DATABASE

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
DBMS CORE GROUP
 UNIT-2
INTRODUCTION TO
RELATIONAL MODEL
Table of Contents
3.0 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................4
3.1 Structure of Relational Model .................................................................................................................5
3.1.1 Database Schema ..............................................................................................................................5

3.1.2 Relational Model Objects .................................................................................................................6

3.1.3 Characteristics of Relations ..............................................................................................................9

3.2 Keys in a Relational Database ................................................................................................................12

3.2.1 Super Key ........................................................................................................................................14

3.2.2 Candidate Key ................................................................................................................................15

3.2.3 Primary Key ...................................................................................................................................16

3.2.4 Composite key .................................................................................................................................17

3.2.5 Secondary Key or Alternate key .....................................................................................................17

3.2.6 Surrogate Keys ................................................................................................................................18

3.2.7 Foreign Key .....................................................................................................................................18

3.2.8 Unique Key ......................................................................................................................................19

3.3 Constraints .............................................................................................................................................21

3.3.1 Schema Based Constraints or Integrity Constraints .......................................................................22

3.3.1.1 Entity Integrity Constraint or Key Constraint ..........................................................................23

3.3.1.2 Referential Integrity Constraints .............................................................................................23

3.3.1.3 Domain constraint....................................................................................................................24

3.4 Case Study Design with Complete Constraints .....................................................................................26

3.4.1 Data Dictionary ...............................................................................................................................26

3.4.1.1 Introduction to Data Dictionary ..............................................................................................26

3.4.1.2 Creating a Data Dictionary .......................................................................................................26

3.4.2 Introduction to SQL .........................................................................................................................28

3.4.2.1 SQL Basics .................................................................................................................................28

3.4.2.2 Data Types in SQL.....................................................................................................................28
 3.4.2.3 Types of SQL Statements .........................................................................................................35
3.4.3 Working with SQL Commands ........................................................................................................35
3.4.3.1 Tables Creation ........................................................................................................................36

3.4.3.2 Inserting Records .....................................................................................................................37

3.4.3.3 Displaying Records ...................................................................................................................38

3.4.3.4 Specifying Constraints..............................................................................................................38

Appendix A: Installation of Oracle...............................................................................................................47

Appendix B: SQL Script for SMS Case Study using Oracle ...........................................................................52
3.0 Introduction

After implementing the conceptual model of an application's database, the next step is to
develop the logical model of the application database. The logical model is implemented using
the Relational Model, which means the model is conceptualized around the mathematical
concept of Relations.

The relational model provided a standard way of representing and querying data used by any
application. The most fundamental elements in the relational model are relations, which
users and modern RDBMSs recognize as tables. A relation is a set of tuples or rows, with each
tuple sharing a set of attributes or columns.
The other strength of the relational model is to use structured query language (SQL) to write
and query data in a relational database. SQL has been widely used as the language for
relational database queries.

To ensure that data is always accurate and accessible, relational databases follow certain
integrity rules. For example, an integrity rule can specify that duplicate rows are not allowed
in a relation to eliminate the potential for erroneous information entering the database.
Organizations of all types and sizes use the simple yet powerful relational model for a wide
variety of information needs. A relational database can be considered for any information
need in which data points relate to each other and are managed in a secure, rules-based,
consistent way.

This chapter will learn the concept of a relational model, terminology of the model,
characteristics, constraints, integrity rules, and implementation of relations using SQL.
3.1 Structure of Relational Model

3.1.1 Database Schema

The database schema description is called the database schema, which is specified during
database design and is not expected to change frequently.

The term "schema" refers to the organization of data as a blueprint of how the database is
constructed (divided into database relations in the case of relational databases).

The concept of a relation schema corresponds to the programming-language notion of the

type definition. It is convenient to give a name to a relation schema.

The relation schemas of the SMS database (the case study covered in Unit-2) can be shown
as follows:
A database schema with primary key and foreign key dependencies can be depicted pictorially
by schema diagrams. A schema diagram of the SMS database is shown in

Figure 3.1.
 Figure 3.1 Schema diagram for the SMS database
Database Instance is a snapshot of the data in the database at a given instant in time. The
data stored in a database at a particular moment is called an Instance of a Database.

3.1.2 Relational Model Objects

In this section, we will understand few terminologies related to relational model objects as
mentioned below.
 Database
 Relation/Table
 Attribute/Field/Column
 Domain
 Record/Row/Tuple
 Degree /Arity

The relational model is best suitable for managing the structured data in a database. It
represents the database as a collection of relations. Informally, each relation resembles a
table of values. When a relation is thought of as a table of values, each row in the table
represents a collection of related data values. A row represents a fact that typically
corresponds to a real-world entity or relationship. The table name and column names are
used to help to interpret the meaning of the values in each row.

For example, the relation is shown in

Figure 3.2 is called STUDENT because each row represents facts about a particular student
entity. The column names – roll_no, first_name, middle_name, last_name, etc. specify how
to interpret the data values in each row.

Figure 3.2: Representation of Student relation

In the formal relational model terminology, as shown in

Figure 3.3
Figure 3.3, a row is called a tuple, a column header is called an attribute, and the table is called
a relation. A domain of possible values represents the data type describing the types of values
that can appear in each column. The number of attributes in a relation is called degree or
arity.
Here relation STUDENT has degree 11 and cardinality 6.

Figure 3.3: Representation of Student Table (with attribute and tuples)

In general terminology, the tuple is also called a row or record; an attribute is called a field
or column. A relation is called a table. The domain defines the data type, format, and possible
set of values for a column.

Let us discuss these terms—relation, tuple, domain, and attribute—formally.

A) Relation

A relation (or relation state) r of the relation schema R(A1, A2, … , An), also denoted by r(R), is
a set of n-tuples r = {t1, t2, … , tm}. Each n-tuple t is an ordered list of n values t =<v1, v2, …,vn>,
where each value vi, 1 ≤ i ≤ n, is an element of dom(Ai) or special NULL value. The ith value in
tuple t, which corresponds to the attribute Ai, is referred to as t[Ai] or t.Ai.

For example, as shown in

Figure 3.2, relation STUDENT of the relation schema STUDENT (roll_no, first_name, middle_
name, last_ name, dob, gender, house_no, street_name, city, state, pin code) is a set of 5-
tuples r = {t1, t2, t3, t4, t5}. Second tuple t2 is an ordered list of 12 values t2 = <191006345,
Satynder, Kumar, Bhatia, 15.06.2001, Male, B/35, Kavi Nagar, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh,
200100>, where a value suppose Kavi Nagar is an element from dom(street_name). The 6 th
value in tuple t2 corresponds to the attribute (gender) and can be referred to as t2 [gender] or
t2.gender.

We display the relation as a table, where each tuple is shown as a row. Each attribute
corresponds to a column header indicating a role or interpretation of the values in that
column. NULL values represent attributes whose values are unknown or do not exist for some
individual STUDENT tuple.

B) Domains

A domain is the original set of atomic values used to model data. By atomic, we mean that
each value in the domain is indivisible. A common method of specifying a domain is to specify
a data type, format, and possible set of values from which the data values are drawn.
Some examples of domains and their logical definitions are mentioned in Error! Reference
source not found.:

Table 3.1 Example of attribute domains

Attribute Domain Name Meaning Domain definition

roll_no Roll_Numbers The set of all roll numbers of students character: size 15
first_name First_Names The set of all first names of students character: size 15
middle_ name Middle_Names The set of all middle names of students character: size 15
last_ name Last_Names The set of all last names of students character: size 15
dob Dates_of_Birth The set of all possible values of birth dates of students date, format dd-mm-yyyy
character: size 15
gender Genders The set of all genders
value: Male or Female
house_no House_Numbers The set of all valid house numbers on a street character: size 25
street_name Street_Names The set of all valid street names in a city character: size 25
city City_Names The set of all valid city names in a state character: size 20
state State_Names The set of all valid state names in India character: size 20
pincode Pincode_Numbers The set of all valid Pincode numbers in India character: size 6

These domains get applied to the attributes to understand what type of data, set of values,
and format attributes. Let us now discuss the attributes and how domains are applied to
attributes.

C) Attribute

A relation schema R, denoted by R(A1, A2, …, An), comprises a relation name R and a list of
attributes, A1, A2, …, An. Each attribute Ai is the name of a role played by some domain D in
the relation schema R. D is called the domain of A i and is denoted by dom(Ai). A relation
schema is used to describe a relation; R is called the name of this relation. The degree of a
relation is the number of attributes n of its relation schema.

A relation of degree eleven, which stores information about the students, would contain
twelve attributes describing each student as follows:
STUDENT(roll_no, first_name, middle_name, last_name, dob, gender, house_no,
street_name, city, state, pincode)

For this relation schema, STUDENT is the name of the relation, which has twelve attributes.
In the preceding definition, we showed the assignment of generic types such as string or
integer to the attributes. More precisely, we can specify the following previously defined
domains for some of the attributes of the STUDENT relation: dom(roll_no): Roll_number;
dom(first_name) :Names; dom(middle_name): Names; dom(last_name): Names; dom(dob)
=Dates, dom(gender):Genders, dom(house_no): Address, dom(street_name): Address,
dom(city): City_names, dom(state): State_names, dom(Pincode): Pincodes

3.1.3 Characteristics of Relations

The earlier definition of relation implies specific characteristics that make a relation different
from a file. We will now discuss some of these characteristics.

 Each relation in a database must have a distinct or unique name that would separate
it from the other relations in a database, e.g., the relations STUDENT and
DEPARTMENT have distinct names.

 A relation must not have two attributes with the same name. Each attribute must have
a distinct name, e.g., the relation DEPARTMENT has three distinct attributes dept_id,
dept_name, and dept_location

Figure 3.4: Representation of Department Relation (attributes with distinct name)

 Duplicate tuples must not be present in a relation.

 Figure 3.5: Representation of Department Relation (duplicate tuples not allowed)

 Each tuple must have exactly one data (atomic) value for an attribute.

Figure 3. 6: Representation of student_phone_no relation having the multi-valued attribute (not allowed)

Figure 3.7: Representation of Student_phone_number relation having atomic value attribute (allowed)

 Tuples in a relation do not have to follow a significant order as the relation is not order-
sensitive. Both of these DEPARTMENT relations are the same.
 Figure 3.8: Different ways of representing same department relation
Relational Model Notation

We will use the following notation throughout the chapter

 A relation schema R of degree n is denoted by R(A 1, A2, …, An)
 A relation name is denoted by the uppercase letters Q, R, S
 A relation state is denoted by the lowercase letters q, r, s
 The tuples are denoted by the letters t, u, v
 The name of a relation schema such as STUDENT also indicates the current set of
tuples in that relation—the current relation state—whereas STUDENT(roll_no,
first_name, …) refers only to the relation schema.
 An attribute A can be qualified with the relation name R to which it belongs by using
the dot notation R.A—for example, STUDENT.first_name
 An n-tuple t in a relation r(R) is denoted by t = <v1, v2, … ,vn>, where vi is the value
corresponding to attribute Ai. The following notation refers to component values of
tuples:
o Both t[Ai] and t.Ai refer to the value vi in t for attribute Ai.
o Both t[Au, Aw, …, Az] and t.(Au, Aw, …, Az), where Au, Aw, …, Az is a list of attributes
from relation R, refer to the sub-tuple of values <vu, vw, …, vz> from t
corresponding to the attributes specified in the list.

As an example, consider the tuple t = <'Anmol','Lal','Ranjan','20-02-2002','Male','A/987',

'Main Market','Mysore','Karnataka','102030'> from the STUDENT relation in Error! Reference
source not found.; we have t[first_name] = <‘Anmol’>, and t[first_name, middle_name,
last_name] = <'Anmol','Lal','Ranjan'>
3.2 Keys in a Relational Database

The need for database keys

Each relation in the database has rows (tuples) and columns. Columns represent the
attributes of the relation, and each row (tuple) represents an instance of the relation
containing a valid combination of the attributes of the particular relation.

For example, each row (tuple) contains the value of attributes (columns) for one specific
student in the student relation.

Figure 3.9: Representation of a Relation Table (Student)

In a database relation, the data is stored (logically) into the data field, an intersection of
relation row and column. Each data element in a relation can be accessed with reference
to the specific row and column.

Figure 3.10: Logical representation of data stored in a relation

In a database relation, it is easy to identify a particular (specific) column; however, we need

a mechanism (way) to identify a particular (specific) row in a database relation. For this, the
concept of database keys is used so that we can identify each row uniquely.

A database key (database relation key) is an attribute or a set of attributes in a particular

relation that can uniquely identify each row (tuple) in that relation.
Database keys have three primary objectives:

1. Ensure each row (tuple) in the database relation is uniquely identified.

2. Establish and enforce various types of integrity within the database.
3. Help establish the relationship between relations.

Figure 3.11: Significance of Database Keys

Type of database keys

There are mainly seven different types of Keys in DBMS and each key has its different
functionality:

Figure 3.12: Different types of Database Keys

3.2.1 Super Key

A super key (SK) is a set of one or more attributes that allows us to uniquely identify a row
(tuple) in the relation.

SK is a set of attributes of a relation schema R with the property that no two tuples t 1 and
t2 in any relation state r of R should have the same combination of values for these attributes.
This is known as uniqueness property.
Thus, we can state that:
t1[SK] ≠ t2[SK] or t1.SK ≠ t2.SK

For example, two attribute set (roll_no, first_name, last_name)1 and (roll_no)2 are both
super keys of STUDENT relation because no two student tuples can have the same value for
these set of attributes, or we can say that t 1[roll_no, first_name, last_name] ≠ t2[roll_no,
first_name, last_name] similarly, t1[roll_no] ≠ t2[roll_no].

A relation can have many super keys. Consider the STUDENT schema below to understand
this:
STUDENT (adhaar_no, roll_no, first_name, last_name, address, dob, gender, mobile_no,
email_id).

Below are some sets of super keys for the above STUDENT schema since each set, i.e., SK(i),
uniquely identifies a unique student in the Student relation.
SK1 = (adhaar_no)
SK2 = (roll_no)
SK3 = (mobile_no)
SK4 = (email_id)
SK5 = (adhaar_no, first_name, last_name)
SK6 = (roll_no, first_name, last_name )
SK7 = (first_name, last_name, address, mobile_no)
SK8 = (roll_no, first_name, gender)
SK9 = (first_name, last_name, address, email_id)
SK10 = (first_name, mobile_no, email_id, dob) etc.

A combination of all the attributes in a super key can identify each tuple uniquely in the given
relation; however, all of them may not be necessary to establish the uniqueness of a row
(tuple).
Maximum no. of possible super keys for a relation with n attributes = 2n-1

Some facts to remember about super keys:

 A super key specifies uniqueness property for a row (tuple) i.e. t1 [SK] ≠ t2 [SK] .
  Every relation has one default super key, i.e., the set of all attributes of that relation.
In STUDENT relation { adhaar_no, roll_no, first_name, last_name, address,dob,
gender, mobile_no, email_id } is a default super key.
 A super key can have extraneous attribute/s. For super key SK2 i.e. {roll_no,
first_name, last_name}, first_name and last_name are extraneous attributes. If we
remove these attributes, then also uniqueness property holds.
 If SK is a super key, then any superset of SK will also be a super key. For example,
Roll_no is the super key (SK) of the STUDENT relation. If we add some extra attributes
to make a superset of SK as (roll_no, first_name, gender), then no two tuples can have
the same value with this new set of attributes. Hence, a superset of (roll_no), i.e.
(roll_no, first_name, gender), is also a super key.

3.2.2 Candidate Key

A candidate key is a minimal super key that can identify each row (tuple) of a given relation
uniquely. It means that a candidate key is a super key from which we cannot remove any
attributes and still have the uniqueness property hold.

In other words, a candidate key is a super key without any redundant attribute. A candidate
key has a minimum number of attributes that are definitely needed to establish a row (tuple)
uniqueness in a given relation.
We can also say that the candidate key is a super key of which no proper subset exists as a
super key.

What are Subsets and Proper Subset?

If A and B are two sets, and every element of set A is also an element of set B, then A is
called a subset of B. Subset is denoted by ‘⊆’, so A ⊆ B. The definition of "subset" allows
the possibility that the first set is the same as (equal to) the second set.

However, A proper subset of a set A is a subset of A that is not equal to A. In other words,
if B is a proper subset of A, then all elements of B are in A, but A contains at least one
element that is not in B.

For example, if A={1,3,5} then B={1,5} is a proper subset of A. The set C={1,3,5} is a subset
of A, but it is not a proper subset of Asince C=A. Proper Subset is denoted by the symbol
‘⊂'. So as per the above example, B ⊂ A and C ⊆ A.

Given below are the examples of candidate keys or minimal super keys since each set consists
of minimal attributes required to identify each student uniquely in the Student relation:
CK1 = (adhaar_no)
CK2 = (roll_no)
CK3 = (first_name, last_name, address)
CK4 = (email_id)

Therefore, the candidate keys obtained above examples are the minimal set of super keys.
The set of all possible candidate keys is known as the candidate key set.
Hence {roll_no, adhaar_no, email_id, (first_name, last_name, address)} is a possible set of
candidate keys.

Some facts to remember about candidate keys:-

 All the attributes in a candidate key are sufficient as well as necessary to identify each
tuple uniquely.
 Removing any attribute from the candidate key fails in identifying each tuple uniquely.
 The value of the candidate key must always be unique.
 The value of the candidate key can never be NULL.
 It is possible to have multiple candidate keys in a relation.
 Those attributes which appear in any candidate key are called prime attributes.
 A candidate key is a super key but not vice versa.

3.2.3 Primary Key

We now know that a relation can have many candidate keys, which can uniquely identify each
row (tuple) of a given relation. Any one of these candidate keys can be chosen as a Primary
key (PK) of a given relation.
The database designer chooses any one of the candidate keys as the primary key of the
relation.

The primary key should be chosen such that:

1. Its attributes are never, or very rarely, changed , i.e., time-invariant. For instance, the
adhaar_no, roll_no, email_id, and (first_name, last_name, address) are the candidate
keys of the student relation, out of which email_id and address are time-variant. On
the other hand, adhaar_no & roll_no are guaranteed never to change.
2. It should consist of either a single attribute or a small number of attributes.

Hence, a database designer can choose either adhaar_no or roll_no as a primary key for the
student relation satisfying the above two conditions.

Some facts to remember about primary keys:-

 The value of the primary key field will always be unique
 The value of a primary key field can never be NULL
  A relation is allowed to have only one primary key

3.2.4 Composite key

A composite key is a primary key consisting of two or more columns that uniquely identify
rows in a relation. The combination of columns guarantees uniqueness, though individually
uniqueness is not guaranteed. Hence, they are combined to identify records in a relation
uniquely.
Example:

Figure 3.13: Representation of Section Table

Figure 3.13, (section_name) and (dept_id) individually cannot be a primary key as it does not
uniquely identify a record. However, a composite key consisting of (section_name) and
(dept_id) could be used to identify each row (tuple) uniquely.

3.2.5 Secondary Key or Alternate key

Secondary or Alternate key (s) are the candidate keys that are left unimplemented or unused
after implementing the primary key.
If in the student relation, (roll_no) is designated as a primary key, the remaining candidate
keys – (adhaar_no), (email_id), and (first_name, last_name, address) are the secondary keys
or alternate keys of the student relation.
The secondary keys are used for data retrieval purposes and indexing. Indexing is done for
better and faster data searching and retrieval from the database.
 Figure 3.14: Representation of different keys in a Venn diagram
3.2.6 Surrogate Keys

A surrogate key is a system-generated value with no business meaning that is used to identify
a record in a relation uniquely. This key is used as a primary key in a given relation when a
natural primary key is not available. The surrogate key is usually an integer and thus does not
lend any meaning to the data in the relation. A surrogate key is a value generated right before
the record is inserted into a relation.

When the primary key is too big or complicated, Surrogate keys are preferred. A surrogate
key is generated for each unique combination of the primary key.

Example:

Suppose, in a relation; we have a key comprising of a combination of various components of

address (house_no, street_name, city, state, Pincode). We might want to introduce a
surrogate key address_id for each unique combination of address (house_no, street_name,
city, state, Pincode).

Figure 3.15: Usage of Surrogate keys in a relation

3.2.7 Foreign Key

The primary purpose of the foreign key (FK) is to define and create a relationship between
the two relations. When the primary key (PK) of one relation (also referred to as parent
relation) is included as a non-unique attribute in another relation (also referred to as child
relation), then such a database key is called a foreign key (FK). Please note that there is no
uniqueness constraint for a foreign key (FK).

