for how much time.
• File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who gets the resources.
• Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords and other
similar techniques.
• Job Accounting − Keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or users.
• Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the request for a service and from
the system.

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• Interaction with the Operators − Interaction may take place via the console of the computer in the
form of instructions. The Operating System acknowledges the same, does the corresponding
action, and informs the operation by a display screen.
• Error-detecting Aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and
error-detecting methods.
• Coordination Between Other Software and Users − Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers, and other software to the various users of the computer systems.
Functions of Operating Systems
Following are some of important functions of an operating System.
• Memory Management
• Processor Management
• Device Management
• File Management
• Security
• Control over system performance
• Job accounting
• Error detecting aids
• Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is a
large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be
executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities for memory
management −
• Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in use.
• In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
• Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
• De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for how
much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following activities
for processor management −
• Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is known as
traffic controller.
• Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
• De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the following
activities for device management −
• Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller.
• Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
• Allocates the device in the efficient way.
• De-allocates devices.

File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories may
contain files and other directions.

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An Operating System does the following activities for file management −

• Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known as
file system.
• Decides who gets the resources.
• Allocates the resources.
• De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −
Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized access to
programs and data.
Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and response from
the system.
Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error
detecting aids.
Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer systems.
Types of Operating Systems
An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing files, processes, and memory. Thus
operating system acts as the manager of all the resources, i.e. resource manager. Thus, the operating
system becomes an interface between user and machine.

Types of Operating Systems

• Batch Operating System
• Time Sharing Operating System
• Distributed Operating System
• Network Operating System
• Real Time Operating System

1. Batch Operating System –

This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an operator which
takes similar jobs having the same requirement and group them into batches. It is the responsibility of the
operator to sort jobs with similar needs.

Advantages of Batch Operating System:

• It is very difficult to guess or know the time required for any job to complete. Processors of the
batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in queue
• Multiple users can share the batch systems
• The idle time for the batch system is very less
• It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems

Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:

• The computer operators should be well known with batch systems

• Batch systems are hard to debug

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 Information Technology Fundamentals

• It is sometimes costly
• The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails

Examples of Batch based Operating System: Payroll System, Bank Statements, etc.

2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems –

Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets the time of CPU
as they use a single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from
a single user or different users also. The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this
time interval is over OS switches over to the next task.

Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:

• Each task gets an equal opportunity

• Fewer chances of duplication of software
• CPU idle time can be reduced

Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:

• Reliability problem
• One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user programs and data
• Data communication problem

Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix, etc.

3. Distributed Operating System –

These types of the operating system is a recent advancement in the world of computer technology and
are being widely accepted all over the world and, that too, with a great pace. Various autonomous
interconnected computers communicate with each other using a shared communication network.
Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These are referred to as loosely coupled
systems or distributed systems. These system’s processors differ in size and function. The major benefit of
working with these types of the operating system is that it is always possible that one user can access the
files or software which are not actually present on his system but some other system connected within
this network i.e., remote access is enabled within the devices connected in that network.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System:

• Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are independent
from each other
• Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
• Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
• Load on host computer reduces
• These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the network
• Delay in data processing reduces

Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:

• Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication

• To establish distributed systems the language which is used are not well defined yet

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• These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive. Not only that the
underlying software is highly complex and not understood well yet

Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS, etc.

4. Network Operating System –

These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users, groups, security,
applications, and other networking functions. These types of operating systems allow shared access of
files, printers, security, applications, and other networking functions over a small private network. One
more important aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are well aware of the underlying
configuration, of all other users within the network, their individual connections, etc. and that’s why these
computers are popularly known as tightly coupled systems.

Advantages of Network Operating System:

• Highly stable centralized servers

• Security concerns are handled through servers
• New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the system
• Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of systems

Disadvantages of Network Operating System:

• Servers are costly

• User has to depend on a central location for most operations
• Maintenance and updates are required regularly

Examples of Network Operating System are: Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server
2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD, etc.

5. Real-Time Operating System –

These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required to process and respond to inputs is
very small. This time interval is called response time.
Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are very strict like missile systems, air
traffic control systems, robots, etc.
Two types of Real-Time Operating System which are as follows:
Hard Real-Time Systems:
These OS’s are meant for applications where time constraints are very strict and even the shortest possible
delay is not acceptable. These systems are built for saving life like automatic parachutes or airbags which
are required to be readily available in case of any accident. Virtual memory is rarely found in these systems.
Soft Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are for applications where for time-constraint is less strict.
Advantages of RTOS:

• Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and system, thus more output from all
the resources
• Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems are very less. For example, in
older systems, it takes about 10 microseconds in shifting one task to another, and in the latest
systems, it takes 3 microseconds.
• Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance to applications which are
in the queue.

