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UPH013 – Physics

LASER
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
DR. PRABAL PRATAP SINGH BHADAURIA
 • Introduction
– Properties of LASER

Overview • Coherence
– Temporal
– Spatial
• Interaction of radiation and matter
– Absorption of photon
– Emission of photon
• Spontaneous
• Stimulated
• LASER working principle
– Population inversion
– Metastable states
• Examples
– Ruby laser
– He-Ne laser
 The theoretical basis for the development of
laser was provided by Albert Einstein in
1917.

Einstein’s prediction was put to practical

use after 1954. In 1960, the first laser
device called Ruby Laser was developed by
T.H. Maiman. The Ruby laser emits red light
of wavelengths 694.3 nm.
Introduction
The most important features of laser are:

• high degree of coherence,

• high directionality,
• extraordinary monochromacity,
• high intensity.
 Coherent
Divergent

Monochromatic
LASER
High Directionality

High Intensity
Divergence less
 Directionality

The divergence of the laser beam is usually

limited by diffraction.

LASER is divergence limited source

Monochromacity

Nearly monochromatic light

Example:
He-Ne Laser Diode Laser
λ0 = 632.5 nm λ0 = 900 nm
Δλ = 0.2 nm Δλ = 10 nm
 Coherence of light
• An ordinary light wave is the bundle of many sinusoidal waves. Each
sinusoidal wave has a phase relationship up to a short period in space and
time.
• The distance and time up to which a given light wave has a phase relationship
is called coherence length (Lφ) and coherence time (τφ) respectively.
Lφ = c.τφ
Lφ in ordinary neon 632.8 nm line is ~3cm
and so τφ is ~ 10-10 sec.
Lφ and τφ for a laser beam are very large.
For a well controlled laser the coherence
time is as large as 3 ms giving the
coherence length of 900 m.

The coherence length is important in

telecommunication engineering.
 Few relations on coherence of light
• For a wave with finite coherence time, ∆ν ≠ 0 (realistic wave)
• For a wave with infinite coherence time, ∆ν = 0
or
τφ.∆ν = 1

Source τφ Lφ = c.τφ

Sunlight 2.67 fs 800 nm

Sodium lamp 2 ps 600 μm
He-Ne laser 0.67 ns 20 m
 ֍ A light photon of energy hν (= E2 – E1) can be
absorbed to excite an electron (atom) from level E1
Stimulated to E2. This absorption is known as stimulated
(Induced) absorption.
absorption of
photon The probability of stimulated absorption is directly
proportional to the incident energy density u(ν) and
characteristics of excited and ground states:
P12  u(ν) or P12 = B12.u(ν)

֍ The electron stays at E2 for a very short life-time 10-8

s and then returns to its original state emitting a
Spontaneous photon of energy hν. This emission is called
spontaneous emission.
emission of
The probability of spontaneous emission depends only
photon on characteristics of state 1 and state 2:
(P21)spontaneous = A21

• These spontaneously emitted light photon are the

main sources of ordinary (incoherent) light.
 • During the time, an atom is in E2 (~ 10-8 s), if a photon
of energy hν is incident on the atom, the emitted
photon by E2 – E1 transition moves with the incident
photon. The direction of propagation, phase and
energy of the emitted photon is exactly same as that of
incident photon. Therefore, the result is an enhanced
beam of coherent light.
This process is called stimulated emission.
Stimulated
emission of The probability of stimulated emission is directly
proportional to the incident energy density u(ν), and

photon characteristics of excited and ground states:

(P21)stimulated  u(ν)
or (P21)stimulated = B21.u(ν)
Einstein’s coefficients
Einstein’s coefficient of ….
Stimulated absorption: B12
Spontaneous emission: A21
Stimulated emission: B21

It is comparatively difficult
to obtain the stimulated
emission of higher
frequencies.
 Boltzmann distribution law
The states with lower energy have a higher probability of being occupied
than the states with higher energy. Quantitatively the probabilities of two
states being occupied are related as:
∆

where N1 and N2 are the number of electrons in ground state of energy E1

and in exited state of energy E2, respectively.

The population of high energy state is less then that of low energy state.
 Population inversion
• According to Boltzmann equation if N1 and N2 are the number of atoms in ground
state and excited state respectively then:

where ΔE = E2 – E1. For an atomic radiation ΔE >> kT. Thus in thermal

equilibrium the population of higher state is very much smaller than that of
ground state, N1 >> N2. As a result the number of stimulated emission is very less.

• If somehow, we can make N2 > N1, the process of stimulated emission dominates,
and laser action can be achieved.

