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Computer Fundamentals

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the simple equations.

COMPUTER SYSTEM = HARDWARE + SOFTWARE+ USER

 Hardware = Internal Devices + Peripheral Devices

All physical parts of the computer (or everything that we can touch) are
known as Hardware.

 Software = Programs
Software gives "intelligence" to the computer.

 USER = Person, who operates computer.

Characteristics of Computers
Computers are complex machines with various characteristics that make them
powerful tools for processing information. Here are some key characteristics of
computers:

1. Speed: Computers can perform tasks at incredibly high speeds. They can
execute millions or even billions of instructions per second, depending on
their processing power.
2. Accuracy: Computers are highly accurate in executing instructions, provided
the instructions are correct. They don't make mistakes due to fatigue or lack
of attention, unlike humans.
3. Storage Capacity: Computers can store vast amounts of data in various
forms, ranging from text and images to videos and large datasets. The
storage capacity can be expanded using external devices like hard drives or
cloud storage.
4. Versatility: Computers are versatile machines that can perform a wide
range of tasks. They can be programmed to perform different functions, from
simple calculations to complex simulations.
5. Automation: Computers excel at automation. They can carry out repetitive
tasks without getting tired, making them efficient for industrial processes,
data analysis, and various other applications.
6. Multitasking: Modern computers can handle multiple tasks simultaneously.
This ability to multitask is crucial for users who want to run multiple
applications or processes concurrently.
7. Reliability: When properly maintained, computers are reliable and
consistent in their performance. They can operate continuously for long
periods without a decrease in efficiency.
8. Scalability: Computers can be scaled in terms of hardware and software.
This means that their capacity can be increased by adding more components
or upgrading existing ones, and new software can be installed to enhance
functionality.
9. Connectivity: Computers can be interconnected to form networks, enabling
them to communicate and share resources. This connectivity allows for
collaboration, data sharing, and the creation of a vast global network like the
internet.
10.Precision: Computers can perform precise calculations and operations,
making them indispensable in fields such as engineering, scientific research,
and design.
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11.Consistency: Once programmed, computers consistently execute tasks

without deviations. This consistency is essential for applications where
accuracy is paramount.
12.User Interface: Computers have various user interfaces, such as graphical
user interfaces (GUIs) or command-line interfaces, that allow users to interact
with them. These interfaces make computers accessible to a wide range of
users.
13.Digital Processing: Computers process information in a digital format,
using binary code (0s and 1s). This digital nature allows for accurate and
reliable data representation and manipulation.

Generation of Computer

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Major parts of the Computer

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15. Magnetic
Card Reader
(Used in 16. Biometric
Shops, Devices
Colleges,
Stations etc)

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Processor
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The main unit inside the computer is the CPU. This unit is responsible for
all events inside the computer. It controls all internal and external devices,
performs arithmetic and logic operations. The CPU (Central Processing
Unit) is the device that interprets and executes instructions.

Basic Organization of computers

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Storage Devices
1. Primary memory (main memory)
A. RAM (Random Access Memory/Read-Write Memory)

B. ROM (Read-only-memory)

2. Secondary memory (storage devices)

A. Hard Disk (Local Disk)
B. Optical Disks: CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-R, DVD-RW
C. Pen Drive
D. Zip Drive
E. Floppy Disks
F. Memory Cards
G. External Hard Disk

A. Hard
Disk

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B. Optical
disk

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Internal Components

1. The Mother
Board

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2. Application software:
a) Package Software
Ms. Office 2003, Ms. Office 2007, Macromedia (Dreamweaver, Flash,
Freehand), Adobe (PageMaker, PhotoShop)
b) Tailored or Custom Software
SAGE (Accounting), Galileo/Worldspan (Travel) etc.

3. Computer Languages & Scripting:

a) Low Level Language
i) Machine Level Language
ii) Assembly Language

Machine language: These language instructions are directly executed by CPU

Assembly language: The endeavor of giving machine language

instructions a name structure that means bit strings of instructions
of machine language are given name here

High Level Language: The user friendly language ...more

natural language than assembly language.

Assembler is needed to convert assembly language into machine language

Complier is needed to convert high level to machine language

b) High Level Language

COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language), FORTRAN
(FORmula TRANslation), BASIC (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code), C, C++ etc. are the examples of High Level
Language.

Types of Computer
On the basis of working principle
a) Analog Computer
An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of
computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical,
mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.

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1. Thermometer

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On the basis of Size

a) Super Computer
The fastest type of computer. Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of
mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a
supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include animated graphics,
fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum
exploration.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a
supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as
fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many
programs concurrently.

b) Mainframe Computer
A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or
even thousands, of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with
a simple microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and
moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below
supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than
supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But
supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe.

c) Mini Computer
A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between
workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between
large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has
the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in
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general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting

from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.

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e) Workstations
A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation
is just a generic term for a user's machine (client machine) in contrast to a
"server" or "mainframe."

On the basis of Brand

a) IBM/IBM Compatible Computers

c) Apple/Macintosh

Booting
The process of loading the system files of the operating system from the
disk into the computer memory to complete the circuitry requirement of
the computer system is called booting. The system files of MS. DOS are:

Types of Booting:
There are two types of booting:
 Cold Booting: If the computer is in off state and we
boot the computer by pressing the power switch ‘ON’
from the CPU box then it is called as cold booting.

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 Warm Booting: If the computer is already ‘ON’ and we restart it

by pressing the ‘RESET’ button from the CPU box or CTRL, ALT and
DEL key simultaneously from the keyboard then it is called warm
booting.

How to start the Computer in Ms. Windows mode?

There is nothing special you need to start this system. Just,
1. Switch ON the Power Supply.
2. Switch ON the CPU and,
3. Switch ON the Screen (Monitor).

How to Shutdown (Turn Off) the Computer?

Before shutting down the Computer, close all opened windows at first. Then,
1. Click on Start button.
2. Click on Shutdown (Turn Off
Computer). Then, Computer asks you:
What do you want the Computer to do?
 Standby
 Shutdown (Turn Off)
 Restart
 Restart in MS-DOS mode.

Note: The options will be different from one OS to another.