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• Real-time operating system in the embedded system: Since the size of programs are small, RTOS
can also be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.
• Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.
• Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these types of systems.

Disadvantages of RTOS:

• Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is very less on few
applications to avoid errors.
• Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so good and they are
expensive as well.
• Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the designer to write on.
• Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and interrupts signals to
respond earliest to interrupts.
• Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very less prone to
switching tasks.

Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are: Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial
control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
Application Programs vs System Programs
There are mainly two categories of programs i.e. application programs and system programs. A diagram
that demonstrates their place in the logical computer hierarchy is as follows −
Application Programs

These programs perform a particular function directly for the users. Some of the common application
programs include Email, web browsers, gaming software, word processors, graphics software, media
player etc.

All of these programs provide an application to the end users, so they are known as application
programs. For example: a web browser is used to find information while a gaming software is used to
play games.

The requests for service and application communication systems used in an application by a programmer
is known as an application program interface (API).

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System Programs
The system programs are used to program the operating system software. While application programs
provide software that is used directly by the user, system programs provide software that are used by
other systems such as SaaS applications, computational science applications etc.

The attributes of system programming are −

• Using system programming, a programmer can make assumptions about the hardware of the
system that the program runs on.
• A low level programming language is used in system programming normally. This is so that the
programs can operate in low resource environments easily.
• Most system programs are created to have a low runtime overhead. These programs may have
small runtime library.
• Some parts of the system programs may be directly written in assembly language by the
programmers.
• A debugger cannot be used on system programs mostly. This problem can be solved by running
the programs in a simulated environment.
Some examples of system programs are operating system, networking system, web site server, data
backup server etc.

Utility Software
The Utility Software is system software that helps to maintain the proper and smooth functioning of a
Computer System. It assists the Operating System to manage, organize, maintain, and optimize the
functioning of the computer system.

Utility Software performs certain tasks like virus detection, installation, and uninstallation, data backup,
deletion of unwanted files, etc. Some examples are antivirus software, file management tools,
compression tools, disk management tools, etc.

Types of Utility Software

1. Antivirus
A virus is a malicious software that enters the system along with a host program. Moreover, it multiplies
with time and makes several copies which in turn slows down and corrupts the system.
An antivirus is a utility software that helps to keep the computer virus-free. Moreover, it notifies when any
malicious file is detected and removes such files. In addition, it scans any new device attached to the
computer and discards any virus if there. Moreover, it also scans the system from time to time for any
threats and disposes of them. Examples of antivirus are McAfee Antivirus, Quickheal Antivirus, Windows
Defender, etc.

2. File Management System

These utility software are used to manage files of the computer system. Since files are an important part
of the system as all the data is stored in the files. Therefore, this utility software help to browse, search,
arrange, find information, and quickly preview the files of the system.
Windows Explorer is a default file management tool present in the system. Some other examples of file
management tools are Google Desktop, Double Commander, Directory Opus, etc.

3. Compression Tools
An important part of a computer is storage space, it is very important to maintain this storage. Therefore,
we use certain utility software to compress big files and decrease their size, these are compression tools.
The format of the files changes while compressing and we cannot access or edit them directly. In addition,

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 Information Technology Fundamentals

we can easily decompress the file and get the original file back. Examples of compression tools are WinZip,
WinRAR, WinAce, PeaZip, 7-Zip, etc.

4. Disk Management Tools

These utility software are used to manage data on disks. Moreover, they perform functions like
partitioning devices, manage drives, etc. Examples of disk management tools are MiniTool Partition
Wizard, Paragon Partition Manager, etc.

5. Disk Cleanup Tool

This utility software helps to free up the disk space. In addition, the files which are no longer in use are
removed from the disk. Examples are Razer Cortex, Piriform CCleaner, etc.

6. Disk Defragmenter
This utility software helps to reduce the fragmentation and hence, reduces the access speed.
Defragmenting refers to rearranging files and storing them in contiguous memory locations. Moreover,
saves time in reading from files and writing files to disk. Examples of disk defragmenters are Perfect disk,
Deflaggler, etc.