The relation which is being referenced is called referenced relation, and the corresponding
attribute is called a referenced attribute. The relation which refers to the referenced relation
is called referencing relation, and the corresponding attribute is called referencing attribute.

For example, attribute (dept_id) in course relation, as shown in Figure 3.16 is a foreign key
(FK), and all values for this attribute will match the values of the primary key (PK) attribute
(dept_id) in the department relation.

Figure 3.16: Representation of Foreign Key in a Course Table with referenced to Department Table

Some facts to remember about foreign keys:-

 The foreign key of a relation references the primary key of the other relation.
 A foreign key can take only those values which are present in the primary key of the
referenced relation.
 A foreign key may have a name other than that of a primary key.
 A foreign key can take the NULL value.
 There is no restriction on a foreign key to be unique. In fact, the foreign key is not
unique most of the time.
 Referenced relation may also be called the parent relation or primary relation.
Referencing relation may also be called the child relation.
 There may be more than one foreign key in a relation.

3.2.8 Unique Key

Unique key constraints also identifies an individual tuple uniquely in a relation or table.
Multiple unique keys can present in a table. NULL values are allowed in case of a unique key.
These can also be used as foreign keys for another table. It can be used when someone wants
to enforce unique constraints on a column and a group of columns which is not a primary key.

For an example in a Department relation dept_name is a unique key. In another example of

Course relation, course_name is a unique key.

Difference between Primary Key and Unique Key

Primary Key Unique Key

Unique identifier for rows of a table Unique identifier for rows of a table when
primary key is not present

Cannot accept NULL values Can accept NULL

Only one primary key can be present in a Multiple Unique Keys can be present in a table
table

Selection using primary key creates Selection using unique key creates non-
clustered index (the order of the rows does clustered index (the order of the rows does not
not match the physical order of the actual match the physical order of the actual data)
data)
3.3 Constraints

A relational database is a collection of relations. These relations store data about a business
or a business process. Functional users or business managers define the rules that must be
applied to this data before storing it in the database. For example, in our SMS case study,

 Each student must have a roll number which must be unique in the records
maintaining student data.
 No student in a department can work on more than one mini-project.
 A student can belong to only one department, etc.

There will typically be many relations in a relational database, and the tuples in those relations
are usually related in various ways. The state of the whole database will correspond to the
states of all its relations at a particular point in time. There are generally many rules or
restrictions on the actual values in a database state. We need to enforce these rules on the
data values stored in tuples for a particular column. The data that satisfies these rules will be
stored in the respective column of a relation; otherwise, it will be rejected.

The business rules or restrictions which are enforced on data being stored in a relation are
called Constraints. These constraints ensure that data stored in relations will be valid.

Note: Even if a single column of the record being entered into the relation fails a constraint,
then the entire record is rejected and not stored in a relation.

We will now discuss the various restrictions on data specified on a relational database in the
form of constraints. Constraints on databases are divided into three main categories:

1. Inherent model-based constraints or implicit constraints

The constraints that are implicit in a data model are called inherent model-based
constraints. These constraints are:

 Ordering of tuples in a relation: A relation is defined as a set of tuples. As

mathematically, elements of a set have no order among them; hence, tuples
in a relation do not have any particular order. In other words, a relation is not
sensitive to the ordering of tuples.

 Values and NULLs in the Tuples: Each value in a tuple is an atomic value; that
is, it is not divisible into components within the framework of the basic
relational model. Hence, multi-valued attributes are not allowed. An important
concept is that of NULL values, which represent the values of attributes that
 may be unknown or may not apply to a tuple. A special value, called NULL, is
used in these cases. For example, if a student does not have a middle_name in
student relation, it will be represented by NULL.

Figure 3.17: Representation of NULL value in student relation

2. Schema-based constraints or explicit constraints or integrity constraints:

The constraints that can be directly expressed in the schemas of the relational model
by specifying them in the Data Definition Language (DDL) are schema-based. These
are further categorized as:
 Entity integrity constraint or Key constraint
 Referential integrity constraint
 Domain Integrity constraints
o Check constraint
o Unique constraint
o Null constraint
o Default constraint

3. Application-based constraints:

Constraints that cannot be directly expressed in the schemas of the data model and
hence must be expressed and enforced by the application programs are called
application-based constraints. For example, a student can take a maximum of 25
credits in a semester.

The constraints that we will discuss in this section are schema-based constraints that can be
expressed in a schema of the relational model via the DDL statements.

3.3.1 Schema Based Constraints or Integrity Constraints

Integrity constraints ensure that changes made to the database by authorized users do not
result in a loss of data consistency. Thus, integrity constraints guard against accidental
damage to the database. Let us discuss various types of integrity constraints.
3.3.1.1 Entity Integrity Constraint or Key Constraint

Entity integrity constraint is a major component of overall data integrity, and it ensures that
there are no duplicate tuples in a relation. Entity integrity constraint is based on the primary
key (PK). The primary key of a relation ensures there are no duplicate tuples in a relation. The
value of a primary key is unique and not null.

For example, in

Figure 3.18 below, (dept_id) is the primary key of department relation. (Dept_id) will be
unique and not null for all tuples of the department relation.

Figure 3.18: Representation of Primary Key (dept_id) in Department Relation (Entity Integrity Constraint)

3.3.1.2 Referential Integrity Constraints

Referential Integrity constraints in DBMS are based on the concept of Foreign Keys. The
referential integrity constraint says, that if a relation R2 has a foreign key attribute (FK)
matching the primary key attribute (PK) of other relation R1, then every value of FK in R2 must
either be equal to the value of PK in some tuple of R1 or the FK value must be null. R1 and R2
are not necessarily distinct (in the case of a recursive relationship).

For example, as shown in Figure 3.19, the department id attribute in the Course and
department must be the same. Attribute (dept_id) in the course relation is referring to the
primary key attribute (dept_id) of department relation. Thus the Course is called the
referencing relation, and the department is the referenced relation. All values in (dept_id) of
Course, relation satisfy the referential integrity constraint except the value D06 as it is not
present in (dept_id) attribute in department relation. Referential integrity constraint will not
allow D06 as a value for the foreign key (dept_id) in the course relation.
 Figure 3.19: Representation of Foreign Key (dept_id) in Course Relation (Referential Integrity Constraint)

3.3.1.3 Domain constraint

Domain constraints specify the set of possible values that may be associated with an attribute.
A common method of specifying a domain for an attribute is to specify a data type from
which the data values forming the domain are drawn. Below are some of the most
commonly used domain constraints.

A. Null constraint

It specifies whether null values are permitted for an attribute. NOT NULL constraint
makes sure that a column does not hold NULL value. When we do not provide a value
for a particular attribute (column) while inserting a record into a relation, it takes NULL
value by default. By specifying the NOT NULL constraint, we can ensure that a
particular column cannot have NULL values.
For example, if every department must have a valid, non-null value for the
(dept_name) attribute, then the (dept_name) attribute for the department relation is
constrained to be NOT NULL. As shown in Figure 3.20, each tuple of department
relation must have the value for the (dept_name) column as it cannot be left empty.

Figure 3.20: Representation of NULL constraint in Department Relation

B. Unique constraint

A unique constraint (also referred to as a unique key constraint) is a rule that forbids
duplicate values in one or more columns within a relation. This constraint is used to
implement secondary or alternate keys.
However, attributes declared as unique are permitted to have null values unless they
have been explicitly declared NOT NULL.
For example, as shown in

Figure 3.20, each row of Department relation must have the unique value for the
(dept_name) column.

C. Check constraint

A check constraint is defined on a column for specifying the range of values that can
be inserted into it, using a predefined condition. When this constraint is set on a
column, it ensures that the specified column must have the value falling in the
specified range.

Example 1 - We understand that the salary of the faculty cannot be a negative value;
it must always be greater than 0. So, in faculty relation (salary), the salary of the faculty
will have a check constraint, i.e., the constraint will ensure that the value of (salary)
will be greater than zero always.

Example 2 - In student relation, the gender can be Female, Male, or Trans. So, (gender)
will have a check constraint that will ensure that the value inserted in each row must
be any one of (Female, Male, or Trans).

D. Default constraint

The default constraint is defined to provide a default value to a column if no other

value is provided while inserting a new record.

For example, the default value for the (status) column of Research Project relation can
be taken as "Ongoing".
3.4 Case Study Design with Complete Constraints

3.4.1 Data Dictionary

3.4.1.1 Introduction to Data Dictionary

A data dictionary is a set of information used by database administrators to describe the

structure of a relational database by defining the data items (attributes/column name), their
types, format, constraints, and relationship between the relational tables.
A data dictionary contains data about the relational tables, which actually contains the data.
It is also called "data about data" or metadata.

Data Dictionary provides the metadata about each relational table in the database, e.g., data
item or column name, suggested data type for that column, maximum allowed column width,
data format to be stored in on the disc, constraints applied on column level and relational
table level, a brief description of the column and example representing actual data item to be
filled in the column.

Since the composite keys are implemented on table level rather than column level, they are
described as separate column UniqueID.

The data dictionary of all the relational tables in the case study is provided below, which will
help us while implementing the actual database operations.

3.4.1.2 Creating a Data Dictionary

Now we will use this data dictionary to create database schema using Structured Query
Language (SQL) with some existing RDBMS software like Oracle, MySQL, SQL Server, etc.

3.4.2 Introduction to SQL

3.4.2.1 SQL Basics

Structured Query Language (SQL) is designed for managing data held in a relational database
management system (RDBMS) like Oracle, MySQL, SQL Server, etc.
It is based on the relational model described by Dr. E.F. Codd in 1970 in the paper, "A
Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks."
Structured English Query Language (SEQUEL) was developed by IBM Corporation, Inc., to use
Codd's model. SEQUEL later became SQL (still pronounced "sequel").
In 1979, Relational Software, Inc. (now Oracle) introduced the first commercially available
implementation of SQL. It was standardized by American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
in 1986 and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987.

Today, SQL is accepted as the standard RDBMS language.

Features of SQL
 The ANSI standard for operating relational databases
 Open-Source
 Efficient
 Functionally complete
 Easy to learn and use
 Case insensitive

3.4.2.2 Data Types in SQL

Data types are used to represent the nature of the data that can be stored in the database
tables. For every database, the data types are categorized into three major categories:
 String
 Numeric
 Date and Time
Data types might have different names in different RDBMS. Moreover, even if the name is the
same, the size and other details may be different.
Here we have described commonly used data types of MySQL, SQL Server, and Oracle.
Always check the documentation of corresponding RDBMS for the latest updates.

MySQL Data Types

Below is the list of data types used in MySQL database. This is based on MySQL 8.0.

String Data Types

Data Type Description

CHAR(size) A FIXED length string (can contain letters, numbers, and
special characters). The size parameter specifies the column
length in characters - can be from 0 to 255. Default is 1
VARCHAR(size) A VARIABLE length string (can contain letters, numbers, and
special characters). The size parameter specifies the
maximum column length in characters - can be from 0 to
65535
BINARY(size) Equal to CHAR(), but stores binary byte strings. The size
parameter specifies the column length in bytes. Default is 1
VARBINARY(size) Equal to VARCHAR(), but stores binary byte strings. The size
parameter specifies the maximum column length in bytes.
TINYBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Max length: 255 bytes
TINYTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters
TEXT(size) Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535 bytes
BLOB(size) For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 65,535 bytes of
data
MEDIUMTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215
characters
MEDIUMBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 16,777,215
bytes of data
LONGTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295
characters
 LONGBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 4,294,967,295
bytes of data
ENUM(val1, val2, val3, ...) A string object that can have only one value, chosen from a
list of possible values. It can list up to 65535 values in an
ENUM list. If a value is inserted that is not in the list; a blank
value will be inserted. The values submitted are sorted in
order.
SET(val1, val2, val3, ...) A string object that can have 0 or more values, chosen from a
list of possible values. Maximum 64 values can be set in a SET
list.

Numeric Data Types

Data Type Description

BIT(size) A bit-value type. The number of bits per value is specified in
size. The size parameter can hold a value from 1 to 64. The
default value for size is 1.
TINYINT(size) A very small integer. The signed range is from -128 to 127.
The unsigned range is from 0 to 255. The size parameter
specifies the maximum display width (which is 255)
BOOL Zero is considered false, nonzero values are considered as
true.
BOOLEAN Equal to BOOL
SMALLINT(size) A small integer. The signed range is from -32768 to 32767.
The unsigned range is from 0 to 65535. The size parameter
specifies the maximum display width (which is 255)
MEDIUMINT(size) A medium integer. The signed range is from -8388608 to
8388607. The unsigned range is from 0 to 16777215. The size
parameter specifies the maximum display width (which is
255)
INT(size) A medium integer. The signed range is from -2147483648 to
2147483647. The unsigned range is from 0 to 4294967295.
The size parameter specifies the maximum display width
(which is 255)
INTEGER(size) Equal to INT(size)
BIGINT(size) A large integer. The signed range is from -
9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807. The
unsigned range is from 0 to 18446744073709551615. The
 size parameter specifies the maximum display width (which is
255)
FLOAT(size, d) A floating-point number. The total number of digits is
specified in size. The number of digits after the decimal point
is specified in the d parameter. This syntax is deprecated in
MySQL 8.0.17, and it will be removed in future MySQL
versions.
FLOAT(p) A floating-point number. MySQL uses the p value to
determine whether to use FLOAT or DOUBLE for the resulting
data type. If p is from 0 to 24, the data type becomes
FLOAT(). If p is from 25 to 53, the data type becomes
DOUBLE()
DOUBLE(size, d) A normal-size floating-point number. The total number of
digits is specified in size. The number of digits after the
decimal point is specified in the d parameter.
DECIMAL(size, d) An exact fixed-point number. The total number of digits is
specified in size. The number of digits after the decimal point
is specified in the d parameter. The maximum number for
size is 65 and d is 30. The default value for size is 10 and d is
0.

Date and Time Data Types

Data Type Description

DATE A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD. The supported range is from
'1000-01-01' to '9999-12-31.'
DATETIME(fsp) A date and time combination. Format: YYYY-MM-DD
hh:mm:ss. The supported range is from '1000-01-01 00:00:00'
to '9999-12-31 23:59:59'. Adding DEFAULT and ON UPDATE in
the column definition to get automatic initialization and
updating to the current date and time
TIMESTAMP(fsp) A timestamp. TIMESTAMP values are stored as the number of
seconds since the Unix epoch ('1970-01-01 00:00:00' UTC).
Format: YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss. The supported range is from
'1970-01-01 00:00:01' UTC to '2038-01-09 03:14:07' UTC.
Automatic initialization and updating to the current date and
time can be specified using DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
 and ON UPDATE CURRENT_TIMESTAMP in the column
definition
TIME(fsp) A time. Format: hh:mm:ss. The supported range is from '-
838:59:59' to '838:59:59'
YEAR A year in four-digit format. Values allowed in the four-digit
format: 1901 to 2155, and 0000.
MySQL 8.0 does not support year in two-digit format.

SQL Server Data Types

String Data Types

Data Type Description

char(n) Fixed width character string upto 8,000 characters
varchar(n) Variable width character string upto 8,000 characters. It takes
2 extra bytes while storing data on the disc.
varchar(max) Variable width character string upto 1,073,741,824
characters. It takes 2 extra bytes while storing data on the
disc.
Text Variable width character string upto 2GB of text data. It takes
4 extra bytes while storing data on the disc.
Nchar Fixed width Unicode string upto 4,000 characters
Nvarchar Variable width Unicode string upto 4,000 characters
nvarchar(max) Variable width Unicode string upto 536,870,912 characters
Ntext Variable width Unicode string upto 2 GB
binary(n) Fixed width binary string upto 8,000 bytes
Varbinary Variable width binary string upto 8,000 bytes
varbinary(max) Variable width binary string upto 2 GB
Image Variable width binary string upto 2 GB

Numeric Data Types

Data Type Description

Bit Integer that can be 0, 1, or NULL
tinyint Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255
smallint Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767
 Int Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and
2,147,483,647
Bigint Allows whole numbers between -9,223,372,036,854,775,808
and 9,223,372,036,854,775,807
decimal(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers.
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1.
numeric(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers.
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1.
smallmoney Monetary data from -214,748.3648 to 214,748.3647
money Monetary data from -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to
922,337,203,685,477.5807
float(n) Floating precision number data from -1.79E + 308 to 1.79E +
308
Real Floating precision number data from -3.40E + 38 to 3.40E + 38

Date and Time Data Types

Data Type Description

Datetime From January 1, 1753 to December 31, 9999, with an
accuracy of 3.33 milliseconds
datetime2 From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999, with an
accuracy of 100 nanoseconds.
Smalldatetime From January 1, 1900, to June 6, 2079, with an accuracy of 1
minute
Date Store a date only. From January 1, 0001 to December 31,
9999
Time Store a time only to an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds
datetimeoffset The same as datetime2 with the addition of a time zone
offset
Timestamp It stores a unique number that gets updated every time a row
gets created or modified. The timestamp value is based upon
an internal clock and does not correspond to real-time. Each
table may have only one timestamp variable.

Oracle Data Types

Data Type Description

CHAR(size) Fixed-length character data of length size bytes. The maximum
size is 2000 bytes or characters. Default and the minimum size
is 1 byte.
NCHAR(size) Fixed-length character data of length size characters. The
number of bytes can be up to two times the size for
AL16UTF16 encoding and three times the size for UTF8
encoding.
VARCHAR2(size) Variable-length character string having maximum length size
bytes or characters. The maximum size is 4000 bytes or
characters, and the minimum is 1 byte or 1 character. The size
for VARCHAR2 must be specified.
NVARCHAR2(size) Variable-length Unicode character string having maximum
length size characters. The number of bytes can be up to two
times the size for AL16UTF16 encoding and three times the
size for UTF8 encoding. Maximum size is determined by the
national character set definition, with an upper limit of 4000
bytes. Size for NVARCHAR2 must be specified.
NUMBER[(precision[, Number having precision p and scale s. The precision p can
scale]]) range from 1 to 38. The scale s can range from -84 to 127.
LONG Character data of variable length up to 2 gigabytes, or 231 -1
bytes. It is provided for backward compatibility.
DATE Valid date range from January 1, 4712 BC to December 31,
9999 AD. The default format is determined explicitly by the
NLS_DATE_FORMAT parameter or implicitly by the
NLS_TERRITORY parameter. The size is fixed at 7 bytes. This
datatype contains the datetime fields YEAR, MONTH, DAY,
HOUR, MINUTE, and SECOND. It does not have fractional
seconds or a time zone.
BINARY_FLOAT 32-bit floating-point number. This datatype requires 5 bytes,
including the length byte.
BINARY_DOUBLE 64-bit floating-point number. This datatype requires 9 bytes,
including the length byte.
TIMESTAMP Year, month, and day values of date, as well as hour, minute,
and second values of time
RAW(size) Raw binary data of length size bytes. The maximum size is
2000 bytes. Size for a RAW value must be specified.
LONG RAW Raw binary data of variable length up to 2 gigabytes.
CLOB A character large object is containing single-byte or multibyte
characters. Both fixed-width and variable-width character sets
are supported, both using the database character set.
Maximum size is (4 gigabytes - 1) * (database block size).
BLOB A binary large object. Maximum size is (4 gigabytes - 1) *
(database block size).
 BFILE Contains a locator to a large binary file stored outside the
database. Enables byte stream I/O access to external LOBs
residing on the database server. The maximum size is 4
gigabytes.

3.4.2.3 Types of SQL Statements

The commands used in SQL are generally termed as SQL statements. SQL statements are
categorized into four major categories:

 Data Definition Language (DDL)

o CREATE
o ALTER
o DROP
o RENAME
o TRUNCATE
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
o INSERT
o UPDATE
o DELETE
o SELECT (Also considered as Data Query Language (DQL) statement)
 Data Control Language (DCL)
o GRANT
o REVOKE
 Transaction Control Language (TCL)
o COMMIT
o ROLLBACK
o SAVEPOINT

Points to remember while writing SQL Statements:

 SQL statements are non-case-sensitive
 SQL statements can be entered on one or more lines
 Indentation is not required but used to enhance the readability
 Some command/keywords can be specific to an RDBMS Software
 Some RDBMS software may require semicolon (;) to terminate the statement
 RDBMS keywords cannot be used as identifiers, e.g., table name, view name, etc.