3. Choose 2nd option (i.e. Shutdown/Turn Off).

4. Click on OK.
Then, wait until the message “It’s now safe to turn off your Computer”.
5. Then, Switch Off the screen.
6. Switch Off the CPU.
7. At last, Switch Off the power supply.

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Basic Computer Literacy

Quiz One

1. Which one is not an output device?

o Printer
o Monitor
o Keyboard
o Modem

2. Which one works as an output and input device?

o Modem
o Scanner
o Mouse
o Monitor

3. All computers must have:

o Word processing software
o An operating system
o A printer attached
o A virus checking program

4. The brain of the computer is called:

o Random Access Memory or RAM
o Central Processing Unit or CPU
o Read Only Memory or ROM
o BIOS

5. An operating system is:

o Integrated software
o CD-ROM software
o Application software
o System software

6. Software is:
o A computer program
o A set of instructions
o All of the above
o Only in operating systems

7. One MB is equal to:

o The amount of RAM in every computer
o 1 billion bytes
o 1024KB
o 1 thousand bytes

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8. The resolution of a printer is measured in:

o Megabits
o Hz
o Dots per inch (DPI)
o Inches (diagonal)

9. Windows and Macintosh computers:

o Are both manufactured by Motorola
o Both use Intel microprocessors
o Use the same operating system
o Are not compatible

10. A computer port is used to:

o Communicate with other computer peripherals
o Download files from the web
o Communicate with all hard drives
o Connect computers together

Quiz Two

11. Which computer is the fastest?

o PII 600MHz
o PIII 600MHz
o Pentium 600MHz
o 486 Turbo

12. Which hard disk will be able to store more information?

o 24MB
o 2400KB
o 24Gig
o 240MB

13. In order for your computer to play music you need:

o A network card and speakers
o A sound card and speakers
o Nothing more than the internal speaker
o A CD-ROM drive

14. In order to access the World Wide Web you need:

o An Internet connection, an Internet Service Provider and browser software
o Only Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator
o A modem and a browser
o Nothing. All computers can access the Internet

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15. If you have two different printers attached to your computer:

o It is not possible to have two printers attached to a single computer
o You need to install a single printer driver
o You need to use application software that can recognize both printers
o You need to install two different printer drivers in order to be
able to print to either printer

16. Which file extensions indicate only graphics files?

o BMP and DOC
o JPEG and TXT
o TXT and STK
o BMP and GIF

17. Which Windows program do you use to manage folders and files?
o Windows Explorer
o Windows Accessories
o Microsoft Office
o Windows Control Panel

18. What is a URL:

o An email address
o The title of a web site
o The address of a page on the World Wide Web
o A communication method between computers and printers

19. Which media holds more information?

o Floppy diskette
o DVD
o CD-ROM
o Zip drive

20. Which one is an email address:

o http://vianet.com/index.htm
o D:\\Email\Standard
o [email protected]
o Chaminade.org/teachers/mailaddresses

Quiz Three

21. CPU means (1 point)

o Central Processing Unit
o Controlled Program Utilization
o Computer Programming Unit
o Computerized Processing Unit

22. Computers use a special code for representing letters and numbers,
known as the (1 point)

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o processing code
o binary code
o CRX code
o integrated code

23. The main circuit board in the computer that connects the parts of
the computer is the (1 point)
o hard drive
o motherboard
o fatherboard
o main board

24. The part of the computer that processes the information is the (1 point)
o floppy disk
o CD-ROM drive
o monitor
o microprocessor

25. Which of these is not an example of an input device? (1 point)

o keyboard
o mouse
o hard drive
o scanner

26. Processing speed in computers is measured in (1 point)

o millivolts (mV)
o hertz (Hz)
o megahertz (MHz)
o rpm's

27. External devices such as printers and scanners plug into in

the back of the computer. (1 point)
o RX-5's
o expansion slots
o outlets
o ports

28. Windows is (1 point)

o a kind of operating system.
o a graphics display device.
o a monitor display system.
o a video game.

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29. To "boot a computer" means to (1 point)

o add extra drives.
o turn on the sound.
o turn it on.
o throw it out - it's outdated.

30. The hard drive in the computer is usually (1 point)

o Drive A.
o Drive B.
o Drive C.
o Drive H.

31. A "byte" is (1 point)

o found in the upper right corner of a window screen.
o a group of 8 bits of code.
o the capacity of a sound card.
o the part that moves on a disk drive.

32. When you click SAVE on the monitor, and there is no floppy disk in a
drive, the document or application you're using is stored (1 point)
o on the RAM chips.
o on the CD-ROM drive.
o in ROM memory.
o on the hard drive.

33. Pictures on the display screen (monitor) are made up of (1 point)

o pixels.
o layers of color.
o bits.
o video "packets"

34. Temporary memory is called (1 point)

o RAM
o CAD
o DOS
o ROM

35. Which of these is not one of the three main functions of a

microprocessor? (1 point)
o fetch
o store
o decode
o execute

36. Which of these is not an example of computer hardware? (1 point)

o video card
o mouse
o CD-ROM drive
o Windows

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37. To "debug" the system means to (1 point)

o clean it.
o find and correct errors.
o decode it.
o set up icons.

38. A megabyte is (1 point)

o 1,000 bytes
o 1 byte
o 1 million bytes
o 1 trillion bytes

39. Formatting a disk means (1 point)

o installing an operating system on it.
o setting up sections on the disk to store the files in.
o cleaning the disk from any dust contaminates.
o programming the disk so data on it can't be erased.

40. A system that connects individual computers together is a(n) (1 point)

o operating system.
o network.
o tape drive system.
o partnered path.

41. When you use a PC, you are using a (1 point)

o programmable console.
o powered calculating machine.
o personal computer.
o processing contraption.

42. VDU stands for:

o Video Display Unit
o Visible Display Unit
o Visual Display Unit
o Video Diode Unit

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Basic Computer Keyboard Shortcut Keys A to Z

Shortcuts Uses of Shortcut keys

Alt + E It Edits options in the current program.

Alt+Tab this is used to switch between the open windows.

Alt + F Shows file menu options in the current program.

Alt + F4 This closes the current window.

Alt + Page Up It scrolls up the Entire Screen.