7. Backup Utility
This utility software helps to back up the files, folders, databases, or complete disks. Moreover, backup
refers to duplicating the disk information so that the data can be restored if any data loss happens.

Advantages of Utility Software

The advantages are as follows:

Enhances performance.
• Manages space.
• Manages files and data.
• Helps to customize interface and desktop.
• Helps to remove useless files.
• Keep the system safe and secure.
• Helps to recover files after a loss.
In conclusion, we can say that it makes the working of a computer system efficient.

UNIX Introduction
What is UNIX?
UNIX is an operating system which was first developed in the 1960s, and has been under constant
development ever since. By operating system, we mean the suite of programs which make the computer
work. It is a stable, multi-user, multi-tasking system for servers, desktops and laptops.

UNIX systems also have a graphical user interface (GUI) similar to Microsoft Windows which provides an
easy to use environment. However, knowledge of UNIX is required for operations which aren't covered by
a graphical program, or for when there is no windows interface available, for example, in a telnet session.

Features of UNIX Operating System:

Multitasking: A UNIX operating system is a multitasking operating system that allows you to initiate more
than one task from the same terminal so that one task is performed as a foreground and the other task as
a background process.

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Multi-user: UNIX operating system supports more than one user to access computer resources like main
memory, hard disk, tape drives, etc. Multiple users can log on to the system from different terminals and
run different jobs that share the resources of a command terminal.
Portability: This feature makes the UNIX work on different machines and platforms with the easy transfer
of code to any computer system.

File Security and Protection: Being a multi-user system, UNIX makes special consideration for file and
system security. UNIX has different levels of security using assigning username and password to individual
users ensuring the authentication, at the level providing file access permission viz. read, write and execute
and lastly file encryption to change the file into an unreadable format.

Command Structure: UNIX commands are easy to understand and simple to use. Example: "cp", mv etc.
While working in the UNIX environment, the UNIX commands are case-sensitive and are entered in lower
case.

Open Source: UNIX operating system is open source it means it is freely available to all and is a community-
based development project.

Types of UNIX
There are many different versions of UNIX, although they share common similarities. The most popular
varieties of UNIX are Sun Solaris, GNU/Linux, and MacOS X. Linux in its turn is packaged in a form known
as a Linux distribution. There are several Linux distributions, both free and commercial.

The UNIX operating system

The UNIX operating system is made up of three parts; the kernel, the shell and the programs.

The kernel
The kernel of UNIX is the hub of the operating system: it allocates time and memory to programs and
handles the filestore and communications in response to system calls.
As an illustration of the way that the shell and the kernel work together, suppose a user types rm myfile
(which has the effect of removing the file myfile). The shell searches the filestore for the file containing
the program rm, and then requests the kernel, through system calls, to execute the program rm on myfile.
When the process rm myfile has finished running, the shell then returns the UNIX prompt % to the user,
indicating that it is waiting for further commands.

The shell
The shell acts as an interface between the user and the kernel. When a user logs in, the login program
checks the username and password, and then starts another program called the shell. The shell is a
command line interpreter (CLI). It interprets the commands the user types in and arranges for them to be
carried out. The commands are themselves programs: when they terminate, the shell gives the user
another prompt (% on our systems).
The user can customise his/her own shell, and users can use different shells on the same machine. Most
accounts on our clusters have the bash shell by default.
The bash and tcsh shells have certain features to help the user inputting commands.

The programs
One of the main features of Linux is that it includes a variety of small programs to meet various needs.
Typically, each of these programs does one thing and does it well. This modular design allows the
functionality of small programs to be mixed and matched. As you become more familiar with Linux, you
will find that this design provides you great flexibility and power to accomplish almost any task. Typically
these programs operate on top of the shell, but they may also interface directly with the kernel.

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Basic UNIX Commands

The following charts offer a summary of some simple UNIX commands. These are certainly not all of the
commands available in this robust operating system, but these will help you get started.