3.4.3 Working with SQL Commands

3.4.3.1 Tables Creation

When we start working on implementing the relational model, the first thing starts with
creating the database schema. A database schema contains structures of tables along with
other related items to be discussed in subsequent chapters.

To create a table, SQL provides the CREATE TABLE statement. The CREATE TABLE statement
requires the table name, its column names, data types, and size to be allocated. Some data
types do not require size.

Syntax of CREATE TABLE statement

Before moving further you need to install the required software using
“Appendix A: Installation of Oracle”

Example:

Let us create a sample database table using Oracle RDBMS to manage the books in a library.
We can define the table name as Book with column names (also referred to as attributes or
data items or field names) as bookno, title, author, and price. Assuming the maximum
number of books to be stored is a numeric value 9999, the maximum size of the book title is
100 characters long string. The maximum size of the author's name is 50 characters long
string, and the maximum price of the book is a numeric value of 9999.99.

Oracle provides the NUMBER data type to store numeric data and store dynamic length string;
it provides VARCHAR2 data type. Most of the other RDBMS gives VARCHAR as the data type
for dynamic size strings, but Oracle gives us the flexibility to use VARCHAR or VARCHAR2 as
the data type.
 Figure 3.21: Representation of table creation in Oracle SQL Developer

3.4.3.2 Inserting Records

Once the table structure is created, we can insert data of books generally referred to as
records or rows or tuples.

SQL provides an INSERT statement to insert the records in the database table.

While inserting data in a database table, we need to remember that the string type and
date/time values are enclosed in a single quote.
Let us insert few records of the books.
While writing multiple SQL statements, use a semicolon (;) to terminate a statement.

Figure 3.22: Representation of Inserting records in a table in Oracle SQL Developer

3.4.3.3 Displaying Records

Once we insert the record in the database table, we can display the records.
SQL provides SELECT statements to view the records as per choice. We can view all records
with all their columns using the following syntax.
SELECT * FROM tablename;
Example:
To view all the records, present the book table, we can write the following SQL statement.
SELECT * FROM book;

Figure 3.23: Displaying of records from table book in Oracle SQL Developer

3.4.3.4 Specifying Constraints

While inserting records, as shown above, if we re-run the Insert commands, it will execute
the commands again and insert three records again, creating duplicate records of books
creating ambiguity and inconsistency in the database since we have not specified any
restrictions or constraints on the table book. Now we need to specify the constraints on the
table.

Figure 3.24: Displaying of inconsistent Records in Table (Book)

Constraints are the rules enforced on the table. These are used to restrict the type or value
of data inserted into it or updated or deleted later on.
The database system checks the specified constraint each time the database is updated. Any
updation that causes modification to the database but violates an integrity constraint is
rejected.
For example, suppose we apply the Key constraint "PRIMARY KEY" on column bookno. In that
case, this kind of error will not be possible since the RDBMS will take care that once a bookno
is present in the database table, the duplicate value will not be allowed, and even it cannot
be left blank.
However, before continuing, we need to remove the existing database table using the DROP
TABLE statement.

Now re-create the table with the PRIMARY KEY constraint on the column bookno.

Figure 3.25: Creating Table (BOOK) with constraints (Primary Key)

Now again, insert the three records into the database table by executing the following
statements.
 Figure 3.26: Inserting records in BOOK Tables

Records get inserted property. However, if we repeat the same statement by mistake, an
error will appear from RDBMS due to the PRIMARY KEY constraint applied on the column
bookno. Try to re-run the INSERT statements.

Figure 3.27: Display of Error (Unique Key Constraint)

Understanding the Implementation of Constraints in SQL

In SQL, constraints could be either on a column level or a table level.

1. Column-level constraints– These constraints are applied to a single column
2. Table-level constraints – These constraints are the application to the complete table.

They can be applied when a table is created or when its structure is altered. The constraints
are specified within the SQL DDL command, like the 'CREATE TABLE' command.
The general syntax of 'CREATE TABLE' command specifying the integrity constraint:

Column-level:

CREATE TABLE tablename (

columnname1 datatype(size) constraint_name,
columnname2 datatype(size) constraint_name,
...
);

Table-level:

CREATE TABLE tablename(

columnname1 datatype(size) ,
columnname2 datatype(size) ,
...,
constraint_name (column_name1, column name2, ...)
);

Entity Integrity Constraints

Entity integrity constraint implemented using SQL by defining any column as the PRIMARY
KEY. By defining the primary key attribute in a relation, we ensure that the attribute will not
accept a null value. Also, the values will be unique for the tuple.

Syntax for defining Primary Key using SQL:

Column –Wise:

CREATE TABLE tablename (

columnname1 datatype(size) PRIMARY KEY,
columnname2 datatype(size),
...
);

Example:

The following example identifies the dept_id column as the PRIMARY KEY for the Department
table:

CREATE TABLE department (

dept_id CHAR(3) PRIMARY KEY,
dept_name VARCHAR(5),
dept_location VARCHAR(20)
);

Table-Wise:

CREATE TABLE tablename (

columnname1 datatype(size),
columnname2 datatype(size) ,
...,
PRIMARY KEY (columnname1 ,columnname2, . . . )
);

Example

The primary key constraint in this example is defined after the column comma list in the
CREATE TABLE statement.

CREATE TABLE department (

dept_id CHAR(3),
dept_name VARCHAR(5),
dept_location VARCHAR(20),
PRIMARY KEY(dept_id)
);

Whenever we declare any attribute in relation as the Primary Key attribute, it is not necessary
to specify it explicitly to be not null in addition to the primary key constraint.

Referential Integrity Constraints

A foreign key is a column in a child table that references a primary key in the parent table. A
foreign key constraint is a primary mechanism used to enforce referential integrity between
tables in a relational database. A column defined as a foreign key refers to a column defined
as a primary key in another table.

Syntax for defining foreign key using SQL:

At column-level:

CREATE TABLE tablename (

columnname1 datatype(size),
columnname2 datatype(size) REFERENCESreferenced_table(columnname) ,
...
);

Example:
CREATE TABLE course (
course_id CHAR(6) PRIMARY KEY,
course_name VARCHAR(50),
course_credit NUMBER(2),
dept_id CHAR(3) REFERENCES department(dept_id)
);

In this example, the dept_id column of the course table has been designated as the foreign
key for the course table. This foreign key references the dept_id column in the department
table. This foreign key ensures that for every dept_id in the course table, there is a
corresponding dept_id in the department table.

At table-level:

CREATE TABLE tablename (

columnname1 datatype(size),
columnname2 datatype(size),
...,
FOREIGN KEY (columnname) REFERENCES referenced_table(columnname)
);

Example:

CREATE TABLE course (

course_id CHAR(6) PRIMARY KEY,
course_name VARCHAR(50),
course_credit NUMBER(2),
dept_id CHAR(3),
FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES department(dept_id)
);

NOT NULL Constraint

NOT NULL is a constraint that can place on a table's column. This constraint disallows the
entrance of NULL values into a column; in other words, data is required in a NOT NULL column
for each row of data in the table. NULL is generally the default column if NOT NULL is not
specified, allowing NULL values in a column.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE tablename (

columnname1 datatype(size) NOT NULL,
columnname2 datatype(size),
 ...
);

Example:

CREATE TABLE department (

dept_id CHAR(3) PRIMARY KEY,
dept_nameVARCHAR(5) NOT NULL,
dept_locationVARCHAR(20) NOT NULL
);

In this example, the NOT NULL constraint is applied on the dept_name column and
dept_location column. The columns will not allow NULL values.

UNIQUE Constraint

This constraint ensures that a column or a group of columns in each row has a distinct value.
A column(s) can have a null value, but the values cannot be duplicated.

Column level:

CREATE TABLE tablename (

columnname1 datatype(size) UNIQUE,
columnname2 datatype(size),
...
);

Example:

Column Level:

CREATE TABLE department (

dept_id CHAR(3) PRIMARY KEY,
dept_name VARCHAR(10) UNIQUENOT NULL,
dept_location VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL
);

Table Level:

CREATE TABLEtablename (
columnname1 datatype(size),
columnname2 datatype(size),
...,
UNIQUE (columnname1)
);

Example:

CREATE TABLE department (

dept_id CHAR(3) PRIMARY KEY,
dept_name VARCHAR(5) NOT NULL,
dept_location VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
UNIQUE (dept_name)
);

In the above example, the UNIQUE keyword has been used with the dept_name column. This
column will have distinct values.

CHECK Constraint

This constraint defines a business rule on a column. The check constraint specifies conditions
for the data inserted into a column. Each row inserted into a table or each value updating the
column's value must meet these conditions. The CHECK clause is used to specify check
constraints. The constraint can be applied to a single column or a group of columns.
Syntax at column level:

Column level:

CREATE TABLEtablename (
columnname1 datatype(size) CHECK (condition),
columnname2 datatype(size),
...
);

Table level:

CREATE TABLE tablename (

columnname1 data_type(size),
columnname2 data_type(size) ,
...,
CHECK (condition)
);

Example:

In the faculty table, the salary of the employee will always be greater than zero.

Column Level:
CREATE TABLE faculty(
faculty_id CHAR(4) PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
middle_name VARCHAR(20),
last_name VARCHAR(20),
designation VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
doj DATE NOT NULL,
gender CHAR(6) NOT NULL CHECK (gender in (‘Male’,’Female’,’Trans’)),
salary NUMBER(6) NOT NULL CHECK(salary>0),
dept_id CHAR(3) NOT NULL,
hod_id CHAR(4),
FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES department(dept_id),
FOREIGN KEY (hod_id) REFERENCES faculty(faculty_id)
)

Table Level:
CREATE TABLE faculty(
faculty_id CHAR(4) PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
middle_name VARCHAR(20),
last_name VARCHAR(20),
designation VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
doj DATE NOT NULL,
gender CHAR(6) NOT NULL,
salary NUMBER(6) NOT NULL,
dept_id CHAR(3) NOT NULL,
hod_id CHAR(4),
FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES department(dept_id),
FOREIGN KEY (hod_id) REFERENCES faculty(faculty_id),
CHECK(salary>0),
CHECK (gender in (‘Male’,’Female’,’Trans’)
)

DEFAULT Constraint

DEFAULT is a constraint that you can place on a table's column. This constraint inserts the
given default value in the record column if no value is provided for that column while inserting
a record.
Syntax:

CREATE TABLE tablename (

columnname1 datatype(size) DEFAULT value,
 columnname2 datatype(size),
...
);

Example:

CREATE TABLE section(

dept_id CHAR(3) NOT NULL,
section_name CHAR(1) NOT NULL,
max_capacity NUMBER(3) NOT NULL,
student_nos NUMBER(3) DEFAULT 0,
PRIMARY KEY (dept_id,section_name)
);

In this example, the DEFAULT constraint is applied to the student_nos column. The
student_nos columns will have zero (0) if we do not specify any value while inserting the
record in the section table.
Appendix A: Installation of Oracle

Here we will learn how to install the required software to implement the database using
Oracle XE RDBMS Software. It is the free version of Oracle RDBMS software with limited
capabilities. In Oracle XE, the XE stands for Express Edition.

Before installing the software, you need to check the minimum hardware specifications
required

Figure 3. 28: Display of System Requirements for Installation of Oracle XE

Download the latest available software from the link given below
https://www.oracle.com/database/technologies/appdev/xe.html

You will get the following webpage (accessed on 21st May 2021) or a similar page.
Click on the Green button Download Oracle Database XE to download the software.
It will ask you to select your operating system and agree with terms and conditions. Download
the software as a ZIP file and save it somewhere on your disc.

Figure 3.29: Display of Oracle XE homepage

Installing the Oracle XE RDBMS Software

Once the download is complete, you can install the software on your laptop or desktop.
Unzip the downloaded ZIP file and click on the Setup.exe file to start the setup.
While installing the software, it will ask you for a password. Enter the password and
remember that password. It will be required while performing database operations and
schema creation. It is the password for three built-in users SYS, SYSTEM, and PDBADMIN.

Figure 3. 30: Display of Password page for Oracle installation

Once installation is complete, you will get some more details about the Oracle XE RDBMS
software. Default database name as XEPDB1.
You have to keep this information with you. This information will be required later.

Figure 3.31: Display of successful message for Oracle installation

Downloading and Installing Oracle SQL Developer Software

Now download the latest available Oracle SQL Developer software from the Oracle website
using the following link
https://www.oracle.com/tools/downloads/sqldev-downloads.html

Figure 3.31: Display of webpage for downloading Zip file of Oracle SQL Developer

Unzip the ZIP file to start the software. No installation is required.

Create a connection between Oracle XE RDBMS and Oracle SQL Developer

Start the Oracle SQL Developer Software from the folder downloaded
 Figure 3.32: Display of Oracle SQL Developer Software

Now click on in the top left corner to create a new connection with Oracle XE RDBMS
software.
Define the following information
Name: Any Name of your choice e.g. ABESEC
User Name as SYS. It is the built-in superuser.
Password as given at the time of installation
Role as SYSDBA for Database Administration
Check the check box [ ] Save Password
Service Name as XEPDB1 (default database name)
Now Click on the Test button to check the connection status
If status us Success, that means everything is perfect. Click on Connect button to complete
the connection creation process.

Figure 3.33: Display of Oracle SQL Database Connection

Now your connection ABESEC is ready to work for database operations

Figure 3.34: Display of Oracle SQL Developer Worksheet

Now we can execute SQL statements using Query Builder.

Appendix B: SQL Script for SMS Case Study using Oracle

CREATE TABLE department(

dept_id CHAR(3) PRIMARY KEY,
dept_name VARCHAR(10) UNIQUE NOT NULL,
dept_location VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL
);

CREATE TABLE course (

course_id CHAR(6) PRIMARY KEY,
course_name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
course_credit NUMBER(2) NOT NULL,
dept_id CHAR(3) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT course_deptid_fk FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES department(dept_id)
);

CREATE TABLE section(

dept_id CHAR(3) NOT NULL ,
section_name CHAR(1) NOT NULL,
max_capacity NUMBER(3) NOT NULL,
student_nos NUMBER(3) DEFAULT 0,
CONSTRAINT course_deptid_fk FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES department(dept_id),
CONSTRAINT section_deptid_sectionname_cpk PRIMARY KEY (dept_id,section_name)
);

CREATE TABLE student(

roll_no CHAR(15) PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL,
middle_name VARCHAR(15),
last_name VARCHAR(15),
dob DATE NOT NULL,
gender CHAR(6) NOT NULL CHECK(gender IN ('Male','Female','Trans')),
house_no VARCHAR(25) NOT NULL,
street_name VARCHAR(25) NOT NULL,
city VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
state VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
pincode CHAR(6) NOT NULL,
dept_id CHAR(3) NOT NULL,
section_name CHAR(1) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT student_deptid_fk FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES department(dept_id),
CONSTRAINT student_deptid_sectionname_cfk FOREIGN KEY (dept_id,section_name)
REFERENCES section(dept_id,section_name)
);

CREATE TABLE faculty(

faculty_id CHAR(4) PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
middle_name VARCHAR(20),
last_name VARCHAR(20),
designation VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
doj DATE NOT NULL,
 gender CHAR(6) NOT NULL CHECK(gender IN ('Male','Female','Trans')),
salary NUMBER(6) NOT NULL CHECK (salary>0),
dept_id CHAR(3) NOT NULL,
hod_id CHAR(4),
CONSTRAINT faculty_deptid_fk FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES department(dept_id),
CONSTRAINT faculty_hodid_rfk FOREIGN KEY (hod_id) REFERENCES faculty(faculty_id)
);

CREATE TABLE mini_project(

miniproj_id CHAR(5) PRIMARY KEY,
miniproj_name VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE NOT NULL,
domain VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
subject VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
description VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
roll_no CHAR(15) REFERENCES student(roll_no)
);

CREATE TABLE research_project(

researchproj_id CHAR(5) PRIMARY KEY,
researchproj_name VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,
duration VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
sponsor_agency VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL CHECK (sponsor_agency IN
('Government','Self')),
status VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL CHECK(status IN ('Complete','Ongoing'))
);

CREATE TABLE student_phone_no(

roll_no CHAR(15) NOT NULL REFERENCES student(roll_no),
phone_no CHAR(10) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT studentphoneno_rollno_phoneno_cpk PRIMARY KEY (roll_no,phone_no)
);

CREATE TABLE student_hobby(

roll_no CHAR(15) NOT NULL REFERENCES student(roll_no),
hobby VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL CHECK (hobby IN ('Technical','Non-Technical')),
CONSTRAINT studenthobby_rollno_hobby_cpk PRIMARY KEY (roll_no,hobby)
);

CREATE TABLE faculty_course(

faculty_id CHAR(4) NOT NULL,
course_id CHAR(6) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT facultycourse_facultyid_fk FOREIGN KEY (faculty_id) REFERENCES
faculty(faculty_id),
CONSTRAINT facultycourse_courseid_fk FOREIGN KEY (course_id) REFERENCES
course(course_id),
CONSTRAINT facultycourse_facultyid_courseid_cpk PRIMARY KEY (faculty_id,course_id)
);

CREATE TABLE student_course(

roll_no CHAR(15) NOT NULL,
course_id CHAR(6) NOT NULL,
 CONSTRAINT studentcourse_rollno_fk FOREIGN KEY (roll_no) REFERENCES
student(roll_no),
CONSTRAINT studentcourse_courseid_fk FOREIGN KEY (course_id) REFERENCES
course(course_id),
CONSTRAINT studentcourse_rollno_courseid_cpk PRIMARY KEY (roll_no,course_id)
);

CREATE TABLE faculty_research_project(

faculty_id CHAR(4) NOT NULL,
researchproj_id CHAR(5) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT facultyresearchproject_facultyid_fk FOREIGN KEY (faculty_id) REFERENCES
faculty(faculty_id),
CONSTRAINT facultyresearchproject_researchprojectid_fk FOREIGN KEY
(researchproj_id) REFERENCES research_project(researchproj_id),
CONSTRAINT facultyresearchproject_facultyid_reseachprojectid_cpk PRIMARY KEY
(faculty_id,researchproj_id)
);

INSERT INTO department VALUES('D01','CS','Aryabhatta Block');

INSERT INTO department VALUES('D02','CSE','Aryabhatta Block');
INSERT INTO department VALUES('D03','IT','Aryabhatta Block');
INSERT INTO department VALUES('D04','CSE-DS','Bhabha Block');
INSERT INTO department VALUES('D05','ME','Ramanujan Block');

INSERT INTO SECTION (section_name,max_capacity,student_nos,dept_id) VALUES('A',70,

63,'D01');
INSERT INTO SECTION (section_name,max_capacity,student_nos,dept_id) VALUES('B',70,
67,'D01');
INSERT INTO SECTION (section_name,max_capacity,student_nos,dept_id) VALUES('A',70,
65,'D02');
INSERT INTO SECTION (section_name,max_capacity,student_nos,dept_id) VALUES('A',70,
70,'D03');
INSERT INTO SECTION (section_name,max_capacity,student_nos,dept_id) VALUES('A',60,
32,'D05');
INSERT INTO SECTION (section_name,max_capacity,student_nos,dept_id) VALUES('B',60,
31,'D05');
INSERT INTO SECTION (section_name,max_capacity,dept_id) VALUES('A',70,'D04');

INSERT INTO course (course_id,course_name,course_credit,dept_id) VALUES('KCS301','Data

Structure', 3, 'D01');
INSERT INTO course (course_id,course_name,course_credit,dept_id)
VALUES('KCS401','DBMS', 3, 'D02');
INSERT INTO course (course_id,course_name,course_credit,dept_id)
VALUES('KME502','Machine Design', 2, 'D05');
INSERT INTO course (course_id,course_name,course_credit,dept_id)
VALUES('KEC301','Digital Electronics', 2, 'D03');
INSERT INTO course (course_id,course_name,course_credit,dept_id)
VALUES('KAS101','Physics', 3, 'D02');