Alt + Page Down It scrolls down the Entire Screen.

Alt + Left Arrow It shows the previous history if it is present in Bowser.

Alt + Right Arrow Go forward in the browser window.

Alt + Enter It shows the property of the selected item.

Ctrl + A It is used to select all text.

Ctrl + X It cuts the selected item.

Ctrl + Del It deletes selected items.

Ctrl + C /
Used to copy the selected item.
Ctrl+Ins

Ctrl + V / Shift +
Used to paste the selected item.
Ins

Ctrl + Home It is used to go to the beginning of the document.

Ctrl + End Go to the end of a document

Ctrl + S Open the save as a dialogue box.

Ctrl + Z Undo the last action.

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Basic Computer Keyboard Shortcut Keys A to Z

Ctrl + Alt + Del Opens Windows task manager.

Ctrl+N Open a new window/document.

Ctrl+H Open the history tab/bar.

Ctrl+J Open the download tab/bar.

Ctrl+F It starts the find utility.

Ctrl+P Open the print dialogue box.

Ctrl+Esc Open the Windows start menu.

Ctrl + “+” Increases the zoom level.

Ctrl + “–” Decreases the zoom level.

Ctrl + W / Ctrl +
Closes the current tab.
F4

Ctrl+T Open a new tab.

Home Takes the user to the start of the current line.

End This is used to go to the end of the current line

Shift + Delete files will be deleted permanently.

Ctrl + Y This redo the last action.

Ctrl + K It insert hyperlink for the selected text.

This lock the computer, requiring password entry to access

Windows key + L
again.

Access the Power User Tasks Menu in Windows 8 and

Windows key + X
Windows 10.

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Basic Computer Keyboard Shortcut Keys A to Z

Windows key +
It Minimize the active program window.
Down arrow

Windows key +
It Maximize the active program window.
Up arrow

Ctrl + Left arrow This key used to move one word to the left at a time.

Ctrl + Right
This is used for move one word to the right at a time.
arrow

Ctrl + Y Redo the last action.

Ctrl + K Insert hyperlink for the selected text.

Access the Power User Tasks Menu in Windows 8 and

Windows key + X
Windows 10.

Windows key + Minimize the active program window. (That format Should be
↓ used)

Lock the computer, requiring password entry to access

Windows key + L
again.

Windows key +
Maximize the active program window.
↑

Ctrl + ← Move one word to the left at a time.

Ctrl + → Move one word to the right at a time.

Ctrl + Home Go to the beginning of the document.

Ctrl + End Go to the end of the document.

Ctrl + Shift + Esc Open Windows Task Manager.

Highlight from the current position to the beginning of the

Shift + Home
line.

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Basic Computer Keyboard Shortcut Keys A to Z

Shift + End Highlight from the current position to the end of the line.

Shortcuts Uses of Shortcut keys

F2 Used to rename the selected icon.

F3 This Find anything from our desktop.

F4 This is used in Windows 95 to XP to open the locate window.

F5 It is used to refresh the contents of your Windows system.

Alt + F4 Used to close the ongoing program.

Ctrl + F4 This shortcut is used to swiftly close a document.

This adjusts the widths of all columns automatically, in

Ctrl + Plus Key
Windows Explorer.

Alt + Print It is used to take a screenshot of the current page.

Screen /
Win+PrtScn

Ctrl + Alt + Del Used to Reboot/Windows task manager.

Ctrl + Esc It activates the start menu.

It is used to open the properties window for the selected icon

Alt + Enter
or program.

Win + X It shows shutdown options.

Win + L It Locks the computer screen.

Win This display or hide the Start screen.

Win + D Used to show/hide the desktop.

Win + E This open file explorer.

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Basic Computer Keyboard Shortcut Keys A to Z

Win + M It minimizes all open windows.

Win + Shift + M This shortcut restores all minimized windows.

Win + P Select a presentation display mode.

Win + Q It opens the search for the menu.

Win + R It opens the Run dialogue box.

Win + Z This display the commands used in the current open window.

Win + Down It minimizes the desktop window or clear the current

Arrow application from the screen.

Win + Up Arrow It is used to maximize the window.

This shortcut maximizes the window to the left side of the

Win + Left Arrow
screen.

Win + Right
It maximizes the window to the right side of the screen.
Arrow

Win+ This is used to zoom in using a magnifier.

Win- It zooms out using a magnifier.

Ctrl + Shift + Esc This is used to open Windows Task Manager.

Ctrl + Home This key is used to go to the beginning of the document.

Ctrl + End This key is used to go to the end of the document.

It highlight from the current position to the beginning of the

Shift + Home
line.

Shift + End It highlight from the current position to the end of the line.

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Introduction to Operating System

An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a computer and
computer hardware. The purpose of an operating system is to provide an environment
in which a user can execute programs in a convenient and efficient manner.
An operating system is a software that manages the computer hardware. The
hardware must provide appropriate mechanisms to ensure the correct operation of the
computer system and to prevent user programs from interfering with the proper
operation of the system.
Operating System – Definition:
An operating system is a program that controls the execution of application
programs and acts as an interface between the user of a computer and the
computer hardware.
A more common definition is that the operating system is the one program
running at all times on the computer (usually called the kernel), with all else
being application programs.
An operating system is concerned with the allocation of resources and services, such
as memory, processors, devices, and information. The operating system
correspondingly includes programs to manage these resources, such as a traffic
controller, a scheduler, memory management module, I/O programs, and a file
system.
Functions of Operating system – Operating system performs three functions:
1. Convenience: An OS makes a computer more convenient to use.
2. Efficiency: An OS allows the computer system resources to be used in an
efficient manner.
3. Ability to Evolve: An OS should be constructed in such a way as to permit the
effective development, testing and introduction of new system functions at the
same time without interfering with service.
Operating system as User Interface –
1. User
2. System and application programs
3. Operating system
4. Hardware
Every general-purpose computer consists of the hardware, operating system, system

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programs, and application programs. The hardware consists of memory, CPU, ALU, and
I/O devices, peripheral device, and storage device. System program consists of
compilers, loaders, editors, OS, etc. The application program consists of business
programs, database programs
Software:

Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and

execute specific tasks. It is the opposite of hardware, which describes the physical
aspects of a computer. Software is a generic term used to refer to
applications, scripts and programs that run on a device. It can be thought of as the
variable part of a computer, while hardware is the invariable part.