• The state of N2 > N1 is called population inversion. Therefore in population

inversion the general condition of N1 > N2 is inverted into the condition N2 > N1.
This state is also known as negative temperature state. The meaning of the
negative temperature state is that it is a non equilibrium state.
 Requirement of metastable state
• If state of population inversion is not stable enough to give time for incoming
photon of required energy to make stimulated emission then laser will not be
produced.
• So, a state with higher life time is required to retain the state of population
inversion to realize stimulated emission. This state has a higher life time (~ 1 ms)
then ordinary excited state (~10 ns) and is known as metastable state.
• This metastable state is produced by combination of suitable atoms and is the
subject of separate study.
Steps for LASER production
 The process by which the state of
population inversion can be achieved is
known as pumping. In pumping the
excitation of medium atoms is done by
supplying a suitable energy.

Pumping can be done by many methods of

Pumping supplying energy:

• Optical pumping Ruby laser

• Electrical discharge Argon-ion laser
• Inelastic atom- atom collisions He-Ne laser

The pumping schemes which are most used are

Three level pumping scheme and
Four level pumping scheme
Pumping Schemes

Three level
pumping
Four level
pumping
 LASER principle
• There are few conditions for stimulated emission to dominate the other
two processes:
– Ratio B21/A21 must be high. It can be achieved by presence of
metastable states.
– u(ν) must be high. It can be achieved by optical resonator.
– Ratio N2/N1 must be high. This is the condition of population
inversion achieved by pumping.

• Thus there are three steps required by laser action:

– Step1- Pumping
– Step2- Population inversion
– Step3- Stimulated emission

Typically the spontaneous emission

from E3 (excited state) to a
metastable state is nonradiative.
 Main components of LASER
• Energy source
– The energy source raise the system to an excited state.
• Active medium (working substance)
– When the active medium is excited, it achieves population inversion. The active
medium may be a solid, liquid or gas.
– Depending on the active medium, we have different types of lasers, i.e., solid
state laser (ruby), liquid lasers and gas lasers (He-Ne, CO2 lasers).

Optical resonator
– It consists of two mirrors facing
each other. The active medium
is enclosed by this cavity.
– Out of the two mirrors, one is
fully reflective while the other
is partially transparent.

The function of the optical resonator is to increase the intensity of laser beam.
 Suitable pumping
LASER Processes The initial stage
Spontaneous photons
When the oscillations build up The optical resonator
to enough intensity then they Strength gain
emerge through front mirror as
a highly collimated intense
beam, i.e., laser light.
LASER procedure
Using suitable pumping process, the material in non-excited state is taken into
population inversion state. For this purpose, energy source is used.
At the initial stage, spontaneous photons are emitted in all directions.
The mirrors constituting the resonator cause the directional selectivity. The
photons travelling in random directions are lost. The stimulated photons are to
be made to pass through the medium a number of times. On reaching the
partially reflective mirror, some photons are transmitted out while the
remaining are reflected back.
The reflected photons de-excite more and more atoms. The beam is now
amplified.
The amplified beam undergo multiple reflections at the mirrors and gains in
Strength.
When the oscillations build up to enough intensity then they emerge through
front mirror as a highly collimated intense beam, i.e., laser light.
 A Solid state pulsed LASER
 In a ruby laser, a single crystal of ruby (Al2O3 : Cr3+) in the
Ruby form of cylinder acts as a laser medium or active medium.
 The ruby crystal is made of the sapphire (Al2O3) with
LASER some Al3+ ions replaced by chromium ions (Cr3+).
 The pumping (three level) is provided by optical flashtube
(Xenon).
 Spiking in
ruby
LASER

Pulse operation: Pulses of 10 – 20 ns

The energy levels of the chromium ion
 He-Ne
LASER
A Gas LASER
 It is an example of gas-LASER which utilizes four level pumping scheme and
first built successfully by Javan,
Bennett and Herriott in 1961.

 Mixture of He and Ne in ratio

10:1.
 The required energy for the
pumping is provided by an
electric discharge.
 The lighter He atoms are more
easily excited than Ne atoms.
• There are two metastable excited states in He. He atoms may
return to their ground states by transferring the energy to Ne atoms
and by doing so, they bring Ne atoms to (one of two) metastable
state.
• Now when the Ne atoms jump from one metastable state to
another, they emit the stimulated emission of 3.391 μm, 1.150 μm
and 6328 Angstrom.

• The Ne atoms
finally return to
ground state by
collision with
walls of tube.
 Comparison of Ruby and He-Ne laser

Gas lasers are, in general, found to emit light, which is more

directional and more monochromatic. This is so because of the
absence of crystalline imperfection, thermal distortion and
scattering which are present in solid-state lasers.

Gas lasers are capable of operating continuously without need for

cooling.

Ruby laser is a pulsed laser while gas laser, like He-Ne laser is a
continuous laser.

In Ruby lasers, the pumping is usually done using a flashlamp.

Such a technique is efficient if the lasing system has broad
absorption bands. In He-Ne lasers since the atoms are characterized
by sharp energy levels as compared to those in Ruby, electrical
discharge is used to pump the atoms.
Laser Application : Optical Communications