INSERT INTO faculty(faculty_id,first_name,middle_name, last_name,designation,doj,

gender,salary, hod_id,dept_id) VALUES('1231', 'Ram', 'Mohan', 'Prasad',
'Assistant Professor', '17-12-2011', 'Male', 54000, '1231',
'D01');
INSERT INTO faculty(faculty_id,first_name, last_name,designation,doj,
gender,salary, hod_id,dept_id) VALUES('9765', 'Laxman', 'Naryan',
'Associate Professor', '19-09-2013', 'Male', 72000, '9765',
'D02');
INSERT INTO faculty(faculty_id,first_name, last_name,designation,doj,
gender,salary, dept_id) VALUES('1987', 'Ayush', 'Giri',
'Professor', '13-07-2010', 'Male' ,'100125','D03');
INSERT INTO faculty(faculty_id,first_name,middle_name, last_name,designation,doj,
gender,salary, hod_id,dept_id) VALUES('2765', 'Grish', 'Kumar',
'Sharma', 'Assistant Professor', '01-02-2015', 'Male', 62000,
'2765', 'D05');
INSERT INTO faculty(faculty_id,first_name, last_name,designation,doj,
gender,salary, hod_id,dept_id) VALUES('1734', 'Nidhi', 'Bhatia',
'Assistant Professor', '06-07-2016', 'Female', 56000, '1987',
'D03');

INSERT INTO student(roll_no,first_name,last_name,dob,

gender,house_no,street_name,city, state,pincode,dept_id, section_name)
VALUES('191306280', 'Aayushi', 'Mishra', '12-03-2002', 'Female',
'243', 'Shahdra', 'Delhi', 'Delhi', '110063', 'D01', 'A');
INSERT INTO
student(roll_no,first_name,middle_name,last_name,dob,gender,house_no,street_name,city,
state,pincode,dept_id, section_name) VALUES('191006345','Satynder', 'Kumar',
'Bhatia', '15-06-2001', 'Male', 'B/35', 'Kavi Nagar',
'Ghaziabad', 'Uttar Pradesh', '200100', 'D01', 'B');
INSERT INTO student(roll_no,first_name,last_name,dob,
gender,house_no,street_name,city, state,pincode,dept_id, section_name)
VALUES('190006876', 'Nikhil','Gupta', '22-07-2000', 'Male', 'G/67',
'Shahi Road', 'Shimla', 'Himachal Pradesh', '223344', 'D02', 'A');
INSERT INTO student(roll_no,first_name,last_name,dob,
gender,house_no,street_name,city, state,pincode,dept_id, section_name)
VALUES('191306286', 'Swati', 'Srivastava', '19-12-2001', 'Female', '456',
'Rajpur Road', 'Dehradun', 'Uttarakhand', '114455', 'D02',
'A');
INSERT INTO student(roll_no,first_name,middle_name,last_name,dob,
gender,house_no,street_name,city, state,pincode,dept_id, section_name)
VALUES('191106654', 'Anmol', 'Lal', 'Ranjan', '20-02-2002', 'Male',
'A/987', 'Main Market', 'Mysore', 'Karnataka','102030','D05',
'A');

INSERT INTO student_phone_no VALUES('191306280', '9810012345');

INSERT INTO student_phone_no VALUES('191306280', '9710112345');
INSERT INTO student_phone_no VALUES('191006345', '9732112345');
INSERT INTO student_phone_no VALUES('190006876', '8899453271');
INSERT INTO student_phone_no VALUES('190006876', '6758493021');
INSERT INTO student_phone_no VALUES('190006876', '9876534567');
INSERT INTO student_phone_no VALUES('191106654', '9823451901');

INSERT INTO student_hobby VALUES('191306280','Technical');

INSERT INTO student_hobby VALUES('191006345','Non-Technical');
INSERT INTO student_hobby VALUES('190006876','Technical');
INSERT INTO student_hobby VALUES('191306286','Non-Technical');
INSERT INTO student_hobby VALUES('191106654','Technical');
INSERT INTO research_project(researchproj_id,researchproj_name,duration,
sponsor_agency,status) VALUES('RP101','Attendance using ML', '6
Months','Government', 'Complete');
INSERT INTO research_project(researchproj_id,researchproj_name,duration,
sponsor_agency,status) VALUES('RP102', 'Electrical Vehical Design ','9
Months', 'Government', 'Ongoing');
INSERT INTO research_project(researchproj_id,researchproj_name,duration,
sponsor_agency,status) VALUES('RP103','Car Electric Battery Storage System',
'12 Months', 'Self', 'Complete');
INSERT INTO research_project(researchproj_id,researchproj_name,duration,
sponsor_agency,status) VALUES('RP104', 'Road Crack identification System',
'15 Months', 'Government', 'Ongoing');
INSERT INTO research_project(researchproj_id,researchproj_name,duration,
sponsor_agency,status) VALUES('RP105', 'Chip design for wireless system', '10
Months', 'Self', 'Ongoing');

INSERT INTO mini_project(miniproj_id,miniproj_name,domain,subject,description,roll_no)

VALUES('MP001','Recommender System', 'Artificial Intelligence', 'Machine
Learning', 'It seeks to predict the rating a user would give to an
item.','191306280');
INSERT INTO mini_project(miniproj_id,miniproj_name,domain,subject,description,roll_no)
VALUES('MP002', 'Malware detection System', 'Network Security', 'Cryptography',
' Malware has become a big risk in todays time','191006345');
INSERT INTO mini_project(miniproj_id,miniproj_name,domain,subject,description,roll_no)
VALUES('MP003','Tumor detection System', 'Artificial Intelligence', 'Deep Learning',
'AI is used to construct models to predict any kind of tumor','190006876');
INSERT INTO mini_project(miniproj_id,miniproj_name,domain,subject,description,roll_no)
VALUES('MP004', 'Supply chain management', 'Blockchain', 'HyperLedger',
'The management of the flow of goods and services','191306286');
INSERT INTO mini_project(miniproj_id,miniproj_name,domain,subject,description,roll_no)
VALUES('MP005', 'Opinion Mining', 'Artificial Intelligence', 'Machine
Learning', 'It is a text analysis technique that uses computational linguistics and
natural language processing','191106654');

INSERT INTO student_course VALUES('191306280', 'KCS301');

INSERT INTO student_course VALUES('191006345', 'KCS301');
INSERT INTO student_course VALUES('191006345', 'KCS401');
INSERT INTO student_course VALUES('191306286', 'KEC301');
INSERT INTO student_course VALUES('190006876', 'KEC301');
INSERT INTO student_course VALUES('191306286', 'KAS101');
INSERT INTO student_course VALUES('191106654', 'KME502');
INSERT INTO student_course VALUES('191106654', 'KAS101');

INSERT INTO faculty_course VALUES('1231', 'KCS301');

INSERT INTO faculty_course VALUES('1231', 'KCS401');
INSERT INTO faculty_course VALUES('9765', 'KCS401');
INSERT INTO faculty_course VALUES('1987', 'KEC301');
INSERT INTO faculty_course VALUES('1987', 'KAS101');
INSERT INTO faculty_course VALUES('2765', 'KME502');
INSERT INTO faculty_course VALUES('1734', 'KAS101');

INSERT INTO faculty_research_project VALUES('1231', 'RP101');

INSERT INTO faculty_research_project VALUES('1231', 'RP102');
INSERT INTO faculty_research_project VALUES('1987', 'RP103');
INSERT INTO faculty_research_project VALUES('1734', 'RP104');
INSERT INTO faculty_research_project VALUES('1734', 'RP105');
INSERT INTO faculty_research_project VALUES('1734', 'RP101');
 DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
DBMS GROUP
 UNIT-2
STRUCTURED QUERY
LANGUAGE(SQL)

Table of Contents
6.1 Introduction to SQL ................................................................................................................... 4
6.2 Introduction to various RDBMS Software.................................................................................. 5
6.3 Creating and using Database ..................................................................................................... 5
6.4 Managing Tables using DDL Statements in SQL ...................................................................... 11
6.4.1 Using CREATE TABLE statement ......................................................................................... 12
6.4.2 Using ALTER TABLE statement............................................................................................ 15
6.4.3 Using DROP TABLE statement ............................................................................................ 18
6.4.4 Creating tables from case study using data dictionary ....................................................... 19
6.5 Managing Data using DML Statements in SQL ......................................................................... 25
6.5.1 Inserting data using INSERT Statement ............................................................................ 25
6.5.2 Retrieving data using the SELECT statement..................................................................... 26
6.5.3 Restricting data access using WHERE clause ..................................................................... 27
6.5.5 Deleting data using DELETE Statement ............................................................................. 41
6.5.6 Constraint violation using DML Statements...................................................................... 41
6.6 Sorting Data using ORDER BY .................................................................................................. 45
6.7 Using Single-row Functions to Customize Output.................................................................... 48
6.7.1. CHARACTER Functions ...................................................................................................... 49
6.7.1.1 CASE Manipulation function ...................................................................................... 49
6.7.1.2 CHARACTER Manipulation function ........................................................................... 50
6.7.2 NUMBER Functions........................................................................................................... 53
6.7.3 DATE Functions................................................................................................................. 55
6.7.4 GENERAL Functions .......................................................................................................... 58
6.7.5 Conditional Expression ..................................................................................................... 60
6.7.6 CONVERSION Functions .................................................................................................... 61
6.8 Reporting Aggregated Data Using the Aggregate Functions .................................................... 64
6.9 Retrieving Data from Multiple Tables ....................................................................................... 74
6.9.1 Using Comma Operator .................................................................................................... 74
6.9.2 Using SQL Joins ................................................................................................................ 76
6.10 Retrieving data using Subqueries ......................................................................................... 82
6.11 Using Set Operators ................................................................................................................ 90
6.12 Working with Views ................................................................................................................ 96
6.13 Working with Sequences ...................................................................................................... 103
6.14 Controlling user access with DCL Statements ....................................................................... 105
6.15 Transaction Control using TCL Statements ........................................................................ 108
6.15.1 COMMIT Statement ...................................................................................................... 108
6.15.2 SAVEPOINT Statement .................................................................................................. 109
6.16 Exporting data to CSV Format ............................................................................................... 111
6.17 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 117
6.1 Introduction to SQL

Structured Query Language (SQL) is a database query language used for storing and managing
data by a Relational Database Management System (RDBMS). It is a common language used
for interacting with an RDBMS. It provides a set of commands called SQL statements to
perform various database operations like
 Creation of tables
 Insert, update, delete and display the records
 Controlling the user access
 Managing transactions during insertion, updation and deletion of records

The SQL statements use a set of keywords defined by it like CREATE, ALTER, DROP, INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE, SELECT, WHERE; to perform the desired actions. It is a case insensitive
language, but for better understanding the syntax and usage of SQL statements, we generally
write the keywords in capital letters and other elements in small letters.

Some keywords are common to all RDBMS, but some keywords can be particular to an
RDBMS. In this unit, we are going to discuss three RDBMS software; Oracle, SQL Server and
MySQL; that are used by most of database professionals and learners. You need to take care
of the common and specific keywords while working on an RDBMS. We will provide you
details of such keywords wherever required.
These SQL statements are divided into four major categories depending on their actions.
 To manage the structure of the tables, SQL provides the statements called DDL
statements, where DDL stands for Data Definition Language. The main keywords
under DDL are CREATE, ALTER and DROP.
 To manage the records inside the tables, SQL provides the statements called DML
statements, where DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. The main keywords
under DML are INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and SELECT.
 To manage the user access control, SQL provides the statements called DCL, where
DCL stands for Data Control Language. The main keywords under DCL are GRANT and
REVOKE.
 To manage the changes made by DML statements in the database, SQL provides the
statements called TCL statements, where TCL stands for Transaction Control
Language. The main keywords under TCL are COMMIT, ROLLBACK and SAVEPOINT.

All such keywords will be covered in detail inside various sections of this unit.
6.2 Introduction to various RDBMS Software

There are many RDBMS software available to manage the data using SQL. Some of them are;
Oracle Database, Microsoft SQL Server, MySQL, IBM DB2, PostgreSQL and MariaDB.

From the given set of RDBMS, we have selected the first three RDBMS to discuss in this unit;
Oracle Database, Microsoft SQL Server and MySQL.

The SQL Server is an RDBMS developed by Microsoft. You can download the latest available
SQL Server Express and Microsoft SQL Server Management Studio from the website for
Microsoft using the following URL
https://www.microsoft.com/en-in/sql-server/sql-server-downloads

The Oracle Database, simply called Oracle, is an RDBMS developed by Oracle Corporation.
You can download the latest available version of Oracle Database from the following URL
https://www.oracle.com/in/downloads

MySQL is an open-source RDBMS. You can download the latest available software from the
following URL
https://dev.mysql.com/downloads

Once the software is ready in your machine, you need to create a database to manage the
records using various database elements like tables, view, stored procedures, triggers, etc.

6.3 Creating and using Database

When we require to manage the records in a database using some RDBMS, we must have a
database. The database stores all your records using a set of tables. Before creating any table,
we need to create a database.

Some RDBMS provides a graphical way to create and use the databases and others may
provide the SQL statements.

Let us create a database named SMS, to manage the tables as per our case study titled
Student Management System.

Creating a database in MS SQL Server

Start Microsoft SQL Server Management Studio software. Right Click on Databases inside the
Object Explorer window to get a popup menu and click on the first option New Database.
Now give the database name as SMS and click the Ok button at the bottom of the dialog.

It creates a database in the name of SMS for you that you can see inside the Object Explorer.
Creating a database in Oracle

First, launch the SQL*plus program using SYS user with SYSDBA role and giving the password
given at the time of Oracle installation. Here DBA stands for Database Administrator.

It gives to SQL prompt (SQL>) to write the SQL statements.

Now connect with the default database XEPDB1 created at the time of installation using the
following SQL statement at SQL Prompt (SQL>).

Don't type SQL> as mentioned in the statement. It is already typed by the software.

SQL> ALTER SESSION SET CONTAINER = xepdb1;

Create a new user to work with. Oracle RDBMS automatically creates a new database for that
user. Use the following SQL statement to create a user user1 with the password 123456

SQL> CREATE USER user1 IDENTIFIED BY 123456;

Now give the permissions to the newly created user to work with the Oracle RDBMS. In
technical terminology, it is called Grant the privileges. Use SQL statement GRANT to grant
the privileges. It will be discussed later in detail in subsequent sections.

SQL> GRANT CONNECT, RESOURCE, DBA TO user1;

All these SQL statements are shown in the following figure.

Now close the SQ*Plus software and restart it to log in with the newly created username
user1 with the given password 123456 in the sysdba role.

Creating a database in MySQL

First, start the MySQL Workbench software and double click on available Local instance
MySQL80
Enter the password given at the time of installation and check the checkbox to save the
password

Once your MySQL Workbench software is ready, now we can create a query window where
we can write the SQL statements.

Type the following SQL statement inside the available query window, select it and execute it
to create the database SMS.

CREATE DATABASE sms;

Now we are ready to create our tables in all the RDBMS and work with SQL statements to
store and manage our data as per the case study or your own choice.
Using a database

Before doing any operation on a database, we need to select that database. Different RDBMS
provide different ways to use the current database.

Using database in Oracle RDBMS

To use a database in Oracle, follow the following steps

 Start the Oracle SQL Developer Software
 From the home screen, click on the button "Create a Connection Manually".

 It opens a dialog to create or select a connection. Select the connection ABESEC as

discussed in Appendix A: Installation of Oracle. Click on the Test button to check it and
Connect button to connect it.
  It opens a query window to write and execute the SQL statements.

Using database in SQL Server

Right click on the SMS database in the Object Explorer window to get the context menu and
select New Query option to open a window to write and execute SQL Statements.

Using database in MySQL

Use the USE statement to make a database as the current database. Write the following
statement and execute it to make the SMS database the current database.

USE sms;

6.4 Managing Tables using DDL Statements in SQL

Data Definition Language (DLL) provides the SQL statements to work on the structure of tables
and other elements like Views, Stored Procedures, Triggers and Indexes that will be discussed
in the following sections and units.
To work with the structure of the tables, DDL provides three statements
  CREATE TABLE
 ALTER TABLE
 DROP TABLE
Some RDBMS also provides the graphical tools to create the tables and generate the SQL
statements as a background process. We will learn both ways, but to better understand the
concept, we must start with understanding and writing the SQL statements and later use the
GUI tools to accomplish a task quickly.

6.4.1 Using CREATE TABLE statement

The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table inside the current database. In
general, it requires three elements
 Column names
 Data type of columns
 Maximum allowed size in a column
General Syntax of CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column_name1 datatype(size),

column_name2 datatype(size),

);

Data Types in SQL

SQL does not provide its own data types. The data types are specific to an RDBMS that we are
using to manage our data. Some commonly used data type names used by different RDBMS
are CHAR, VARCHAR, VARCHAR2, NUMBER, INT, FLOAT, DATE, DATETIME and TIMESTAMP.

The CHAR and VARCHAR data types are used to store string type data but with a bit of
difference. The CHAR data type is used to store fixed-length strings, e.g., pincode, mobile. In
general, the pincode is stored in 6 digits and the mobile number is stored in 10 digits. The
VARCHAR data type is used to store variable-length strings, e.g., address.

Difference between CHAR and VARCHAR

 CHAR stands for "Character" while VARCHAR stands for "Variable Character".
 CHAR take 1 byte for each character while VARCHAR take 1 byte for each character
and some extra bytes for holding length information
 CHAR datatype is used to store character strings of fixed length, while VARCHAR
datatype is used to store character strings of variable length
  In CHAR, If the length of a string is less than set or fixed length, then it is padded with
extra memory space, while in VARCHAR, if the length of a string is less than set or fixed
length, then it will store as it is without padded with extra memory spaces.
 The storage size of CHAR data type is equal to n bytes, i.e., set length, while the
Storage size of VARCHAR datatype is equal to the actual length of the entered string
in bytes.
 CHAR offers better performance as compared to VARCHAR

Difference between VARCHAR and VARCHAR2

To manage the variable-length strings, SQL Server and MySQL provide VARCHAR data type
while Oracle provides VARCHAR2 data type.
The default length for VARCHAR2 is 4000 bytes which can go up to 32767 bytes.
VARCHAR uses a total of 65535 bytes where the first two bytes store the length of the string
and 65533 bytes to store the data.
If we use VARCHAR inside the Oracle, it treats it as a pseudotype for VARCHAR2. While using
oracle prefer to use VARCHAR2 rather than VARCHAR.

Different RDBMS generate a different version of SQL based on their own data types. The
SQL editors also have different colors and fonts.

Creating a table using CREATE TABLE statement

Example

Create a table book having four columns; bookno as integer number with max limit of 9999,
title as variable length string with max size of 50 characters long, status as fixed-length string
of 1 character, price as the floating number with max limit 9999.99.

SQL Statement | Oracle

CREATE TABLE book(bookno NUMBER(4), title VARCHAR(50), status CHAR(1), price
NUMBER(7,2));

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL

CREATE TABLE book(bookno INT, title VARCHAR(50), status CHAR(1), price FLOAT);

If you see the above SQL statements, Oracle has NUMBER data type for storing integer and floating
values while SQL Server and MySQL have INT data type for integer type numeric values and FLOAT
data type for floating type numeric values.
Creating a table with constraints

While creating a table for business applications, we need to apply the business rules
(restrictions or constraints) on the tables. The CREATE TABLE statement also requires a fourth
element called constraint. Each business rule or constraint can be given a name using the
CONSTRAINT keyword. It is optional but suggested to have the constraint names for better
database design and allow making changes in the rules later if required.

Now we will have four elements.

 Column names
 Data type of columns
 Maximum allowed size in a column
 Constraints

Constraints can be applied to column level or table level both. At the column level, constraints
are applied to the column, i.e., immediately after defining the length of the column. While in
table level, constraints are applied after declaring all the column(s), i.e., at the end. We can
also use a combination of both column or table level constraints during table creation. The
same is discussed in the syntax mentioned below:

CREATE TABLE with column level constraints

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column_name1 datatype(size) [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint,
column_name2 datatype(size) [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint,
…
);

CREATE TABLE with table level constraints

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column_name1 datatype(size) [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint,
column_name2 datatype(size) [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] constraint,
…,
CONSTRAINT constraint_name constraint
);

Example

Create a table book having four columns; bookno as integer number with max limit of 9999,
title as variable length string with max size of 50 characters long, status as fixed-length string
of 1 character, price as a floating number with max limit 9999.99.
Apply the following constraints on different columns of the book table. The bookno is a
PRIMARY KEY, title cannot be NULL, status has default value Y and price cannot be NULL and
should be greater than 0.