The two main categories of software are application software and system software. An
application is software that fulfills a specific need or performs tasks. System software is
designed to run a computer's hardware and provides a platform for applications to run
on top of.

Other types of software include programming software, which provides the

programming tools software developers need; middleware, which sits between system
software and applications; and driver software, which operates computer devices and
peripherals.

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Early software was written for specific computers and sold with the hardware it ran on.
In the 1980s, software began to be sold on floppy disks, and later on CDs and DVDs.
Today, most software is purchased and directly downloaded over the internet. Software
can be found on vendor websites or application service provider websites.

Examples and types of software

Among the various categories of software, the most common types include the
following:

 Application software. The most common type of software, application

software is a computer software package that performs a specific function for
a user, or in some cases, for another application. An application can be self-
contained, or it can be a group of programs that run the application for the
user. Examples of modern applications include office suites, graphics
software, databases and database management programs, web browsers,
word processors, software development tools, image editors and
communication platforms.

 System software. These software programs are designed to run a

computer's application programs and hardware. System software coordinates
the activities and functions of the hardware and software. In addition, it
controls the operations of the computer hardware and provides an
environment or platform for all the other types of software to work in. The OS
is the best example of system software; it manages all the other computer
programs. Other examples of system software include the firmware,
computer language translators and system utilities.

 Driver software. Also known as device drivers, this software is often

considered a type of system software. Device drivers control the devices and
peripherals connected to a computer, enabling them to perform their specific
tasks. Every device that is connected to a computer needs at least one device
driver to function. Examples include software that comes with any
nonstandard hardware, including special game controllers, as well as the
software that enables standard hardware, such as USB storage devices,
keyboards, headphones and printers.

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 Middleware. The term middleware describes software that mediates

between application and system software or between two different kinds of
application software. For example, middleware enables Microsoft Windows to
talk to Excel and Word. It is also used to send a remote work request from an
application in a computer that has one kind of OS, to an application in a
computer with a different OS. It also enables newer applications to work with
legacy ones.

 Programming software. Computer programmers use programming

software to write code. Programming software and programming tools enable
developers to develop, write, test and debug other software programs.
Examples of programming software include assemblers, compilers, debuggers
and interpreters.
Here is a complete picture of the full software stack.

How does software work?

All software provides the directions and data computers need to work and meet users'
needs. However, the two different types -- application software and system software --
work in distinctly different ways.

Application software

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require a computer's OS, along with other supporting system software programs, to
work.

These desktop applications are installed on a user's computer and use the computer
memory to carry out tasks. They take up space on the computer's hard drive and do not
need an internet connection to work. However, desktop applications must adhere to the
requirements of the hardware devices they run on.

Web applications, on the other hand, only require internet access to work; they do not
rely on the hardware and system software to run. Consequently, users can launch web
applications from devices that have a web browser. Since the components responsible
for the application functionality are on the server, users can launch the app from
Windows, Mac, Linux or any other OS.

System software

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Computer hardware and software questions

Q1. Which of the following is not an input device?

1.
2. VDU 4. Monitor
3. Keyboard 5. Light Pen
Q.2. A light-sensitive device that converts the printed text, drawing, or other images
into digital form is called ____.

1. Plotter 3. Scanner
2. Printer 4. OMR

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Q.3. Sometimes the mouse pointer moves erratically. This is because of ___.

1. IRQ setting is not proper 3. Mouse ball is dirty

2. The virus in the system 4. The driver is not installed properly
Q 4. A specialized program that allows user to utilize in a specific application is
classified as

1. Application programs 3. Relative programs

2. Relative programs 4. Replicate programs
5.
Q.5. ____ is known as the translator for low-level programming language.

1. Compiler 3. Loader
2. Linker 4. Assembler
Q.6. Information travels between components to Motherboard through?

1. CMOS 3. Bays
2. Busses 4. Flash memory
Q.7. The resolution of Laser Printers are specified in terms of __?

1. CPM 3. DPI
2. PPM 4. LPM
Q.8.When referring to instruction words, a mnemonic is:

1. a short abbreviation for the data word stored at the operand address
2. a short abbreviation for the operand address
3. shorthand for machine language
4. a short abbreviation for the operation to be performed
Q 9. The data bus is ___ directional.

1. Single directional 3. Bidirectional

2. Multi-directional 4. None of the above
5.
Q.10. _____ is the translator which performs macro expansion tasks.

1. Macro preprocessor 3. Macro pro-processor

2. Macro processor 4. Assembler
Q.11. DASD is an acronym of _____

1. Data Access Storage Device 3. Data Assembling Storage Disk

2. Device Access to Stored Data 4. Data Assemble in Stored Device
Q.12. Which is the secondary memory of the Data processing system?

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1. CPU 3. Floppy Disk

2. Hard Disk 4. ALU
Q.13. As Humans are called Homo Sapiens, _____ is called the Silico Sapiens.

1. Computers 3. Hardware
2. Robots 4. Monitors
Q.14. Set of programs which consist of a full set of documentation is termed as

1. Bus packages 3. Database packages

2. File packages 4. Software packages
Q.15. A program in execution is called a ____.

1. Programming 3. High-level Language reading

2. Process 4. Data releasing
Q.16. A device that is used to transmit data over telecommunications lines is called
____.

1. Drive bays 3. Drive platforms

2. Data Busses 4. Modems
Q.17. For comparison and calculations, the computer uses ____.

1. CPU 3. Control Units

2. ALU 4. Processors
Q.18. In a typical computer operation, which of the following memories is put in use?

1. ROM 3. CND
2. HDD 4. RAM
Q.19. The basic goal of computer processors is to convert the given data into ____

1. Programs 3. Contents of Main memory

2. Information 4. Texts, Tables and Graphs
Q 20. Which among the following is not a peripheral hardware device in a computer
system?

1. Keyboard 3. Printer
2. Optical Drive 4. HDD
Q 21. Computers process data under the control of sets of instructions called____.

1. Computer data 3. Computer buses

2. Computer programs 4. Computer instructions
Q.22. A microprocessor unit, a memory unit, and an input/output unit form a ____.