ESSENTIAL UNIX Commands

Command Example Description
1. ls ls Lists files in current directory
ls -alF List in long format
2. cd cd tempdir Change directory to tempdir
cd .. Move back one directory
cd ~dhyatt/web-docs Move into dhyatt's web-docs directory
3. mkdir mkdir graphics Make a directory called graphics
4. rmdir rmdir emptydir Remove directory (must be empty)
5. cp cp file1 web-docs Copy file into directory
cp file1 file1.bak Make backup of file1
6. rm rm file1.bak Remove or delete file
rm *.tmp Remove all file
7. mv mv old.html new.html Move or rename files
8. more more index.html Look at file, one page at a time
9. lpr lpr index.html Send file to printer
10. man man ls Online manual (help) about command

Booting
Booting is the process of starting a computer. It can be initiated by hardware such as a button press or by a
software command. After it is switched on, a CPU has no software in its main memory, so some processes
must load software into memory before execution. This may be done by hardware or firmware in the CPU or
by a separate processor in the computer system.
Restarting a computer also is called rebooting, which can be "hard", e.g., after electrical power to the CPU is
switched from off to on, or "soft", where the power is not cut. On some systems, a soft boot may optionally
clear RAM to zero. Hard and soft booting can be initiated by hardware such as a button press or a software
command. Booting is complete when the operative runtime system, typically the operating system and some
applications, is attained.

Sequencing of Booting
Booting is a start-up sequence that starts the operating system of a computer when it is turned on. A boot
sequence is the initial set of operations that the computer performs when it is switched on. Every computer
has a boot sequence.
1. Bootloader
2. Boot Device
3. Boot Sequence

1. Boot Loader: Computers powered by the central processing unit can only execute code found in the
system's memory. Modern operating systems and application program code and data are stored on
nonvolatile memories. When a computer is first powered on, it must initially rely only on the code and data
stored in nonvolatile portions of the system's memory. The operating system is not really loaded at boot time,
and the computer's hardware cannot perform many complex systems actions.The program that starts the
chain reaction that ends with the entire operating system being loaded is the boot loader or bootstrap loader.
The boot loader's only job is to load other software for the operating system to start.

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2. Boot Devices: The boot device is the device from which the operating system is loaded. A modern PC BIOS
(Basic Input/Output System) supports booting from various devices. These include the local hard disk drive,
optical drive, floppy drive, a network interface card, and a USB device. The BIOS will allow the user to configure
a boot order. If the boot order is set to:
• CD Drive
• Hard Disk Drive
• Network
The BIOS will try to boot from the CD drive first, and if that fails, then it will try to boot from the hard disk
drive, and if that fails, then it will try to boot from the network, and if that fails, then it won't boot at all.
3. Boot Sequence: There is a standard boot sequence that all personal computers use. First, the CPU runs an
instruction in memory for the BIOS. That instruction contains a jump instruction that transfers to the BIOS
start-up program. This program runs a power-on self-test (POST) to check that devices the computer will rely
on are functioning properly. Then, the BIOS goes through the configured boot sequence until it finds a
bootable device. Once BIOS has found a bootable device, BIOS loads the boot sector and transfers execution
to the boot sector. If the boot device is a hard drive, it will be a master boot record (MBR).
The MBR code checks the partition table for an active partition. If one is found, the MBR code loads that
partition's boot sector and executes it. The boot sector is often operating system specific, and however, in
most operating systems, its main function is to load and execute the operating system kernel, which continues
start-up. Suppose there is no active partition, or the active partition's boot sector is invalid. In that case, the
MBR may load a secondary boot loader which will select a partition and load its boot sector, which usually
loads the corresponding operating system kernel.
Types of Booting
There are two types of booting in an operating system.
1. Cold Booting
2. Warm Booting
1. Cold Booting: When the computer starts for the first time or is in a shut-down state and switch on the
power button to start the system, this type of process to start the computer is called cold booting.
During cold booting, the system will read all the instructions from the ROM (BIOS) and the Operating
System will be automatically get loaded into the system. This booting takes more time than Hot or
Warm Booting.
2. Warm Booting: Warm or Hot Booting process is when computer systems come to no response or
hang state, and then the system is allowed to restart during on condition. It is also referred to as
rebooting. There are many reasons for this state, and the only solution is to reboot the computer.
Rebooting may be required when we install new software or hardware. The system requires a reboot
to set software or hardware configuration changes, or sometimes systems may behave abnormally or
may not respond properly. In such a case, the system has to be a force restart. Most
commonly Ctrl+Alt+Del button is used to reboot the system. Else, in some systems, the external reset
button may be available to reboot the system.

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