Column Level Constraints

SQL Statement | SQL Server

CREATE TABLE book (

bookno INT PRIMARY KEY,
title VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
status CHAR(1) DEFAULT 'Y',
price FLOAT NOT NULL CHECK(price>0)
);

Table Level Constraints with Constraint Names

SQL Statement | SQL Server

CREATE TABLE book (

bookno INT,
title VARCHAR(50) CONSTRAINT book_title_nn NOT NULL,
status CHAR(1) CONSTRAINT book_status_d DEFAULT 'Y',
price FLOAT CONSTRAINT book_price_nn NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT book_bookno_pk PRIMARY KEY(bookno),
CONSTRAINT book_price_chk CHECK(price>0)
);

6.4.2 Using ALTER TABLE statement

 ALTER TABLE is used to add, delete, modify or rename columns in an existing table
 ALTER TABLE is also used to add, modify and drop various constraints on an existing
table
 ALTER TABLE is also used to enable or disable the imposed constraint on the table

Adding a column in a table

We can add more columns in the table if required.

Syntax | SQL Server | Oracle | MySQL

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;

Example: Add a new column author in the table book.

SQL Statement | SQL Server | Oracle | MySQL

ALTER TABLE book ADD author VARCHAR(50);
Dropping a column from a table

We can remove a column from an existing table.

Syntax | SQL Server | Oracle | MySQL

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;

Example: Drop the column author from book table

SQL Statement | SQL Server | Oracle | MySQL

ALTER TABLE book DROP COLUMN author;

Modifying a column in a table

We can modify the data type and size of a column.

Syntax | SQL Server

ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER COLUMN column_name;

Syntax | Oracle and MySQL

ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name;

Example: modify the size of title column to 100

SQL Statement | SQL Server
ALTER TABLE book ALTER COLUMN title VARCHAR(100);

SQL Statement | Oracle and MySQL

ALTER TABLE book MODIFY title VARCHAR(100);

Adding a constraint

We can apply the constraints even after creating the tables using ADD CONSTRAINT with
ALTER TABLE.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name constaint(column_list);

Example: Add a UNIQUE constraint on title column in book table and name the constraint as
book_title_u

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

ALTER TABLE book ADD CONSTRAINT book_title_u UNIQUE(title);
Dropping a constraint

We can remove a named constraint from a table using DROP CONSTRAINT with ALTER TABLE.
Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP CONSTRAINT constraint_name;

Example: Remove the constraint book_title_u from book table

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
ALTER TABLE book DROP CONSTRAINT book_title_u;

Modifying a constraint

We cannot modify an existing constraint but we can modify the NULL and NOT NULL
constraints if required.

Syntax | SQL Server

ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER COLUMN column_name NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER COLUMN column_name NULL;

Syntax | Oracle | MySQL

ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name NULL;

Example: Apply NULL or NOT NULL constraint on title column of book table

SQL Statement | SQL Server

ALTER TABLE book ALTER COLUMN title VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE book ALTER COLUMN title VARCHAR(100) NULL;

SQL Statement | Oracle | MySQL

ALTER TABLE book MODIFY title VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL;
ALTER TABLE book MODIFY title VARCHAR(100) NULL;

Enable| Disable constraints

There are multiple ways to disable constraints in Oracle.

 The ALTER TABLE with DISABLE CONSTRAINS syntax can be used to disable constraints
in Oracle

Syntax | Oracle
ALTER TABLE table_name DISABLE CONSTRAINT constraint_name;
ALTER TABLE table_name ENABLE CONSTRAINT constraint_name;
Example 1: Add a UNIQUE constraint book_title_u on title column of book table.
SQL Statement | Oracle
ALTER TABLE book ADD CONSTRAINT book_title_u UNIQUE(title);

Example 2: Disable the constraint book_title_u

SQL Statement | Oracle
ALTER TABLE book DISABLE CONSTRAINT book_title_u;

Example 3: Enable the constraint book_title_u

SQL Statement | Oracle
ALTER TABLE book ENABLE CONSTRAINT book_title_u;

Renaming a column
SQL Server RDBMS do not support renaming of columns via SQL statement. We need to
drop a column and add new column. But Oracle and MySQL support renaming the columns.

Syntax | Oracle | MySQL

ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME COLUMN old_column_name TO new_column_name;

Example: Rename the column title of book table to booktitle

SQL Statement | Oracle | MySQL
ALTER TABLE book RENAME COLUMN title TO booktitle;

6.4.3 Using DROP TABLE statement

The DROP TABLE statement is used to delete a table from a database including its records.
Table once deleted cannot be recovered. Use this statement very carefully.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

DROP TABLE table_name;

Example: Drop the table book with all its records

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
DROP TABLE book;
6.4.4 Creating tables from case study using data dictionary

Creating the department table with defined constraints

SQL Statement | SQL Server | Oracle | MySQL

CREATE TABLE department(

dept_id CHAR(3) PRIMARY KEY,
dept_name CHAR(5) UNIQUE NOT NULL,
dept_location VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL
);

You can have a look at Microsoft SQL Management Studio, Oracle SQL Developer, MySQL
Workbench, where you have to actually write and execute these SQL statements in the
following figures.
Creating the course table with defined constraints

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL

CREATE TABLE course(
course_id CHAR(6) PRIMARY KEY,
course_name VARCHAR(50) UNIQUE NOT NULL,
course_credit INT NOT NULL,
dept_id CHAR(3) NOT NULL REFERENCES department(dept_id)
);

SQL Statement | Oracle

CREATE TABLE course(
course_id CHAR(6) PRIMARY KEY,
course_name VARCHAR(50) UNIQUE NOT NULL,
course_credit NUMBER(2) NOT NULL,
dept_id CHAR(3) NOT NULL REFERENCES department(dept_id)
);

Creating section table with defined constraints

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL

CREATE TABLE section(
dept_id CHAR(3) NOT NULL,
section_name CHAR(1) NOT NULL,
max_capacity INT NOT NULL,
student_nos INT DEFAULT 0,
CONSTRAINT section_deptid_fk FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES
department(dept_id),
 CONSTRAINT section_deptid_sectionname_cpk PRIMARY KEY (dept_id,section_name)
);

SQL Statement | Oracle

CREATE TABLE section(
dept_id CHAR(3) NOT NULL,
section_name CHAR(1) NOT NULL,
max_capacity NUMBER(3) NOT NULL,
student_nos NUMBER(3) DEFAULT 0,
CONSTRAINT section_deptid_fk FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES
department(dept_id),
CONSTRAINT section_deptid_sectionname_cpk PRIMARY KEY (dept_id,section_name)
);

Creating faculty table with defined constraints

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL

CREATE TABLE faculty(
faculty_id CHAR(4) PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
middle_name VARCHAR(20),
last_name VARCHAR(20),
designation VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
doj DATE NOT NULL,
gender CHAR(6) NOT NULL CHECK(gender IN ('Male','Female','Trans')),
salary INT NOT NULL CHECK (salary>0),
dept_id CHAR(3) NOT NULL,
hod_id CHAR(4),
FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES department(dept_id),
FOREIGN KEY (hod_id) REFERENCES faculty(faculty_id)
);

SQL Statement | Oracle

CREATE TABLE faculty(
faculty_id CHAR(4) PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
middle_name VARCHAR(20),
last_name VARCHAR(20),
designation VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
doj DATE NOT NULL,
gender CHAR(6) NOT NULL CHECK(gender IN ('Male','Female','Trans')),
salary NUMBER NOT NULL CHECK (salary>0),
dept_id CHAR(3) NOT NULL,
 hod_id CHAR(4),
FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES department(dept_id),
FOREIGN KEY (hod_id) REFERENCES faculty(faculty_id)
);

While using CHECK constraints, we have used IN operator for domain check and relational
operator (>) for comparison. Operators will be discussed in detail in later sections.

Creating student table with defined constraints

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL | Oracle

CREATE TABLE student(
roll_no CHAR(15) PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL,
middle_name VARCHAR(15),
last_name VARCHAR(15),
dob DATE NOT NULL,
gender CHAR(6) NOT NULL CHECK(gender IN ('Male','Female','Trans')),
house_no VARCHAR(25) NOT NULL,
street_name VARCHAR(25) NOT NULL,
city VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
state VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
pincode CHAR(6) NOT NULL,
dept_id CHAR(3) NOT NULL,
section_name CHAR(1) NOT NULL,
FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES department(dept_id),
FOREIGN KEY (dept_id,section_name) REFERENCES section(dept_id,section_name)
);

Creating mini_project table with defined constraints

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL | Oracle
CREATE TABLE mini_project(
miniproj_id CHAR(5) PRIMARY KEY,
miniproj_name VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE NOT NULL,
domain VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
subject VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
description VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,
roll_no CHAR(15) REFERENCES student(roll_no)
);

Creating research_project table with defined constraints

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL | Oracle

CREATE TABLE research_project(
researchproj_id CHAR(5) PRIMARY KEY,
researchproj_name VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,
duration VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL,
sponsor_agency VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL CHECK (sponsor_agency IN
('Government','Self')),
status VARCHAR(20) NOT NULL CHECK(status IN ('Complete','Ongoing'))
);

Creating student_phone_no table with defined constraints

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL | Oracle

CREATE TABLE student_phone_no(
roll_no CHAR(15) NOT NULL REFERENCES student(roll_no),
phone_no CHAR(10) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (roll_no,phone_no)
);

Creating faculty_course table with defined constraints

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL | Oracle

CREATE TABLE faculty_course(
faculty_id CHAR(4) NOT NULL,
course_id CHAR(6) NOT NULL,
FOREIGN KEY (faculty_id) REFERENCES faculty(faculty_id),
FOREIGN KEY (course_id) REFERENCES course(course_id),
PRIMARY KEY (faculty_id,course_id)
 );

Creating student_course table with defined constraints

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL | Oracle

CREATE TABLE student_course(

roll_no CHAR(15) NOT NULL,
course_id CHAR(6) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT studentcourse_rollno_fk FOREIGN KEY (roll_no) REFERENCES
student(roll_no),
CONSTRAINT studentcourse_courseid_fk FOREIGN KEY (course_id) REFERENCES
course(course_id),
CONSTRAINT studentcourse_rollno_courseid_cpk PRIMARY KEY (roll_no,course_id)
);

Creating student_hobby table with defined constraints

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL | Oracle

CREATE TABLE student_hobby(
roll_no CHAR(15) NOT NULL REFERENCES student(roll_no),
hobby VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL CHECK (hobby IN ('Technical','Non-Technical')),
CONSTRAINT studenthobby_rollno_hobby_cpk PRIMARY KEY (roll_no,hobby)
);

Creating faculty_research_project table with defined constraints

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL | Oracle

CREATE TABLE faculty_research_project(
faculty_id CHAR(4) NOT NULL,
researchproj_id CHAR(5) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT facultyresearchproject_facultyid_fk FOREIGN KEY (faculty_id)
REFERENCES faculty(faculty_id),
CONSTRAINT facultyresearchproject_researchprojectid_fk FOREIGN KEY
(researchproj_id) REFERENCES research_project(researchproj_id),
CONSTRAINT facultyresearchproject_facultyid_reseachprojectid_cpk PRIMARY KEY
(faculty_id,researchproj_id)
);
6.5 Managing Data using DML Statements in SQL

Once the structure of tables is created, now we can insert, update, delete and select the data.
All such operations together are called CRUD operations, where CRUD stands for Create,
Read, Update and Delete.
SQL statements used to perform such operations are known as DML statements, where DML
stands for Data Manipulation Language. There are four statements under DML.
 INSERT
 UPDATE
 DELETE
 SELECT

The INSERT statement is used to insert the records in the table, the UPDATE statement is used
to modify the records, DELETE statement is used to delete the records and SELECT statement
is used to display the records.

6.5.1 Inserting data using INSERT Statement

The INSERT statement is used to insert new records in the tables using different syntaxes
depending on requirements.

Syntax 1: Inserting data in all columns of the table

 When inserting data in all columns of the table, there is no need to specify the column
names.
 For better clarity, we can also add the column names in the SQL statement but not
required while inserting data in all columns of the table.
 Enclose the string and date/time date in single quotes.

INSERT INTO table_name [(column_list)] VALUES (value1, value2,…);

Example 1 | without using column names

INSERT INTO department VALUES('D01','CS','Aryabhatta Block');

Example 2 | using column names

INSERT INTO department(dept_id,dept_name,dept_location)
VALUES('D01','CS','Aryabhatta Block');

Syntax 2: Inserting data in specified columns

 We can also insert the data in specified columns only, but we can leave only those
columns that are allowed to have NULL values, i.e., NOT NULL constraint is not applied.
 Here we must specify the names of the columns.
The section table has four columns, but student_nos column does not have NOT NULL
constraint and also has DEFAULT constraint applied to it. If we do not specify this column
while inserting the record, RDBMS automatically inserts the default value in that column.

Example
INSERT INTO section (section_name,max_capacity,dept_id) VALUES('A',70,'D01');

Now we can insert the sample records given in "Appendix B: SQL Script for SMS Case Study
using Oracle” of Unit 3 into our tables to understand the concept better.

6.5.2 Retrieving data using the SELECT statement

Once the data get inserted into the tables, we can retrieve it and display it. SELECT command
is used to retrieve or fetch the stored data. There are broadly four ways to retrieve data:
 All columns with all records
 Specific column with all records
 Specific columns with selected set of records.
 All columns with selected sets of records.

Let us discuss the syntax of each:

Syntax 1: Retrieving all columns with all records

SELECT * FROM table_name;

Example
SELECT * FROM department;
Output
DEPT_ID DEPT_NAME DEPT_LOCATION
D01 CS Aryabhatta Block
D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
D03 IT Aryabhatta Block
D04 CSE-DS Bhabha Block
D05 ME Ramanujan Block

Syntax 2: Retrieving specific columns with all records

SELECT column_list FROM table_name;

Example
SELECT dept_id,dept_name FROM department;
Output
DEPT_ID DEPT_NAME
D01 CS
D02 CSE
D03 IT
D04 CSE-DS
D05 ME

Syntax 3: Retrieving specific columns with selected set of records

To select the selected set of records, we need to specify the condition. The SQL will retrieve
only those records which satisfy the given condition. We need to specify the WHERE clause
with SELECT statements to specify the condition.
SELECT column_list FROM table_name WHERE condition;

Such syntax of data access is called restricted data access and explained in section 5.6.3

Syntax 4: Retrieving all columns with selected set of records

SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE condition;

Example
SELECT * FROM department WHERE pincode = '110063';

6.5.3 Restricting data access using WHERE clause

The WHERE clause is used to limit the number of records retrieved from a table. It is used to
select a set of records based on given conditions.

Syntax | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT * | {[DISTINCT] column/expression [alias],..….. } FROM table [WHERE
condition(s)]

In the syntax,
WHERE: restricts the query to the records that meet a condition.
Condition(s) : is composed of a column names, expressions, constants and operators i.e.
column|expression operator values

Limiting the Rows that are selected

WHERE clause may contain one or more than one condition that must be satisfied, and it
appears immediately after FROM clause. If the condition evaluates to true, the records
meeting the condition are returned.

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT roll_no, first_name, pincode FROM student WHERE pincode = '110063';
Output
ROLL_NO FIRST_NAME PINCODE
191306280 Aayushi 110063
Explanation: In the example, SELECT statement fetches the roll_no, first_name and pincode
for all student those have pincode='110063'

Removing Duplication Records

Sometimes we may result in duplicate records. If we want to get unique copy of the record,
then we can use DISTINCT command.

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT DISTINCT last_name FROM faculty;

Character Strings and Dates

 Always use single quotation marks for character strings and date values.
 Date values are format sensitive and character values are case sensitive because every
character has ASCII value.

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT roll_no, first_name, dept_id FROM student WHERE dept_id = 'D01';
Output
ROLL_NO FIRST_NAME DEPT_ID
191306280 Aayushi D01
191006345 Satynder D01
Explanation: In the example, the SELECT statement retrieves the roll_no, first_name and
dept_id of all student those who are in department = 'D01'.

Arithmetic Operator

The table below lists the arithmetic operators that are available in SQL.

Table 1
Operator Description
+ Add
- Subtract
* Multiply
/ Divide
 Arithmetic operators can be used in any clause of a SQL statement ( except the FROM
clause)
 With the DATE and TIMESTAMP data types, only addition and subtraction operators
will work.

Using Arithmetic Operator

 1) + : Add operator

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT first_name, designation,salary, salary+5000 FROM faculty WHERE designation
= 'Assistant Professor';
Output
FIRST_NAME DESIGNATION SALARY SALARY+5000
Ram Assistant Professor 54000 59000
Grish Assistant Professor 62000 67000
Nidhi Assistant Professor 56000 61000
Shyam Assistant Professor 57000 62000
Gagan Assistant Professor 52000 57000
Ashutosh Assistant Professor 76000 81000
Ankur Assistant Professor 56000 61000
Ashutosh Assistant Professor 57000 62000
Elina Assistant Professor 55000 60000
Explanation: In the example, the SELECT statement retrieves the first_name, designation and
salary and incremented salary with an amount of Rs. 5000 for all faculties working as
'Assistant Professor'. Here assistant professor is the value of designation column, which is a
kind of condition to meet in order to provide increment to only those who are working as an
assistant professor, hence passed in WHERE clause. Moreover, the increment can be given by
adding Rs. 5000 to the salary column.

2) -: Subtract operator

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT first_name, designation,salary, salary-10000 FROM faculty WHERE designation
= 'Associate Professor';
Output
FIRST_NAME DESIGNATION SALARY SALARY-10000
Laxman Associate Professor 72000 62000
Mala Associate Professor 70300 60300
Aakash Associate Professor 63000 53000
Sneha Associate Professor 76000 66000
Babita Associate Professor 70000 60000
Explanation: In the example, the SELECT statement retrieves first_name, designation, salary
and the new salary of all Assistant Professor. Here new salary is computed by subtracting Rs.
10000 from the existing salary, i.e., Salary-10000.

3) *: Multiply operator

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT first_name, designation,salary, salary*1.15 FROM faculty WHERE designation =
'Associate Professor';
Output
FIRST_NAME DESIGNATION SALARY SALARY*1.15
Laxman Associate Professor 72000 82800
Mala Associate Professor 70300 80845
Aakash Associate Professor 63000 72450
Sneha Associate Professor 76000 87400
Babita Associate Professor 70000 80500
Explanation: In the example, the SELECT statement retrieves the first_name, designation,
salary and new salary for those faculties who are working as Assistant Professors. Here 15%
of the salary is added into the salary column in order to calculate the new salary, i.e., salary+
salary*.15 or salary*1.15.

4) / : Divide Operator

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT first_name, designation,salary, salary/2 FROM faculty WHERE designation =
'Assistant Professor';
Output
FIRST_NAME DESIGNATION SALARY SALARY/2
Ram Assistant Professor 54000 27000
Grish Assistant Professor 62000 31000
Nidhi Assistant Professor 56000 28000
Shyam Assistant Professor 57000 28500
Gagan Assistant Professor 52000 26000
Ashutosh Assistant Professor 76000 38000
Ankur Assistant Professor 56000 28000
Ashutosh Assistant Professor 57000 28500
Elina Assistant Professor 55000 27500
Explanation: Division operator is used with salary column. SELECT statement retrieves the
first_name, designation, salary and decremented salary of each Assistant Professor by 50%,
i.e., salary/2.

Rules Operator Precedence

 Multiplication and division occur before addition and subtraction

 Operators of the same priority are evaluated from left to right.
 Parentheses are used to override the default precedence or to clarify the statement.

Operator Precedence

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT first_name,salary, 12*salary+100 FROM faculty WHERE designation = 'Assistant
Professor';
Output
FIRST_NA SALARY 12*SALARY+100
Ram 54000 648100
Grish 62000 744100
Nidhi 56000 672100
Shyam 57000 684100
Gagan 52000 624100
Ashutosh 76000 912100
Ankur 56000 672100
Ashutosh 57000 684100
Elina 55000 660100
Explanation: In the example, select statement displays first_name, salary and annual
compensation of faculty from the faculty table where designation as Assistant Professor.
It calculates the annual compensation by multiplying the monthly salary of faculty by 12 and
then adding the one-time bonus of 100.

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT first_name,salary, 12*(salary+100) FROM faculty WHERE designation =
'Assistant Professor';
Output
FIRST_NAME SALARY 12*(SALARY+100)
Ram 54000 649200
Grish 62000 745200
Nidhi 56000 673200
Shyam 57000 685200
Gagan 52000 625200
Ashutosh 76000 913200
Ankur 56000 673200
Ashutosh 57000 685200
Elina 55000 661200
Explanation: In the example, select statement displays first_name, salary and annual
compensation of faculty from the faculty table where designation as Assistant Professor.
It calculates the annual compensation by adding a one-time bonus of 100 to the monthly
salary first and then multiplying that subtotal by 12.

Concatenation Operator
 Links columns or character strings to other columns.
 Is represented by two vertical bars(||)
 Creates a resultant column that is a character expression.