1. Microcomputer 2. CPU

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3. Compiler 4. ALU
Q.23. The software used to drive microprocessor-based systems is known as ___

1. Firmware 3. Flowchart instructions

2. Assembly language programs 4. BASIC interpreter instructions
Q.24. How many bits are used in the data bus?

1. 7 3. 8
2. 9 4. 16

What Does Peripheral Device Mean?

A peripheral device is an internal or external device that connects directly to a
computer or other digital device but does not contribute to the computer’s primary
function, such as computing. It helps end users access and use the functionalities of a
computer.

Since it’s not a core device for the system, the computer can still function without the
peripheral, which simply provides extra functions. However, some peripherals such as a
mouse, keyboard, or monitor tend to be pretty much fundamental to the interaction
between the user and the computer itself.

A peripheral device is also called a peripheral, computer peripheral, input-output

device, or I/O device.

A peripheral device provides input/output (I/O) functions for a computer and serves as
an auxiliary computer device without computing-intensive functionality. Peripheral
devices connect with a computer through several I/O interfaces, such as
communications (COM), Universal Serial Bus (USB) and serial ports such as serial
advanced technology attachment (SATA) ones.

Peripheral devices include the following:

 Mouse.

 Keyboard.

 Printer.

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 Monitor.

 Webcam.

 Printer.

 Scanner.

 Speakers.

 External Drive.

 USB Flash Drive.

 CD-ROM.

There are several types of peripherals, although they’re commonly divided into three
broad categories: input, output, and storage devices.

Input devices convert incoming instructions or actions from the user into viable
information that can be interpreted by the computer. For example, a keyboard will
convert keystroke into characters that appear on the computer’s display, while a
monitor will transform hand movements into movements of a cursor that can be used
to interact with the operating system’s programs. Other input peripherals include
joysticks, microphones, webcams, optical scanners, etc.

Output peripherals translate digital signals into information that can be interpreted or
utilized by the end user. For example, a monitor or display screen will show the
operating system’s desktop, while a laser printer will translate information saved in a
word file into printed material. Other output peripherals include speakers, 3D printers,
and projectors.

Some devices can provide both input and output signals, such as network interfaces,
modems, routers, and webcams.

Storage peripherals are used to store and record data, and include internal and external
hard drives, CD-ROM and DVD drives, and flash memory drives.

Depending on whether the peripheral is located inside or outside the computer system
case, it can be further classified as an internal or external peripheral device.

An external peripheral can be connected via many different types of cables and
connections. Today, the most common connection for external peripherals is the USB

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connection, both because most computers have several ports available, and because of
the simplicity of the plug-and-play feature.

Internal storage devices such as hard disks are usually connected with a SATA cable,
while display port and HDMI are the most popular connections for displays and
monitors.

Today, many peripherals are built-in inside smaller computer devices such as tablets,
laptops and smartphones. For example, webcam, speakers and microphones are
integrated inside most smartphones, although the latter cannot be considered a
peripheral since it’s a core function of any phone. Similarly, webcams and monitors are
integrated into most laptops, although it’s still possible to connect the computer to a
larger monitor or higher resolution webcam.

Windows vs Linux vs macOS

Windows

Windows was developed and owned by Microsoft. It dates back as far as 1981 when
Microsoft started working on a project dubbed "Interface Manager." In 1983, it was
renamed Windows. Windows 11 is the latest major release of Microsoft's Windows NT
operating system, released on October 5, 2021.

Note: Windows is the most widely used operating system for personal computers
worldwide.
Linux

Linux is an open-source operating system built on the Linux kernel and distributed
under various distributions (distros) such as Ubuntu, Fedora, and Debian. Linux offers a
command-line interface (CLI) along with graphical user interfaces (GUIs), catering to
both novice and advanced users. The Linux kernel was released in 1991.

Note: Linux is less susceptible to malware and viruses compared to other operating
systems, partly due to its robust permissions system and frequent security updates.

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macOS

MacOS (previously called OS X) is a line of operating systems created by Apple. The

first version of it was released in 1984, and it was the first OS for personal computers to
come with a built-in GUI.

Note: macOS is built on top of a UNIX-like OS, which is why this MacOS shares many
common characteristics with GNU/Linux-derived ones.

Feature comparison: Windows, Linux, and macOS

Now, let's analyze the key features in an operating system on whose basis we will
differentiate Windows, Linux, and MacOS.

Features of an OS
User Interface and Design
 Windows: The Windows operating system boasts a user-friendly interface with a
familiar layout featuring a taskbar, a start menu, and windowed applications. Its
design focuses on ease of use and accessibility for a wide range of users.
 Linux: Linux distributions offer a wide variety of user interfaces, known as
desktop environments. Examples include GNOME, KDE, and Xfce, among others
making Linux versatile in terms of design.
 macOS: Apple's macOS offers a sleek and visually appealing interface known for
its elegant design and intuitive user experience. The macOS interface is
streamlined and often praised for its aesthetics and ease of navigation.
Software and application compatibility
 Windows: It supports a vast array of commercial and proprietary software,
making it the go-to choice for many businesses and gamers.
 Linux: It has a robust open-source software ecosystem, offering a wide range of
free and open-source applications. While Linux may lack compatibility with
certain proprietary software titles, it provides alternatives and often serves as a
platform for developers and enthusiasts.
 macOS: The selection is more limited compared to Windows. MacOS supports a
significant number of popular applications, particularly those developed by Apple
and third-party software optimized for Mac systems.
Customization and flexibility
 Windows: While Windows allows for some customization, its options are
relatively limited compared to macOS and Linux. However, Windows does offer a
wide variety of third-party customization tools.
 Linux: Linux is renowned for its flexibility and customization potential. Users can
modify nearly every aspect of the operating system, including the desktop
environment, appearance, and behavior. The open-source nature of Linux
empowers users to create their ideal computing environment.
 macOS: Users can personalize their desktops, adjust settings, and choose from
various themes and visual modifications. However, macOS customization options
are generally more restricted compared to Linux.

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Security and stability

 Windows: Windows has made significant strides in enhancing security over the
years but remains a primary target for malware and viruses due to its popularity.
 Linux: Linux is often considered more secure than Windows and macOS due to
its robust permissions system, frequent security updates, and open-source
nature.
 macOS: macOS has a reputation for strong security due to Apple's tight control
over both the hardware and software ecosystem. This closed ecosystem and
stringent security measures contribute to a generally stable and secure
operating system.
Strengths and limitations

Windows, Linux, and macOS are three prominent operating systems, each with its own
strengths and weaknesses.

Here's a table summarizing the strengths and limitations of Windows, Linux, and
macOS:

Strengths and limitations

Strengths Limitations
Windo Extensive software compatibility. Frequent target for malware and
ws viruses.
User-friendly interface with familiar Limited customization options.
features.
Strong gaming support with DirectX Potential stability issues.
compatibility.

Linux High customization and flexibility. Limited compatibility with some

proprietary software.
Robust open-source ecosystem. Requires more technical expertise.
Stability, security, and performance. Learning curve for command-line
interfaces.
macOS Sleek and visually appealing Less customization compared to Linux.
interface.
Strong performance, stability, and Exclusive to Apple hardware, limited
security. hardware choices.
Seamless integration with other Higher pricing compared to Windows or
Apple devices. Linux.

Note: Although, Windows is widely used worldwide in personal computers, Linux

operating system is the core of industries and software houses for embedded systems
and scientific research. Hence, Linux is popular among developers and enthusiasts.

Internet Basics
Website slow to load?
Click Stop and then Reload/Refresh.

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Open a link in a new tab.

Right-click the link and then choose from menu.

OR
Hold Control key while you click the link.

Too many toolbars?

Hide or uninstall. Search Google for instructions for your browser.

Control +, -

Zoom your browser by holding the Control key along with either the + or - sign.

Control F

Hold the Control key along with the F key to open a search box.
Finds a word on a webpage or in a PDF.

Copy / Paste

1. Highlight the text

2. Right-click and choose from menu

OR

1. Highlight the text

2. Hold CTRL key along with C key (copy) or V key (paste)

Search Engines
A search engine is a tool that searches the Internet.

It indexes the content of webpages and allows you to search using keywords.

Examples:

 Google
 Bing
 Yahoo!

You will use an Internet browser to access the search engine and display the results.

What about databases?

Library databases also have searchable indexes. The main difference is that library
databases contain articles from selected journals, while search engines look at anything
posted online.

What is an Internet Browser?

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Internet Browser: a program on your computer that accesses the Internet and
displays webpages.

Examples: Internet Explorer, Firefox, Chrome, & Safari.

See recommended browser settings & help for anyone using the Walden Library.

Parts of a Browser

 Address Bar / URL: contains the address (URL) for the website.
 Back Button: loads the previous page.
 Bookmark / Favorites: save links to favorite websites. You may see bookmark,
favorite, or star icon, depending on the browser. You may not be able to
bookmark individual articles in the library.
 Browser Window: area that displays your web browser program. You can have
more than one window open.
 Button: icon that allows you to execute a command (e.g. Search) or link to
another webpage. Buttons are usually a colored box.
 Header / Banner: located on top of every page of a website. It includes the logo
of the company, the publisher, or owner of the website and links back to the
homepage of the site.
 Link: connects you to a different page on the Internet. Links are often embedded
in text which is colored and/or underlined. Links may also be embedded in
images or icons.

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 Navigation Menu: links to other pages in the website. Navigation menus are
typically found at the far left, right or top of a webpage.
 New Tab: opens a new tab in your browser.
 Reload / Refresh: reload the webpage. Use if there is a problem with the
original loading of the page.
 Scroll Bar: allows you to move (scroll) to see portions of a webpage that are not
currently visible in your browser window.
 Search Bar: search box for a search engine (e.g. Google, Bing, Yahoo) that is
permanently embedded into your browser.
 Status Bar: provides information about the status of a webpage. Done indicates
that all webpage items are loaded.
 Toolbar: strip of buttons, search boxes, links, etc. that allow you to quickly
perform web functions.

Browser History, Cache, & Cookies

History: the websites you’ve been to.

Cache: saved elements from those sites. This may include pictures, cookies, etc. The
cache makes loading the webpage faster the next time to go to it.

Cookies: small pieces of data about you saved in your browser. Cookies let the website
keep track of some of your activities, such as your login information. This way you can
log into a site (like the Library) one time, instead of every time you open new page.
Cookies reduce privacy, but aren't a computer virus.

What is a Computer Network?

Definition – A group of computers which are connected to each other and follow
similar usage protocols for the purpose of sharing information and having
communications provided by the networking nodes is called a Computer Network.

A network may be small where it may include just one system or maybe as large as
what one may want. The nodes may further be classified into various types. These
include:

 Personal Computers
 Servers
 Networking Hardware
 General Hosts
Networking can be classified into three types:

1. Types of Computer Networks

2. Topology
3. Interpreters
We shall discuss all three in detail further below in this article.

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Types of Computer Networks

There are five main types of Computer Networks:

1. LAN (Local Area Network) –

 Systems connected in a small network like in a building or a small office

 It is inexpensive

 It uses Ethernet or Token-ring technology

 Two or more personal computers can be connected through wires or

cables acting as nodes

 Transfer of data is fast and is highly score

2. PAN (Personal Area Network) –

 The smallest computer network

 Devices may be connected through Bluetooth or other infra-red enables

devices

 It has a connectivity range of upto 10 metres

 It covers an area of upto 30 feet

 Personal devices belonging to a single person can be connected to each

other using PAN

3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) –

 A network that can be connected within a city, for example, cable TV

Connection

 It can be in the form of Ethernet, ATM, Token-ring and FDDI

 It has a higher range

 This type of network can be used to connect citizens with the various
Organisations

4. WAN (Wide Area Network) –

 A network which covers over a country or a larger range of people

 Telephonic lines are also connected through WAN

 Internet is the biggest WAN in the world

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 Mostly used by Government Organisations to manage data and

information

5. VPN (Virtual Private Network): –

 A network which is constructed by using public wires to connect to a

private network

 There are a number of systems which enable you to create networks using
the Internet as a medium for transporting data