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT roll_no,first_name,gender,section_name, first_name||gender FROM student
WHERE section_name = 'A';
Output
 191306280 Aayushi Female A AayushiFemale
190006876 Nikhil Male A NikhilMale
191306286 Swati Female A SwatiFemale
191106654 Anmol Male A AnmolMale
191106660 Amit Male A AmitMale
Explanation: In the example, roll_no, first name, gender, section_name along with first_name
and gender are concatenated as first_name|| gender from the student table where each
student belongs to section A.

Comparison Conditions

Comparison conditions are used in conditions in WHERE clause to compare one expression
value to another expression value. Different types of comparison operators with their
meanings are listed in the table below:
Operator Meaning
= Equal To
> Greater Than
>= Greater Than equal to
< Less Than
<= Less Than equal to
<> , ^= , != Not equal to
BETWEEN…..AND….. Between two values (inclusive)
IN(set) Match any set of values
LIKE Match a character pattern
IS NULL Is a Null value

Syntax
…… where expr operator value

Example
…… where dept_id= 'D02'
…… where salary >= 50000

Using Comparison Conditions

1) = : Equal To

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT roll_no, first_name, gender FROM student WHERE gender = 'Male';
Output
ROLL_NO FIRST_NAMEE GENDER
191006345 Satynder Male
190006876 Nikhil Male
191106654 Anmol Male
191106660 Amit Male
Explanation: In the example, the SELECT statement retrieves the roll_no, first_name and
gender of all student those who are ‘Male’.

2) >: Greater Than

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary FROM faculty WHERE salary >54000;
Output
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME SALARY
9765 Laxman 72000
1987 Ayush 100125
2765 Grish 62000
1734 Nidhi 56000
1386 Shyam 57000
1497 Mala 70300
3768 Aakash 63000
1695 Sneha 76000
1123 Ashutosh 76000
1762 Ankur 56000
1793 Babita 70000
1859 Divya 77000
1998 Ashutosh 57000
1711 Elina 55000
Explanation: In the example, the SELECT statement retrieves the faculty_id, first_name and
salary of all faculty members who have salary greater than 54000.

3) >=: Greater Than equal to

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary FROM faculty WHERE salary >=70000;
Output
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME SALARY
9765 Laxman 72000
1987 Ayush 100125
1497 Mala 70300
1695 Sneha 76000
1123 Ashutosh 76000
1793 Babita 70000
1859 Divya 77000

Explanation: In the example, the SELECT statement retrieves the faculty_id, first_name and
salary of all faculty members those have salary greater than and equal to 70000

4) < :Less Than

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

 SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary FROM faculty WHERE salary <70000;
Output
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME SALARY
1231 Ram 54000
2765 Grish 62000
1734 Nidhi 56000
1386 Shyam 57000
2345 Gagan 52000
3768 Aakash 63000
1762 Ankur 56000
1998 Ashutosh 57000
1711 Elina 55000
Explanation: In the example, the SELECT statement retrieves the faculty_id, first_name and
salary of all faculty members who have salary less than 70000.

5) <= :Less Than equal to

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary FROM faculty WHERE salary <=54000;
Output
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME SALARY
1231 Ram 54000
2345 Gagan 52000
Explanation: In the example, the SELECT statement retrieves the faculty_id, first_name and
salary of all faculty members who have salary less than and equal to 54000.

6) <> , ^= , != : Not equal to

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT roll_no, first_name, city FROM student WHERE city !='Delhi';
Output
ROLL_NO FIRST_NAME CITY
191006345 Satynder Ghaziabad
190006876 Nikhil Shimla
191306286 Swati Dehradun
191106654 Anmol Mysore
191106660 Amit Raj Nagar
Explanation: In the example, the SELECT statement retrieves the roll_no, first_name and city
of all students who are not living in city 'Delhi'.

7) BETWEEN…..AND…..: Between two values (inclusive)

 Values that are specified with the BETWEEN operator are inclusive.
  It is also known as the RANGE operator. The range must be specified with a
lower limit followed by an upper limit. Remember, the lower limit must be
specified first.
 BETWEEN operator can be used for character values also.

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary FROM faculty WHERE salary BETWEEN 54000 AND
85000;

Output
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME SALARY
1231 Ram 54000
9765 Laxman 72000
2765 Grish 62000
1734 Nidhi 56000
1386 Shyam 57000
1497 Mala 70300
3768 Aakash 63000
1695 Sneha 76000
1123 Ashutosh 76000
1762 Ankur 56000
1793 Babita 70000
1859 Divya 77000
1998 Ashutosh 57000
1711 Elina 55000
Explanation: In the example, the SELECT statement retrieves the faculty_id, first_name and
salary of all faculty members whose salary is in the range of [54000, 85000], i.e., BETWEEN
54000 and 85000.

8) IN(set): Match any set of values, provided the set of values must be of similar data
type.
 For testing specified values IN condition is used.
 The IN condition is also known as the membership condition.
 The IN condition can be used with any data type.

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary FROM faculty WHERE salary IN (54000, 56000,
72000);

Output
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME SALARY
1231 Ram 54000
9765 Laxman 72000
1734 Nidhi 56000
1762 Ankur 56000
Explanation: The example displays faculty_id, first_name and salary from faculty where salary
is 54000 or 56000 or 72000.
 Note: The above query could be written using multiple OR operators. However, we prefer to use
IN operator in terms of optimization.
SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary FROM faculty WHERE salary = 54000 OR
salary=56000 OR salary =72000;

9) LIKE: Match a character pattern

 LIKE condition is used to perform wildcard searches of valid search string
values. There are two wildcards:
o % denotes zero or many characters
o _ denotes one character
 Search characters can contain either literal or characters or numbers.
 LIKE operator is also known as pattern matching operator.

More description is listed in the table below:

LIKE Operator Description
LIKE 'p%' Find any values that start with "p"
LIKE '%p' Find any values that end with "p"
LIKE '%pq%' Find any values that have "pq" in any position
LIKE '_p%' Find any values that have "p" in second position
LIKE 'p_%' Find any values that starts with "p" and are at least 2 characters in length
LIKE 'p %' Find any values that starts with "p" and are at least 3 characters in length
LIKE 'p%q' Find any values that start with "p" and ends with "q".

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary FROM faculty WHERE first_name LIKE 'R%';
Output
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME SALARY
1231 Ram 54000
Explanation: The select statement in the above example return the faculty_id and first_name
from the faculty table for any faculty whose first name begins with the letter R.

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary FROM faculty WHERE first_name LIKE '_a%';
Output
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME SALARY
1231 Ram 54000
9765 Laxman 72000
1497 Mala 70300
2345 Gagan 52000
3768 Aakash 63000
1793 Babita 70000
Explanation: The select statement in the above example return the faculty_id and first_name
from faculty table for any faculty whose first name contains 'a' as second character.
SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL
SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary FROM faculty WHERE first_name LIKE '%m';

Output
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME SALARY
1231 Ram 54000
1386 Shyam 57000
Explanation: The select statement in the above example return the faculty_id and first_name
from faculty table for those faculties whose first name contains the last letter as m.

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary FROM faculty WHERE first_name LIKE '%id%';

Output
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME SALARY
1734 Nidhi 56000
Explanation: The select statement in the above example return the faculty_id and first_name
from faculty table for any faculty whose first name contains an id letter at any position.

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary FROM faculty WHERE first_name LIKE 'N %';
Output
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME SALARY
1734 Nidhi 56000
Explanation: The select statement in the above example return the faculty_id and first_name
from faculty table for any faculty whose first name contains N letter at starting position and
at least three characters in length.

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary FROM faculty WHERE first_name LIKE 'G%h';
Output
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME SALARY
2765 Grish 62000
Explanation: The select statement in the above example return the faculty_id and first_name
from faculty table for any faculty whose first name begins with G and ends with h.

10) IS NULL: Is a Null value

 The Null conditions include the IS NULL condition and IS NOT NULL condition.
 If we miss inserting values for any specific column in a particular table, then
by default, NULL is assigned.
 NULL has no ASCII value; hence we cannot compare this value. Therefore IS
operator is designed to fetch NULL values.
 The IS NULL condition tests for null value, while IS NOT NULL test for existing
values.
SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL
SELECT faculty_id, first_name, dept_id, hod_id FROM faculty WHERE hod_id IS NULL;

Output
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME DEPT_ID HOD_ID
1231 Ram D01 NULL
9765 Laxman D02 NULL
2765 Grish D05 NULL
1734 Nidhi D03 NULL
1859 Divya D04 NULL
Explanation: The select statement in the above example return the faculty_id,first_name,
dept_id and hod_id from faculty table for those faculty which do not have any HOD
associated with them.

Logical Conditions

 A logical condition combines the result of two components conditions to produce a

single result based on those conditions, or it inverts the result of a single condition. 
 Logical operators can only be used in WHERE if there is more than one condition or
expression evaluates to TRUE in order to retrieve the records from the table.
 Three logical operators are available in SQL, which are listed in table below: -

Table 4
Operator Meaning
AND Return True if both component conditions are true
OR Return True if either component conditions are true
NOT Return True if following conditions is false

Using the AND Operator

 In AND conditions, both conditions must be true.
 Records will be displayed in each and every condition or expression defined in WHERE
clause evaluates to TRUE.

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT roll_no, first_name, dept_id,section_name FROM student WHERE dept_id='D02'
AND section_name='A';
Output
ROLL_NO FIRST_NAME DEPT_ID SECTION_NAME
190006876 Nikhil D02 A
191306286 Swati D02 A
Explanation: In this example, the select statement return roll_no, first_name, dept_id and
section from the student table where the student must be having dept_id as D02 and belongs
to section_name as A
Using the OR Operator
 In OR conditions, any conditions can be true.
 Records will be displayed if any of the conditions or expressions defined in WHERE
clause evaluates to TRUE.

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT roll_no, first_name, dept_id, section_name FROM student WHERE dept_id='D02'
OR section_name='A';

Output
ROLL_NO FIRST_NAME DEPT_ID SECTION_NAME
191306280 Aayushi D01 A
190006876 Nikhil D02 A
191306286 Swati D02 A
191106654 Anmol D05 A
191106660 Amit D03 A
Explanation: In this example, the select statement return roll_no, first_name, dept_id and
section_name of those students who either belong to 'D02' department or belongs to section
'A'.

Using the NOT Operator

 NOT operator reverses the condition
 The NOT operator can also be used with other SQL operators, such as BETWEEN, LIKE,
IN and NULL.

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT roll_no, first_name, dept_id, section_name FROM student WHERE dept_id NOT IN
('D02','D01');
Output
ROLL_NO FIRST_NAME DEPT_ID SECTION_NAME
191106654 Anmol D05 A
191106660 Amit D03 A
Explanation: In this example, the select statement return roll_no, first_name, dept_id and
section_name from student table where student does not belongs to department_id 'D02'
and 'D01'.

Rules of Precedence
 Operator Meaning
1 Arithmetic Operators
2 Concatenation Operator
3 Comparison Conditions
4 IS [NOT] NULL , LIKE ,NOT IN
5 [NOT] BETWEEN
6 NOT Equal To
7 NOT Logical Conditions
8 AND Logical Conditions
9 OR Logical Conditions

SQL Statement | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

SELECT roll_no, first_name, dept_id, section_name FROM student WHERE dept_id ='D02'
OR dept_id = 'DO1' AND gender = 'Male';

Output
ROLL_NO FIRST_NAME DEPT_ID SECTION_NAME
190006876 Nikhil D02 A
191306286 Swati D02 A
Explanation: In this example, the select statement return roll_no, first_name, dept_id and
section_name from student table where student is Male and must belong to either dept_id
'D02' or dept_id 'D01'.

6.5.4 Updating data using UPDATE statement

The UPDATE statement is used to modify one or more records present in the table based on
the given condition. Beware that if no condition is not specified, it will update all the records.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

UPDATE table_name SET column_name=value,... [WHERE condition];

Example 1
If we want to change the department location (dept_location) of dept_id 'D04' from 'Bhabha
Block' to 'Raman Block', we have to use the following SQL statement.

UPDATE department SET dept_location='Raman Block' WHERE dept_id='D04';

Example 2
If we want to increase the salary of all faculty members by 20% and this increment must
reflect in the salary column of faculty table, we have to use the following SQL statement.

UPDATE faculty SET salary=salary*1.2;

6.5.5 Deleting data using DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete one or more records from the table based on given
condition. Beware that, if no condition is specified in WHERE clause, all the records in the
table will be deleted.

Note: DELETE Statement is used to delete complete record from the table, while to delete
any specific column value we will use UPDATE command and set value as NULL.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];

Example 1: If we want to delete the records of those of a student from the table
student_phone_no having rollo_no as 191306280, we have to use the following SQL
statement

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

DELETE FROM student_phone_no WHERE roll_no='191306280';

Example 2: If we want to delete the all the records present in student_phone_no table, we
have to use the following SQL statement

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

DELETE FROM student_phone_no;

6.5.6 Constraint violation using DML Statements

When we make changes in the records using DML Statements like INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE,
some constraint violations may occur.

INSERT Operations
While inserting records in a table, it may cause violation of the constraints in the following
way:
 Domain constraint: Domain constraint gets violated only when a given value to the
attribute does not appear in the corresponding domain or it is not of the appropriate
data type. For example, in the department table, the dept_id column has three
character length, but it will violate the domain constraint if you provide data greater
than three characters. Therefore, RDBMS will terminate the statement and data will
not be inserted in the table.
SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
 INSERT INTO department VALUES('D006','MBA','Raman Block');
Output from Oracle RDBMS:
ORA-12899: value too large for column "SMS"."DEPARTMENT"."DEPT_ID" (actual: 4,
maximum: 3)
 Entity Integrity Constraint: On inserting NULL values to any part of the primary key of
a new record in the table can cause violation of the Entity integrity constraint. For
example, if we try to insert NULL values for the dept_id column in the department
table, it will violate the entity integrity constraint and RDBMS rejects the insertion.
SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
INSERT INTO department VALUES(NULL,'MBA','Raman Block');
Output from Oracle RDBMS:
ORA-01400: cannot insert NULL into ("SMS"."DEPARTMENT"."DEPT_ID")
 Key Constraints: On inserting a value in the new record in a table that already exists
in another record of the same table for a column defined as primary key, it can cause
violation of the key constraint. For example, if we try to insert the dept_id as D01 again
in the department table, it will violate the key constraint and RDBMS will reject the
insertion of the new record.
SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
INSERT INTO department VALUES('D001','MBA','Raman Block');

 Referential integrity: On inserting a value in the foreign key of table 1, for which there
is no corresponding value in the primary key, which is referred to in table 2, in such
case, referential integrity is violated. For example, in the mini_project table, the
column roll_no is defined as a foreign key referred from the student table. Therefore,
if we try to insert a new record for a mini-project with a roll number that does not
exist in the student table (e.g., 191306290), it will violate the referential integrity
constraint and RDBMS will reject the insertion.
SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
INSERT INTO mini_project VALUES('MP007','Maleware
Detector','Security','Information Security','Maleware Detection
Tool','191306290');
Output from Oracle RDBMS:
ORA-02291: integrity constraint (SMS.FK_MINPRO_STU) violated - parent key not
found

DELETE Operations
When deleting the record from a table, it may cause only a violation of Referential integrity
constraints.
 Referential Integrity Constraints: It causes violation only if the record in table 1 is
deleted, referenced by a foreign key from other records of table 2 in the database. If
such deletion occurs, then the values in the foreign key record in table 2 will become
empty, which will eventually violate the referential integrity constraint.
Solutions that can correct the violation of referential integrity due to deletion are called ON
DELETE, which can be applied in three ways.
 RESTRICT
 CASCADE
 SET NULL or SET DEFAULT

If RESTRICT is applied with ON DELETE, the RDBMS rejects the deletion. It is by default.
If CASCADE is applied with ON DELETE and a record in the parent table(referencing relation)
is deleted, then the corresponding records in the child table(referenced relation) will
automatically be deleted.
IF SET NULL or SET DEFAULT is applied with ON DELETE, we can modify the referencing
attribute values that cause violation and we either set NULL or change to another valid value.

For example, if we create two sample tables, countries and states, the counties table
references the state. If we delete any country code, its data in the states table will also be
deleted automatically.

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL

CREATE TABLE countries(countryid CHAR(1) PRIMARY KEY,countryname
VARCHAR(50),countrycode VARCHAR(3));
CREATE TABLE states (stateid CHAR(2) PRIMARY KEY,statename VARCHAR(50),statecode
VARCHAR(3),countryid CHAR(1));
ALTER TABLE states WITH CHECK ADD CONSTRAINT fk_states_countries FOREIGN
KEY(countryid) REFERENCES countries(countryid) ON DELETE CASCADE;
INSERT INTO countries VALUES ('1','United States','USA');
INSERT INTO countries VALUES ('2','United Kingdom','UK');
INSERT INTO states VALUES ('S1','Texas','TX','1');
INSERT INTO states VALUES ('S2','Arizona','AZ','1');

Now we will have the following data in the countries table and states table.

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT * FROM countries;
Output:
COUNTRYID COUNTRYNAME COUNTRYCODE
1 United States USA
2 United Kingdom UK

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT * FROM states;
Output:
STATEID STATENAME STATECODE COUNTRYID
S1 Texas TX 1
S2 Arizona AZ 1

If we issue the DELETE statement to delete a country code, it will automatically delete all the
state records for a given country code.
SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL
DELETE FROM countries WHERE countryid='1';

If you try to see the records in the states table, it will display no record.

UPDATE Operation
On updating the record from a table, it may cause only violation of Referential integrity
constraints.
 Referential Integrity Constraints: When we create a foreign key using UPDATE
CASCADE, the referencing rows are updated in the child table when the referenced
row is updated in the parent table, which has a primary key.

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL

CREATE TABLE countries(countryid CHAR(1) PRIMARY KEY,countryname
VARCHAR(50),countrycode VARCHAR(3));
CREATE TABLE states (stateid CHAR(2) PRIMARY KEY,statename VARCHAR(50),statecode
VARCHAR(3),countryid CHAR(1));
ALTER TABLE states WITH CHECK ADD CONSTRAINT fk_states_countries FOREIGN
KEY(countryid) REFERENCES countries(countryid) ON UPDATE CASCADE;
INSERT INTO countries VALUES ('1','United States','USA');
INSERT INTO countries VALUES ('2','United Kingdom','UK');
INSERT INTO states VALUES ('S1','Texas','TX','1');
INSERT INTO states VALUES ('S2','Arizona','AZ','1');

Now, if we use these tables, then we will have the following data
SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT * FROM countries;
Output
COUNTRYID COUNTRYNAME COUNTRYCODE
1 United States USA
2 United Kingdom UK

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT * FROM states;
Output
STATEID STATENAME STATECODE COUNTRYID
S1 Texas TX 1
S2 Arizona AZ 1

If we issue the UPDATE statement to update a country code in the countries table, it will
automatically delete the country code in the states table.

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL

UPDATE countries SET countryid='3' where countryid='1';

You can check it by executing the SELECT statement

 SELECT * FROM states;
Output
STATEID STATENAME STATECODE COUNTRYID
S1 Texas TX 3
S2 Arizona AZ 3

We can also apply ON DELETE and ON UPDATE together as well.

ALTER TABLE states WITH CHECK ADD CONSTRAINT fk_states_countries FOREIGN

KEY(countryid) REFERENCES countries(countryid)
ON UPDATE CASCADE
ON DELETE CASCADE;

6.6 Sorting Data using ORDER BY

Order By Clause
The ORDER BY clause retrieves the rows of resultant query either in ascending or descending
order based on any column/expression/numeric position of the column as per specified
syntax. We can use more than one column in the ORDER BY clause, i.e., nested sorting.
ORDER BY clause must be the last clause of the SQL statement.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT column(s)|expr FROM table [WHERE condition(s)][ORDER BY
{column(s)|expr|numeric_position} [ASC|DESC]];

In the above syntax:

 ASC: retrieved the rows in the ascending order (By default, records retrieved in
the specified column|expr|numeric_position).
 DESC: retrieved the rows in descending order.
 Column: retrieves rows in given order using column name(s).
 Expr: retrieved rows in the order using any expression or column aliasing
 Numeric_position: retrieved rows in the order using the position number of the
column in the table rather than column name.