 These systems use encryptions and other security mechanisms to ensure

only authorised users can access

Network Topologies
Given below are the eight types of Network Topologies:

1. Point to Point Topology – Point to Point topology is the simplest topology that
connects two nodes directly together with a common link.
2. Bus Topology – A bus topology is such that there is a single line to which all
nodes are connected and the nodes connect only to the bus
3. Mesh Topology – This type of topology contains at least two nodes with two or
more paths between them
4. Ring Topology – In this topology every node has exactly two branches
connected to it. The ring is broken and cannot work if one of the nodes on the
ring fails
5. Star Topology – In this network topology, the peripheral nodes are connected to
a central node, which rebroadcasts all the transmissions received from any
peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network, including the originating
node
6. Tree Topology – In this type of topology nodes are connected in the form of a
tree. The function of the central node in this topology may be distributed
7. Line Topology – in this topology all the nodes are connected in a straight line
8. Hybrid Topology – When two more types of topologies combine together, they
form a Hybrid topology

Network Devices
Discussed below are a few important network devices from the exam point of view:

 Network Repeater – Used to generate incoming electrical, wireless or optical

signals
 Network Hub – It is a small network device. It joins multiple computers together
to form a single network segment. On this segment, all computers can interact
with each other
 Network Switch – It is a small hardware device which joins multiple computers
together with a single LAN

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 Network Router – This device interfaces in multiple networks whose task is to

copy packages from one network to another. It provides connectivity inside
enterprises, between Enterprises and the Internet and within an ISP
 Network Bridge – It reads the outermost section of the data packet to tell
where the message is going. It reduces the traffic on other network segments.
 Modem – This device converts digital signals into analog signals. It is always
placed between a telephone and a computer system

MCQ’s

Q 1. Which of the following is not a type of network topology?

1. Ring 4. Bus
2. Star 5. All of the above are a type of
3. Circle network topology

Answer: (2) Circle

Q 2. The network device converts digital signals into analog signals and can be
connected through a telephone is called _____

1. Modem 4. Bridge
2. Hotspot 5. Switch
3. Router
Answer: (1) Modem

Q 3. Which of the following terms is related to sending data to a satellite?

1. Uplink 4. Modular
2. Modem 5. Downlink
3. Switch
Answer: (1) Uplink

Q 4. ______ topology is the simplest topology that connects two nodes directly together
with a common link.

1. Point to Point 4. Star

2. Line 5. None of the above
3. Ring
Answer: (1) Point to Point

Q 5. Which is the shortest network covering network?

1. LAN 3. WAN
2. MAN 4. PAN

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5. VPN
Answer: (4) Personal Area Network (PAN)

Q 6. When two or more topologies connect together, they are called ______

1. Tree Topology 4. Mesh Topology

2. Cluster Topology 5. Line Topology
3. Hybrid Topology
Answer: (3) Hybrid Topology

Q 7. ATM is a form of _____

1. Local Area Network 4. Personal Area Network

2. Wide Area Network 5. Virtual Private Network
3. Metropolitan Area Network
Answer: (3) Metropolitan Area Network

Q 8. _______ is a small hardware device which joins multiple computers together with a
single LAN.

1. Modem 4. Router
2. Switch 5. Bridge
3. Modular
Answer: (2) Switch

Q 9. A collection of various computers into a single coherent system, provided to a

client, is called _______.

1. Distributed System 4. Collective Network

2. Computer Network 5. None of the above
3. Systematic Network
Answer: (1) Distributed System

Q 10. A network which is constructed by using public wires to connect to a private

network is called ______

1. Local Area Network 4. Personal Area Network

2. Wide Area Network 5. Virtual Private Network
3. Metropolitan Area Network
Answer: (5) Virtual Private Network

Internet Vs Intranet: Explore What is the Difference

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between Internet and Intranet

With the advent of digital transformation, more and more organisations have welcomed
remote work and changing innovation. Organisations have developed going on to
support virtual work environments in an attempt to retain businesses. The internet and
intranet have created a niche during these times. They are terms that are similar-
sounding but have distinct meanings. Here, we have analysed the difference between
Internet and Intranet.

What is an Internet?
A complete network of globally linked computers, the Internet also enables the users to
transfer information and communication. This makes use of the TCP/IP protocol suite
while communicating. Available in both wired and wireless mode, the internet also
includes a wide range of networks such as private, public, government, organisation,
etc. It supports multiple users and allows the transfer of a massive amount of data.

What is an Intranet?
A part of the network, but controlled and used by a private organisation, Intranet has
restrictions and can support only fewer users. Hence, only limited data can be shared
over it. Intranet is usually operated on a client/server platform. This enables the
organisations to share files, data, organise information, manage and share calendars,
files, etc.

What is the Difference between Internet and

Intranet?

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A wide network of computers available for all is the internet, while the intranet is a
network of computers designed for a certain group of users. The internet is a public
network, while an intranet is a private network. Learn more about what is the difference
between internet and intranet, from the table below.

Difference between Internet and Intranet

INTERNET INTRANET

Simultaneously link computers Owned by local or private organizations /

on different network / global companies
network

Support multiple users Users are limited

Unsafe, not protected Protected and secured

It’s a public network with more A private network and traffic is less
traffic

Can transfer unlimited data Can transfer only limited data

Can be widely accessed and used Company or organisation employees or

admin with access to login details can only
use this

More data or information can be Data or information accessible over intranet

accessed or availed will be limited and specific to the company
records or details

E-Mail

Electronic mail, commonly known as email, is a method of exchanging messages over

the internet. Here are the basics of email:

1. An email address: This is a unique identifier for each user, typically in the
format of [email protected].
2. An email client: This is a software program used to send, receive and
manage emails, such as Gmail, Outlook, or Apple Mail.
3. An email server: This is a computer system responsible for storing and
forwarding emails to their intended recipients.

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To send an email:

1. Compose a new message in your email client.

2. Enter the recipient’s email address in the “To” field.
3. Add a subject line to summarize the content of the message.
4. Write the body of the message.
5. Attach any relevant files if needed.
6. Click “Send” to deliver the message to the recipient’s email server.
7. Emails can also include features such as cc (carbon copy) and bcc (blind
carbon copy) to send copies of the message to multiple recipients, and
reply, reply all, and forward options to manage the conversation.