Sorting in ascending order

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT first_name, dept_id, designation, doj FROM faculty ORDER BY doj ASC;
OR
SELECT first_name, dept_id, designation, doj FROM faculty ORDER BY doj;
Output:
Sorting in descending order
SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT first_name, dept_id, designation, doj FROM faculty ORDER BY doj DESC;

Sorting using Column Aliasing

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT first_name, dept_id, designation, Salary * 12 AS Annual_Salary FROM faculty
ORDER BY Annual_Salary;

Sorting using the numeric position of the column

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT faculty_id, dept_id, designation, Salary * 12 AS Annual_Salary FROM faculty
ORDER BY 2; // **here 2 represent the first_name column in faculty table**

Sorting by multiple columns

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT first_name, last_name, Salary, dept_id FROM faculty ORDER BY dept_id,
last_name DESC;
Output:
Sorting using Substitution variable
SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT first_name, last_name, Salary, dept_id FROM faculty ORDER BY
&column_name_for_order;

Enter value for column_name_for_order: Salary

old 1: SELECT first_name, last_name, Salary, dept_id FROM faculty ORDER BY
&column_name_for_order
new 1: SELECT first_name, last_name, Salary, dept_id FROM faculty ORDER BY
Salary
Output: Sorted data on first_name
FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME SALARY DEPT_ID
Aakash Solanki 63000 D02
Ankur Rana 56000 D01
Ashutosh Rana 57000 D04
Ashutosh Rana 76000 D03
Ayush Giri 100125 D03
Babita Sharma 70000 D01
Divya Dixit 77000 D04
Elina Rajput 55000 D02
Gagan Verma 52000 D01
Grish Sharma 62000 D05
Laxman Naryan 72000 D02
Mala Singh 70300 D02
Nidhi Bhatia 56000 D03
Ram Prasad 54000 D01
Shyam Bhatnagar 57000 D01
Sneha Sharma 76000 D03

Note:

 Sorting can be done using the column which is not in the SELECT list in a particular
query.
  NULL values are displayed last for ascending sequences and first for descending
sequences

6.7 Using Single-row Functions to Customize Output

Functions make the SQL query more powerful. They are broadly categorized into two
categories:
a) Single row Function
b) Multiple row function

Single Row functions

Single row functions are the functions that work on a single row and return one output per
row. For example, length and case conversion functions are single-row functions.

Multiple Row functions

Multiple row functions work upon a group of rows and return one result for the complete set
of rows. They are also known as Group Functions.

The functions accept a set of arguments and manipulate data values. They are used to
perform the following operations:
 Perform calculations on data
 Manipulate individual data item
 Manipulate output for groups of rows
 Format dates and numbers for display
 Convert the data types if needed for display

In this section, we will discuss the single-row functions. Single-row functions return a single
result row for every row of a queried table or view. These functions can appear in select lists,
WHERE clauses, and HAVING clauses. Single row functions are of 6 different types, as shown
in Figure 6.7.1:
Character

General Single row functions Number

Conversion Date

Figure 6.7.1 Types of Single row functions

6.7.1. CHARACTER Functions

Character functions accept character data as an input and can return both character and
number values. Input can be a value of character type or column of character data type.
Character function as shown in Figure 6.7.2 below is divided into the following:
Character LENGTH
CONCAT
LOWER
Case Character SUBSTR
UPPER manipulation manipulation INSTR
INITCAP LPAD|RPAD
TRIM
Figure 6.7.2 Types of character functions

6.7.1.1 CASE Manipulation function

 LOWER(): Converts the case of a character string into the lower case.
 UPPER(): Converts the case of a character string into the upper case.
 INITCAP(): Convert the first letter of each word to upper case and remaining letters to
lower case.

These functions coverts the cases for the character string:

Functions Results
LOWER(' Assistant PROFESSOR') assistant professor
UPPER('Assistant PROFESSOR') ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
INITCAP('Assistant PROFESSOR') Assistant Professor

Example 1:
Let’s understand it by displaying the faculty_id, faculty_name, and salary of those employees
whose last_name in a database table is 'Prasad'. If we tried to match the last_name as
'PRASAD', no record would be found since the data is case sensitive, but if we apply the
UPPER() or LOWER() function, it can help us in matching records.

Without CASE manipulation function

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary FROM faculty WHERE last_name='PRASAD';
Output: No rows return.

With CASE manipulation function UPPER() in WHERE clause

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary,last_name FROM faculty WHERE
UPPER(last_name)='PRASAD';
Output:
 FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME SALARY LAST_NAME
1231 Ram 54000 Prasad

With CASE manipulation function LOWER() in WHERE clause

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT faculty_id, first_name, salary, last_name, UPPER(last_name) AS
lastname_in_capital FROM faculty WHERE LOWER(last_name)='prasad';
Output:
FIRST_NAME SALARY LAST_NAME FACULTY_ID LASTNAME_IN_CAPITAL
Ram 54000 Prasad 1231 PRASAD

Example 2
If we want to display formatted data where a message with the first letter in caps, first_name,
and last_name in the upper case by matching the last_name as 'rana', we have to make the
following SQL statement

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT INITCAP('the salary of ')||UPPER(first_name)||UPPER(last_name)||' is
'||salary AS information_of_employee FROM faculty WHERE LOWER(last_name)='rana';
Output:
INFORMATION_OF_EMPLOYEE
The Salary Of ASHUTOSH RANA is 76000
The Salary Of ANKUR RANA is 56000
The Salary Of ASHUTOSH RANA is 57000

6.7.1.2 CHARACTER Manipulation function

Character-manipulation functions are used to extract, change, format, or alter in some way a
character string. One or more characters or words are passed into the function and the
function will then perform its functionality on the input character strings and return the
changed, extracted, counted, or altered value.

 CONCAT() Function: is used to concatenate or join two values together to display the data.
Values could be expression or column as shown below:

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT CONCAT(first_name, last_name) AS Fullname FROM faculty WHERE faculty_id=1231;
Output:
FULLNAME
RamPrasad

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT CONCAT('First name of faculty is ',first_name) as FirstName FROM faculty
WHERE faculty_id=1231;
Output:
 FIRSTNAME
First name of faculty is Ram

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT CONCAT(first_name,Salary) AS firstname_Salary FROM faculty WHERE
faculty_id=1231;
Output:
FIRSTNAME_SALARY
Ram54000

 SUBSTR() Function: is used to extract the part of the string as per specified length. It has
two variants depending on the number of passed arguments. The arguments are
(character String, starting position, length).
The Length argument is optional, and if omitted, returns all characters to the end of the
string.

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT first_name, substr(first_name,2,3) "Part of firstname" FROM faculty;

** Here substring of given length 3 is extracted starting from 2nd position in first_name column**
Output:
FIRST_NAME Part Of Firstname
Ram am
Laxman axm
Ayush Yus
…………

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT first_name, substr(first_name,2) "till end" FROM faculty;

** Here, substring is extracted starting from 2nd position till the end. **
Output:
FIRST_NAME Till End
Ram am
Laxman axman
Ayush yush
……

 LENGTH(): The Length function is used to find the number of characters in a string. It
returns the numeric value as an output.
SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT first_name, salary, length(designation) FROM faculty WHERE
length(last_name)=6;
Output:
 FIRST_NAME SALARY LENGTH(DESIGNATION)
Ram 54000 19
Laxman 72000 19
Grish 62000 19
………

 INSTR(): Find the numeric position of the named character.

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT first_name, instr(first_name,'man') " contain man at position" FROM faculty;

** Here position of the first match of "man" in first_name column is returned **

Output:
FIRST_NAME CONTAIN MAN AT POSITION
Ram 0
Laxman 4
Ayush 0
………

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT first_name, instr(first_name,'a',3) "Index of a starting from 3" FROM
faculty;
Output:
FIRST_NAME INDEX OF A STARTING FROM 3
Ram 0
Laxman 5
Ayush 0
……

 LPAD()|RPAD(): add the character value to the left/right of the string

 TRIM(): removes the leading and heading characters (or both ) from a character string.

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT faculty_id, lpad(salary,10,'*') "left padding", rpad(salary,10,'*') "Right
padding" FROM faculty;
** Here padding of * in Left/Right side in the salary column**
Output:
FACULTY_ID LEFT PADDING RIGHT PADDING
1231 *****54000 54000*****
9765 *****72000 72000*****
1987 ****100125 100125****
……..

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT faculty_id, gender, LTRIM(gender,'Ma') "Left Trim" FROM faculty;
** Here string 'Ma' is trimmed from the left of the Gender column **
Output:
FACULTY_ID GENDER LEFT TRIM
1231 Male le
9765 Male le
1734 Female Female
…….

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT faculty_id, Gender, rtrim(Gender,'le') "Right Trim" FROM faculty;
** Here string 'le' is trimmed from the right of the Gender column **
Output:
FACULTY_ID GENDER RIGHT TRIM
2765 Male Male
1734 Female Fema
1695 Female Fema
…….

Example 1|Character functions

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT faculty_id, CONCAT(first_name,last_name) AS name, INSTR(last_name,'a')
"first occurance of a", SUBSTR(first_name,2,3) FROM faculty WHERE
LENGTH(designation)>8;
Output:
FACULTY_ID NAME FIRST OCCURANCE OF A SUBSTR(FIRST_NAME,2,3)
1231 RamPrasad 3 am
9765 LaxmanNaryan 2 axm
1987 AyushGiri 0 yus
2765 GrishSharma 3 ris
1734 NidhiBhatia 3 idh
1695 SnehaSharma 3 neh
1123 Ashutosh Rana 2 shu

Explanation: In the above example, only those rows returned where the length of designation
is greater than 8. In filtered records, first_name & last_name is concatenated, the first
occurrence of ‘a’ is returned using the INSTR() function and substring is extracted using the
SUBSTR() function from the faculty table.

6.7.2 NUMBER Functions

Number functions accept the numeric input and return numeric values. To understand the
functions under this section, we will use the dummy table dual provided by Oracle. SQL Server
and MySQL RDBMSs do not require the dual table for expressions. Different RDBMS may
generate different decimal places in the output, but values will be the same.
 ROUND(): The Round function rounds the value to the n decimal values. If n is not
specified, there won't be any decimal places. If n is negative, numbers to the left of the
decimal point are rounded.

Syntax | Oracle | MS SQL | MySQL

ROUND(column|expression,n)

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT round(45.68,1) "Example 1", round(45.68,0) "Example 2", round(145.68,-2) "
Example 3", round(45.65,-1) "Example 4" FROM dual;
Output:
Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4
45.7 46 100 50
Explanation: Rounds the column, expression, or value to the n decimal places. If negative n,
i.e., n, numbers to the left of the decimal places are rounded.

SQL Statement | SQL Server

SELECT round(45.68,1) "Example 1", round(45.68,0) "Example 2", round(145.68,-2) "
Example 3", round(45.65,-1) "Example 4";
Output:
Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4
45.70 46.00 100.00 50.00

SQL Statement | MySQL

SELECT round(45.68,1) "Example 1", round(45.68,0) "Example 2", round(145.68,-2) "
Example 3", round(45.65,-1) "Example 4";
Output:
Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4
45.7 46 100 50

 TRUNC(): The Trunc function truncates the value to the n decimal places. If n is omitted,
then n defaults to zero.
Syntax: TRUNC(column|expression,n)

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT trunc(45.68,1) "Example 1", trunc(45.68) "Example 2", trunc(145.68,-2) "
Example 3", trunc(65.65,-1) "Example 4" FROM dual;
Output:
Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4
45.6 45 100 60
Explanation: Truncated the column, expression, or values to n decimal places. In the case of
negative n, i.e., -n, numbers to the left of the decimal places are truncated.

 MOD(): The Mod function returns the remainder of m divided by n.

 ABS(): The ABS function returns the absolute value
SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT mod(1600,300) "Mod will be", ABS(-7634.89) " Absolute value" FROM dual;
Output:
Mod Will Be Absolute Value
100 7634.89

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT faculty_id, Salary, MOD(salary,122) , ABS(salary) FROM faculty WHERE
designation ='Assistant Professor';
Output:
FACULTY_ SALARY MOD(SALARY,122) ABS(SALARY)
1231 54000 76 54000
2765 62000 24 62000
1734 56000 2 56000
1123 76000 116 76000
……..

The table is given below to summarize the number functions for a quick review:
Functions Results
ROUND(456.65.1) 456.7
ROUND(446.56,-2) 400
TRUNC(456.65,1) 456.6
TRUNC(446.56,-1) 440
MOD(131,11) 10
ABS(-4563.0) 4563

6.7.3 DATE Functions

Since a database store dates as a number so we can perform an arithmetic calculation with
dates in the following manner:
o Add or subtract a number to or from the date for the resultant date. Output is
a new date.
o We can find the number of days between any two dates by doing subtraction.
Output is the number that shows the number of days between two dates.
o We can add hours to any specific date by dividing the number of hours by 24.
o SYSDATE is a system-defined variable in Oracle RDBMS that returns the current
system date and timestamp.

Example 1| Arithmetic operation using DATE

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT faculty_id, first_name, ROUND((sysdate-doj)/365,2) AS year_of_experience ,
doj+20 AS Addition, doj-25 AS Subtraction FROM faculty WHERE designation='Assistant
Professor';
Output:
 FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME YEAR_OF_EXPERIENCE ADDITION SUBTRACTION
1231 Ram 9.5 06-Jan-12 22-Nov-11
2765 Grish 6.37 21-Feb-15 07-Jan-15
1734 Nidhi 4.94 26-Jul-16 11-Jun-16
Explanation: In the above example faculty_id, first_name is displayed for assistant professors
only along with the year of experience. Experience is calculated by subtracting the system
date and date of joining and converting it to the number of the year by dividing the values by
365. And the value is round about 2 nd digit. Similarly, the number of days are added and
subtracted to find the next date. If we add some digits to the DOJ column, a new date is
returned by adding those number of days as shown above.

There are some predefined DATE functions. Let's understand each in the below section.
 MONTHS_BETWEEN(): is used to find the number of months between two dates.
Syntax: MONTHS_BETWEEN(date1,date2),If date 1 is later than date 2 then result is
positive else negative. We can apply the ABS function also to make the result positive.
 ADD_MONTHS(): is used to add or subtract the number of calendar months to the given
date.
Syntax: ADD_MONTHS(date,n), n must be an integer and cannot be negative
 NEXT_DAY(): finds the date of the next specified day of the week.
Syntax: NEXT_DAY(date,'char'), the value of char may be a number representing a day or
character string.
 LAST_DAY(): returns the last date of the month.
Syntax: LAST_DAY(date)
 ROUND(): returns the date rounded to the specified format.
Syntax: ROUND(date [,'fmt']), the date is rounded to the unit specified by the format 'fmt'.
If 'fmt' is omitted, then the date is rounded to the nearest day.
 TRUNC(): returns the date truncated to the specified
Syntax: Trunc(date [,'fmt']), format returns date with the time portion of the day
truncated to the unit specified by the format 'fmt'. If 'fmt' is omitted, then the date is
truncated to the nearest day.

Example 2 | DATE functions

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT faculty_id, sysdate, doj, MONTHS_BETWEEN(sysdate,doj), ADD_MONTHS(doj,4) FROM
faculty;
Output:
FACULTY_ID SYSDATE DOJ MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,DOJ) ADD_MONTHS(DOJ,4)
1231 14-Jun-21 17-Dec-11 113.9224873 17-Apr-12
9765 14-Jun-21 19-Sep-13 92.85797118 19-Jan-14
1987 14-Jun-21 13-Jul-10 131.0515196 13-Nov-10
2765 14-Jun-21 01-Feb-15 76.43861634 01-Jun-15
……...

Example 3 | DATE functions

SQL Statement | Oracle
 SELECT faculty_id, sysdate, doj, LAST_DAY(doj) , NEXT_DAY(doj,'TUESDAY'),
NEXT_DAY(sysdate, 'TUESDAY') FROM faculty;
Output
FACULTY_ID SYSDATE DOJ LAST_DAY(DOJ) NEXT_DAY(DOJ,'TUESDAY') NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE,'TUESDAY')
1231 17-Jun-21 17-Dec-11 31-Dec-11 20-Dec-11 22-Jun-21
9765 17-Jun-21 19-Sep-13 30-Sep-13 24-Sep-13 22-Jun-21
1987 17-Jun-21 13-Jul-10 31-Jul-10 20-Jul-10 22-Jun-21
2765 17-Jun-21 01-Feb-15 28-Feb-15 03-Feb-15 22-Jun-21

……

Example 4 |ROUND using DATE column

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT faculty_id, doj, ROUND(doj,'YEAR') "decision using month" , ROUND(doj,'MONTH')
" decision using day" FROM faculty;
Output:
FACULTY_ID DOJ Decision Using Month Decision Using Day
1231 17-12-2011 01-01-2012 01-01-2012
9765 19-09-2013 01-01-2014 01-10-2013
1987 13-07-2010 01-01-2011 01-07-2010
2765 01-02-2015 01-01-2015 01-02-2015
………

Example 5 | TRUNC using DATE column

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT faculty_id, doj, TRUNC(doj,'YEAR') "TRUNC around YEAR", TRUNC(doj,'MONTH') "
TRUNC around MONTH" FROM faculty;
Output:
FACULTY_ID DOJ TRUNC Around YEAR TRUNC Around MONTH
15-05-1903 17-Dec-11 01-Jan-11 01-Dec-11
25-09-1926 19-Sep-13 01-Jan-13 01-Sep-13
09-06-1905 13-Jul-10 01-Jan-10 01-Jul-10
…….

Note: Due to the limitation of rows in the existing case study SMS, we will now use another
table emp or DUAL table to understand the following two types of function, i.e.,
GENERALfunction and CONVERSION function. Emp table is shown below for reference and
providedin the script under Additional Tables.
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
7839 KING PRESIDEN - 17-Nov-81 5000 - 10
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-May-81 2850 - 30
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-Jun-81 2450 - 10
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-Apr-81 2975 - 20
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-Apr-87 3000 - 20
…….
6.7.4 GENERAL Functions

GENERAL functions are used to deal with NULL values. These functions are listed under a
single row function that returns a single value for a row in the result set. The general functions
work with any data type. GENERAL functions are provided by ORACLE are:
NVL,NVL2,NULLIF,COALESCE

 NVL(): used to convert NULL value to an actual value. The NVL function takes two
arguments as its input. If the first argument is NULL, it returns the second argument;
otherwise, it returns the first argument.
Syntax: NVL(column|expression1,expression2)
In syntax:
column| expression 1: is the input or source value that contains NULL values.
expression2: is the target value that will replace the NULL in a given source or input.

Remember both arguments are of the same data type as shown in the table below:
Data Type Conversion
NUMBER NVL(numeric_column,9)
DATE NVL(date_column,'24-FEB-21')
CHAR or VARCHAR NVL(char_varchar_col, 'string or character')

Example 1 | NVL function|numeric_column

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT empno, sal, (sal+comm)*12 " got wrong annual salary " , NVL(comm,0) " NULL
value replaces with 0", (sal+NVL(comm,0))*12 " Actual annual salary" FROM emp;
Output:
EMPNO SAL Got Wrong Annual Salary NULL Value Replaces With 0 Actual Annual Salary
7566 2975 - 0 35700
7788 3000 - 0 36000
7902 3000 - 0 36000
7369 800 - 0 9600
7499 1600 22800 300 22800
…….
Explanation: In the above example, we need to find the annual salary of all employees using
the salary and commission column as (sal+comm)* 12 , which results out to be NULL
because of any arithmetic operation with NULL value results to NULL.
Therefore we first convert the NULL value in the commission column by 0 and then calculate
annual salary as (sal+NVL(comm,0))*12, which gives the correct result as shown in the
output above.

Similarly, if any character or date column has NULL values, then the character or date value
can be replaced.

 NVL2(): return the expression or value in case of NULL or NOT NULL.

 Syntax: NVL2( column|expr1, expr2, expr3).
The NVL2 function takes three arguments.
o If the expr1 is NOT NULL, the NVL2 function returns expr2.
o If expr1 is NULL, then NVL2 returns expr3.

Example 2 | NVL2 function|numeric_column

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT empno, ename, comm, NVL2(comm,'Sal+comm','Sal') "Example 1",NVL2(comm,1,2)
"Example 2" FROM emp;
Output:
EMPNO ENAME COMM Example 1 Example 2
7788 SCOTT - Sal 2
7902 FORD - Sal 2
7369 SMITH - Sal 2
7499 ALLEN 300 Sal+comm 1
7521 WARD 500 Sal+comm 1
…….
Explanation: In the above example commission column is passed in the NVL2 function.
Records having NOT NULL values showing 'Sal+comm' or 2 while rows with NULL values are
replaced by 'Sal' or 1. The actual table is not going to update as we are retrieving the records
from the table.