Electronic Mail (e-mail) is one of most widely used services of Internet. This service
allows an Internet user to send a message in formatted manner (mail) to the
other Internet user in any part of world. Message in mail not only contain text, but it
also contains images, audio and videos data. The person who is sending mail is
called sender and person who receives mail is called recipient. It is just like postal
mail service.
Components of E-Mail System: The basic components of an email system are :
User Agent (UA), Message Transfer Agent (MTA), Mail Box, and Spool file. These are
explained as following below.
1. User Agent (UA): The UA is normally a program which is used to send and receive
mail. Sometimes, it is called as mail reader. It accepts variety of commands for
composing, receiving and replying to messages as well as for manipulation of the
mailboxes.
2. Message Transfer Agent (MTA ): MTA is actually responsible for transfer of mail
from one system to another. To send a mail, a system must have client MTA and
system MTA. It transfer mail to mailboxes of recipients if they are connected in the
same machine. It delivers mail to peer MTA if destination mailbox is in another
machine. The delivery from one MTA to another MTA is done by Simple Mail Transfer

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Protocol.

3. Mailbox: It is a file on local hard drive to collect mails. Delivered mails are
present in this file. The user can read it delete it according to his/her requirement. To
use e-mail system each user must have a mailbox. Access to mailbox is only to owner
of mailbox.
4. Spool file: This file contains mails that are to be sent. User agent appends
outgoing mails in this file using SMTP. MTA extracts pending mail from spool file for
their delivery. E-mail allows one name, an alias, to represent several different e-mail
addresses. It is known as mailing list, whenever user have to send a message,
system checks recipient’s name against alias database. If mailing list is present for
defined alias, separate messages, one for each entry in the list, must be prepared and
handed to MTA. If for defined alias, there is no such mailing list is present, name itself
becomes naming address and a single message is delivered to mail transfer entity.

Services provided by E-mail system:

 Composition – The composition refer to process that creates messages and
answers. For composition any kind of text editor can be used.
 Transfer – Transfer means sending procedure of mail i.e. from the sender to
recipient.
 Reporting – Reporting refers to confirmation for delivery of mail. It help
user to check whether their mail is delivered, lost or rejected.
 Displaying – It refers to present mail in form that is understand by the user.
 Disposition – This step concern with recipient that what will recipient do
after receiving mail i.e save mail, delete before reading or delete after
reading.

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Advantages Or Disadvantages:
Advantages of email:

1. Convenient and fast communication with individuals or groups globally.

2. Easy to store and search for past messages.
3. Ability to send and receive attachments such as documents, images, and
videos.
4. Cost-effective compared to traditional mail and fax.
5. Available 24/7.

Disadvantages of email:

1. Risk of spam and phishing attacks.

2. Overwhelming amount of emails can lead to information overload.
3. Can lead to decreased face-to-face communication and loss of personal
touch.
4. Potential for miscommunication due to lack of tone and body language in
written messages.
5. Technical issues, such as server outages, can disrupt email service.
6. It is important to use email responsibly and effectively, for example, by
keeping the subject line clear and concise, using proper etiquette, and
protecting against security threats

Formal vs. informal email writing

Formal email writing is usually in a B2B or B2C scenario or a professional email
between colleagues, businesses, or partners. Informal email writing is something you
might send a friend, or family member, or sometimes even a quick email you’re firing
off to a colleague.

When you’re emailing a friend there is not much risk of getting your words or meaning
wrong, and there is little risk of hurting your reputation or wrecking an incredible
business opportunity. But when writing a business email there is much at stake and
many things that can go horribly wrong. This is why our article will deal mostly with
formal email writing and how to get it right every time.

Here, we’ll go over all the ins and outs of what goes into an email structure, different
email formats you can use, as well as short email templates that you can use in various
scenarios. Keep reading to learn how to write the perfect email.

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Imagine if each employee had a random Gmail address like

[name][email protected], which anyone can create, that would be a bit suspicious.
Email open rates are first and foremost dependent on trust, so make sure you have a
trustworthy email address or suffer very low open rates.

If you are a freelancer professional, working separately from an established brand,

consider buying a domain name for your personal brand. You can look up available
domains on Google domain registrar.

Subject lines

Your subject line will be the single most important element in your formal email writing.
It is the first thing your recipient will see and unless you convince her then and there
that your email is a safe, relevant, and high priority (in that order) it may never be
opened. If this happens, any effort you put into the rest of the email elements will go to
waste.

Your subject line will depend on the purpose or content of your email, but overall, you
want it to be something engaging enough for a recipient to click on.

Email subject line guidelines:

 Be clear and specific – avoid using generic or clickbait subject lines that say
nothing or make unrealistic promises, like “find out how to double your business
in a week”.
 Be original – avoid using those all too common subject line templates you find
on the internet. Instead make original subject lines that are relevant, personal,
and concise.
 Add relevancy – address something that the recipient will recognize, like an
acquaintance’s name or an article/ show/ book they appeared on.

Studies have shown that personalized subject lines are 26% more likely to be opened.
You also want to tailor your email subject line to your email goal, whether it’s a sales
email, a personal email, a newsletter, or something else. I advise that you take the time
to think of 3-4 refined options then consider which of them will likely be most
appropriate.

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Email Opening

The next most important way to hook a recipient into your email is by writing a strong
email opening line. Like your subject line, the email opening is mostly used as another
filtering stage for most people. If it fails to meet the promise made in the subject line,
your readers will ditch it.

Therefore, it’s extremely important to define your main point in 1 or 2 paragraphs tops.
If you clearly convey your request or question and your reader feels it’s relevant and
interesting, then they’ll continue reading your email. If you manage to get them to stay
after this point, in most cases, they’ll return your email. Good for you.

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the motive for your email. If it was a long email it could also be a good idea to gently
reiterate your main request, question, or motivation.

Email sign-off
When closing your email, you’ll want to choose a suitable email sign-off. There are
different sign-offs you can use for each occasion, such as “best regards,” “sincerely,” or
“with love,” but you obviously wouldn’t want to send the last one to your manager.
Make sure your signoff is appropriate to your email content and your recipient.

Example 1:

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Example 5:

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