 NULLIF(): The NULLIF function compares the two expressions and returns NULL if they are
equal; otherwise, it returns the first expression.
Syntax: NULLIF(expr1, expr2), if both expressions are equal, then NULL is returned;
otherwise, expr1 will return.

Example 3 | NULLIF function

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT ename, length(ename) " expression 1", job, length(job) "expression 2",
NULLIF(length(ename),length(job)) "place NULL if equal" FROM emp;
Output:
ENAME Expression 1 JOB Expression 2 Place NULL If Equal
SCOTT 5 ANALYST 7 5
FORD 4 ANALYST 7 4
SMITH 5 CLERK 5-
ALLEN 5 SALESMAN 8 5
WARD 4 SALESMAN 8 4
…….
Explanation: In the above example length of two columns, ename and job, is compared using
the NULLIF function. If the length of both columns is the same, then NULL is returned as shown
for SMITH rows in the above output; otherwise, expression 1, i.e., length of ename, is
returned.
 COALESCE(): if the first expression is NOT NULL, then COALESCE return it; otherwise, it
does the COALESCE of the remaining expression. COALESCE is having an advantage over
the NVL function, as it accepts multiple arguments.
Syntax: COALESCE(expr1, expr2,expr3,…..exprn)
In syntax:
expr1 returns if it is not null.
expr 2 will return if expr1 is null & expr2 is NOT NULL.
expr 3 will return if expr1 is NULL & expr2 is NULL & expr3 is NOT NULL.
expr n will return if preceding expressions are NULL.

Example 4 | COALESCE function

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT deptno, empno, ename, comm, sal, COALESCE(comm,sal,-1) AS
new_comm_value_coalesce FROM emp WHERE deptno=30;
Output:
DEPTNO EMPNO ENAME COMM SAL NEW_COMM_VALUE_COALESCE
30 7698 BLAKE - 2850 2850
30 7499 ALLEN 300 1600 300
30 7521 WARD 500 1250 500
30 7654 MARTIN 1400 1250 1400
30 7844 TURNER 0 1500 0
…….
Explanation: in above example new commission value is assigned to each employee of
department 30 using COALESEC function .
if commission is NOT NULL then new_comm_value = commission
else if Salary is NOT NULL then new_comm_value = salary
else new_comm_value=-1

6.7.5 Conditional Expression

Conditional expressions are expressed using two methods, CASE and DECODE. Here we will
discuss the CASE method. DECODE is specific to ORACLE only.
 CASE Expression: provides the way of implementing IF-THEN-ELSE logic within the SQL
statement. The CASE expression complies with ANSI SQL.
Syntax | Oracle
CASE WHEN comparision_expr1 THEN return_expr1
[WHEN comparision_expr2 THEN return_expr2
WHEN comparision_exprn THEN return_exprn
ELSE else_expr]
END AS colum_aliasing

Example 5 | CASE function

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT empno,ename ,sal , CASE
WHEN sal>=5000 THEN 'Highest paid'
WHEN sal BETWEEN 2500 AND 4999 THEN 'Good paid'
 WHEN sal>1000 AND sal<2500 THEN 'Average paid'
ELSE 'Low paid'
END AS SALARY_COMMENTS FROM emp;
Output:
EMPNO ENAME SAL SALARY_COMMENTS
7839 KING 5000 Higest paid
7698 BLAKE 2850 Good paid
7782 CLARK 2450 Average paid
7566 JONES 2975 Good paid
7788 SCOTT 3000 Good paid
…….
Explanation: In the above example, a new column is projected as salary_comments, which
shows the remark for each employee as Highest paid/Good paid/Average paid/Low paid
based on salary column. CASE provides the way in SQL to write IF-THEN_ELSE logic and helps
in interpreting the results.

Example 6 | CASE function

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT empno,ename ,sal ,job, CASE
WHEN job='PRESIDENT' THEN sal+sal*.20
WHEN job='MANAGER' THEN sal+sal*.10
WHEN job='ANALYST' THEN sal+sal*.5
ELSE sal
END "New salary" FROM emp;
Output:
EMPNO ENAME SAL JOB New Salary
7839 KING 5000 PRESIDEN 6000
7698 BLAKE 2850 MANAGER 3135
7782 CLARK 2450 MANAGER 2695
7788 SCOTT 3000 ANALYST 4500
7902 FORD 3000 ANALYST 4500
…….

6.7.6 CONVERSION Functions

Conversion functions are used to convert the data type of values from one to another. There
are two ways to data type conversions as discussed below:
Implicit data type conversion: automatically convert the data type. Oracle server
automatically converts the following data type:
FROM TO
VARCHAR or CHAR NUMBER
VARCHAR or CHAR DATE
NUMBER VARCHAR
DATE VARCHAR

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal>'2850';
Output:
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
7839 KING PRESIDENT - 17-Nov-81 5000 - 10
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-Apr-81 2975 - 20
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-Apr-87 3000 - 20
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-Dec-81 3000 - 20
…….
Explanation: In the above example salary column is of numeric data type and while querying
sal>’2850’ value is given as string which is implicitly converted into number by ORACLE and
resultant data is projected as an output.

Explicit data type conversion: ORACLE provides three functions to convert a value from one
data type to another, as shown in Fig. 6.7.3 below:
TO_NUMBER TO_DATE TO_CHAR TO_CHAR

CHARACTER NUMBER CHARACTER DATE NUMBER CHARACTER DATE CHARACTER

Figure 6.7.3: Explicit data type conversion

 TO_CHAR(): converts the source value of number or date data type in the specified format
of source into character.
Syntax: TO_CHAR(date|number|column,[ format]) converts a number or date value to a
VARCHAR character string with the specified format.

Example 1 | TO_CHAR() Function

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT empno, hiredate, To_char(hiredate,'YEAR/yy/YYYY') "Expression 1" ,
To_char(hiredate,'MON/mm/mon/Mon/MONTH') "Expression 2" ,
To_char(hiredate,'Day/day/dd/dy') "EXpression 3" FROM emp;
Output:
EMPNO HIREDATE Expression 1 Expression 2 EXpression 3
7839 17-Nov-81 NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE/81/1981 NOV/11/nov/Nov/NOVEMBER Tuesday /tuesday /17/tue
7698 01-May-81 NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE/81/1981 MAY/05/may/May/MAY Friday /friday /01/fri
7782 09-Jun-81 NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE/81/1981 JUN/06/jun/Jun/JUNE Tuesday /tuesday /09/tue
7566 02-Apr-81 NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE/81/1981 APR/04/apr/Apr/APRIL Thursday /thursday /02/thu
7788 19-Apr-87 NINETEEN EIGHTY-SEVEN/87/1987 APR/04/apr/Apr/APRIL Sunday /sunday /19/sun
……..
Explanation: In the above example, TO_CHAR() function is used to convert the hiredate
column, which is of date data type in the specified format.

There are different elements of dates in terms of YEAR, MONTH & DAY as shown in the
summary table below:
Elements of Date Results
YYYY Full years in numbers
YEAR Year spelled out (in English)
MM Two-digit value for month
MONTH Full name of month
MON Three-letter abbreviation of the month
DY Three-letter abbreviation of the day of the week
DAY Full name of the day of the week
DD Numeric day of the month

Example 2 | TO_CHAR() function

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT empno, sal, To_char(sal,'$99,999'), To_char(sal,'99,999.00') FROM emp;
Output:
EMPNO SAL TO_CHAR(SAL,'$99,999') TO_CHAR(SAL,'99,999.00')
7839 5000 $5,000 5,000.00
7698 2850 $2,850 2,850.00
7782 2450 $2,450 2,450.00
7566 2975 $2,975 2,975.00
Explanation: In the above example, the salary column is a numeric data type converted into a
string as per the format specified in the argument, i.e., '$99,999'. 9 and 0 are used to
represents a digit in numeric data type columns.

Example 3 | TO_CHAR() function

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT TO_CHAR(sysdate) AS DEF_FORMAT, TO_CHAR(sysdate, 'DD/MM/YYYY') AS INDIAN,
TO_CHAR(sysdate, 'MM/DD/YY') AS AMERICAN FROM dual;
Output:
DEF_FORMAT INDIAN AMERICAN
15-Jun-21 15-06-2021 06/15/21

Explanation: In the above example, the system date is used, and converting date value into
specified format is projected using DUAL table.

 TO_NUMBER(): converts the character string to number format

Syntax: To_number(character,[format]) converts a string containing digits to a number in
the format specified by the optional format argument.

Example 4 | TO_NUMBER() function

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT '1000.98' "ORIG_NOFORMAT", TO_NUMBER('1000.98') "CONV_NOFORMAT", '1,000.98'
"ORIG_FORMAT", TO_NUMBER('1,000.98', '9,999.99') "CONV_FORMAT" FROM DUAL;
Output
 ORIG_NOFORMAT CONV_NOFORMAT ORIG_FORMAT CONV_FORMAT
1000.98 1000.98 1,000.98 1000.98

Explanation: In the above example, a number value is used and how to convert numeric value
as per specified format is projected using DUAL table.
 TO_DATE(): converts string with specified format into default date format.
Syntax: To_date(character,[format]) converts a character string representing a date to a date
value according to the specified format. If format argument is omitted, then the default
format is DD-MON-YY.

Example 5 | TO_DATE() function

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT '01-Jan-2014' AS DATE_STRING, TO_DATE('01-Jan-2014') AS CONV_NOFORMAT,
TO_DATE('01/01/2014', 'DD/mm/YYYY') AS CONV_FORMAT FROM DUAL;
Output:
DATE_STRING CONV_NOFORMAT CONV_FORMAT
01-Jan-14 01-Jan-14 01-Jan-14

Explanation: In the above example, the date data type value is used, and how to convert the
date value as per the specified format is projected using the DUAL table.

6.8 Reporting Aggregated Data Using the Aggregate Functions

Aggregate/Group functions operate on sets of rows and return a single result per group.
These sets may comprise the entire table as shown in Figure 1 or the table is split into groups
as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1: Aggregate function applied on a group as the entire table

 Figure 2: Aggregate function applied on groups (divided table based on Department id)

Aggregate functions can appear in select lists and ORDER BY and HAVING clauses. However,
they are commonly used with the GROUP BY clause in a SELECT statement, where Oracle
Database divides the rows of a queried table or view into groups.

AGGREGATE Function and GROUP BY Clause

Syntax | Oracle
SELECT [column_list], aggregate_function (column), …
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY column(s)]
[ORDER BY column(s)];

Types of Aggregate functions

Function Description
AVG([DISTINCT|ALL] expr) Returns the average value of a column over a set of rows i.e. Average value of
expr, ignoring null values
COUNT({*|DISTINCT|ALL]expr}) Returns number of rows, where expr evaluates to something other than null,
Count all selected rows using * including duplicates and rows with nulls
MAX([DISTINCT|ALL] expr) Returns maximumvalues of expr, ignoring null values
MIN([DISTINCT|ALL] expr) Returns minimumvalues of expr, ignoring null values
STDDEV([DISTINCT|ALL] n) Standard deviation of n, ignoring null values
SUM([DISTINCT|ALL] n) Sum values of n, ignoring null values
VARIANCE([DISTINCT|ALL] n) Variance of n, ignoring null values

Note:
 DISTINCT makes the function consider only non-duplicate values
 ALL makes it consider all values, including duplicates. Default is ALL and therefore need
not be specified.
 The datatypes for the functions with expr as an argument may be CHAR, VARCHAR2,
NUMBER or DATE.
 All aggregate functions ignore null values. Use NVL(), NVL2() or COALESCE() function to
substitute a value for null values.

Using the AVG() Function

AVG is an aggregate function that evaluates the average of an expression over a set of rows.
AVG is allowed only on expressions that evaluate numeric data types.

AVG () Function
Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT [column_list,], AVG(aggregate_expression)
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY column(s)];

Parameters or Arguments:
expression1, expression2: Expressions that are not encapsulated within the AVG function
must be included in the GROUP BY clause at the end of the SQL statement.
aggregate_expression: This is the column or expression that will be averaged.
Tables: The tables that you wish to retrieve records from. There must be at least one table
listed in the FROM clause.
WHERE conditions: Optional. These are conditions that must be met for the records to be
selected.
AVG () Function | Example with a single field
SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT AVG (salary) AS "Average Salary"
FROM faculty;
Output:
AVG(SALARY)
67593.75
In this AVG function example, we have aliased the AVG (SALARY) expression as "Average
Salary"

AVG () Function | Example with WHERE condition

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT ROUND(AVG (salary),2)AS "average salary"
FROM faculty
WHERE salary>60000;
Output:
Average Salary
76160.71

AVG () Function | Example with DISTINCT

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT AVG (DISTINCT salary) AS "Average Salary"
FROM faculty;
Output:
Average Salary
67912.5
AVG () Function | Example with Formulae
SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT AVG (salary*0.10) AS "Average Increment" FROM faculty;
Output:
Average Increment
6759.375

AVG () Function | Example with GROUP BY clause

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT dept_id, AVG (salary) AS "average salary"
FROM faculty
GROUP BY dept_id
ORDER BY dept_id;
Output
DEPT_ID Average Salary
D01 60000
D02 63500
D03 77031.25
D04 67000
D05 62000

Using the COUNT () Function

COUNT is an aggregate function that counts the number of rows accessed in an expression.
The COUNT function has three formats:
 COUNT(*)
 COUNT (expr)
 COUNT (DISTINCT expr)
COUNT (*) returns the records in a table, including duplicate records and records containing
null values. If a WHERE clause is included in the SELECT statement, then COUNT (*) returns
the number of rows that satisfy the condition in the WHERE clause.
COUNT(expr) returns the number of non-null values that are in the column identified by expr.
COUNT (DISTINCT expr) returns the number of unique, non-null values in the column
identified by expr.

COUNT () Function
Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT [column_list], COUNT (aggregate_expression)
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY column(s)];

COUNT () Function | Example with *

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
 SELECT COUNT(*) AS "Number of Employees"
FROM faculty;
Output: (Output may vary based on number of records)
Number Of Employees
12

COUNT () Function | Example using DISTINCT

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT dept_id) AS "Number of Departments"
FROM faculty;
Output :
Number Of Departments
5

COUNT () Function | Example with WHERE clause

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT COUNT(*) AS "Number of Employees"
FROM faculty
WHERE dept_id='D01';
Output:
Number Of Employees
3

COUNT () Function | Example with GROUP BY and ORDER BY clause

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT dept_id, COUNT(*) AS "Number of Employees"
FROM faculty
GROUP BY dept_id
ORDER BY dept_id;
Output:
DEPT_ID Number Of Employees
D01 3
D02 2
D03 4
D04 2
D05 1

Using the MAX () Function

MAX is an aggregate function that evaluates the maximum of an expression over a set of rows.
MAX is allowed only on expressions that evaluate built-in data types (including CHAR,
VARCHAR, DATE, TIME, CHAR FOR BIT DATA, etc.).

MAX () Function
Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT [column_list], MAX(aggregate_expression)
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY column(s)];

MAX () Function | Example with single field

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT MAX(salary) AS "Highest Salary" FROM faculty;
Output:
Highest Salary
100125

MAX () Function | Example using GROUP BY Clause

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT dept_id, MAX(SALARY) AS "Highest Salary"
FROM faculty
GROUP BY dept_id
ORDER BY dept_id;
Output:
DEPT_ID Highest Salary
D01 70000
D02 72000
D03 100125
D04 77000
D05 62000

Using the MIN () Function

MIN is an aggregate function that evaluates the minimum of an expression over a set of rows.
MIN is allowed only on expressions that evaluate built-in data types (including CHAR,
VARCHAR, DATE, TIME, etc.).

MIN () Function
Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT [column_list], MIN(aggregate_expression)
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY column(s)];

MIN () Function | Example with a single field

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT MIN(salary) AS "Minimum Salary"
FROM faculty;
Output:
 Minimum Salary
54000

MIN () Function | Example using GROUP BY Clause

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT dept_id, MIN (salary) AS "Minimum Salary"
FROM faculty
GROUP BY dept_id
ORDER BY dept_id;
Output:
DEPT_ID Minimum Salary
D01 54000
D02 55000
D03 56000
D04 57000
D05 62000

Using the SUM () Function

SUM is an aggregate function that evaluates the sum of the expression over a set of rows.
SUM is allowed only on expressions that evaluate numeric data types.

SUM () Function
Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT [column_list], SUM(aggregate_expression)
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition(s)]
[GROUP BY column]
[ORDER BY column(s)];

SUM () Function | Example with single field

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT SUM(salary) AS "Total Salary"
FROM faculty;
Output:
Total Salary
811125

SUM () Function | Example using GROUP BY Clause

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT dept_id, SUM (salary) AS "Total Salary"
FROM faculty
GROUP BY dept_id
ORDER BY dept_id;
Output:
DEPT_ID Total Salary
D01 180000
D02 127000
D03 308125
D04 134000
D05 62000

SUM () Function | Example with Formulae

SQL Statement | Oracle SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT SUM (salary*0.10) AS "Total Increment"
FROM faculty;
Output:
Total Increment
81112.5

Using the STDDEV () Function

Standard deviation is defined as the square root of the variance. STDDEV operates on a group
of rows and returns one row of output. Null values are ignored by the STDDEV() function. You
can use the DISTINCT keyword to exclude duplicate entries.

STDDEV () Function
Syntax | Oracle
SELECT [column_list], STDDEV(aggregate_expression)
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition(s)]
[GROUP BY column]
[ORDER BY column(s)];

STDDEV () Function | Example with single field

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT ROUND(STDDEV (salary),2) AS "Deviation in Salary" FROM faculty;
Output:
Deviation In Salary
13714.74

STDDEV () Function | Example using GROUP BY Clause

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT dept_id, ROUND(STDDEV (salary),2) AS "Deviation in Salary"
FROM faculty
GROUP BY dept_id
ORDER BY dept_id;
Output:
DEPT_ID Deviation In Salary
D01 8717.8
D02 12020.82
D03 18053.27
D04 14142.14
D05 0

STDDEV () Function | Example with Formulae

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT ROUND(STDDEV(salary*0.10),0) AS "Deviation in Increment"
FROM faculty;
Output:

Deviation In Increment
1371

Using the VARIANCE () Function

VARIANCE returns the variance of expr. You can use it as an aggregate or analytic function.
Variance is equal to the square of the standard deviation. It shows the spread or variation of
a group of numbers in a sample.

VARIANCE () Function
Syntax | Oracle
SELECT [column_list], VARIANCE(aggregate_expression)
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition(s)]
[GROUP BY column]
[ORDER BY column(s)];

VARIANCE () Function | Example with a single field

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT ROUND(VARIANCE (salary),2) AS "Variance in Salary" FROM faculty;
Output:

Variance In Salary
188094105.1

VARIANCE () Function | Example using GROUP BY Clause

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT DEPT_ID, ROUND(VARIANCE (salary),2) AS "Variance in Salary"
FROM faculty
GROUP BY dept_id
ORDER BY dept_id;
Output:
DEPT_ID Variance In Salary
D01 76000000
D02 144500000
D03 325920572.9
D04 200000000
D05 0

VARIANCE() Function | Example with Formulae

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT ROUND(VARIANCE(salary*0.10),0) AS "Variance in Increment"
FROM faculty;
Output:

Variance In Increment
1880941

Using the GROUP BY () Clause on multiple columns

We can return summary results for groups and subgroups by listing more than one group by
column.

Example using GROUP BY Clause on multiple columns

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT dept_id, designation, SUM (salary) AS "Total Salary"
FROM faculty
GROUP BY dept_id, designation
ORDER BY dept_id;
Output:
DEPT_ID DESIGNATION Total Salary
D01 Assistant Professor 110000
D01 Associate Professor 70000
D02 Assistant Professor 55000
D02 Associate Professor 72000
D03 Assistant Professor 132000
D03 Associate Professor 76000
D03 Professor 100125
D04 Assistant Professor 57000
D04 Professor 77000
D05 Assistant Professor 62000

Note:
Any column or expression in the SELECT list that is not an aggregate function must be in the
GROUP BY clause.

Illegal queries using GROUP BY Clause on multiple columns

SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT dept_id, designation, SUM (salary) AS "Total Salary"
FROM faculty
 GROUP BY dept_id;
Output: Error message
ORA-00979: not a GROUP BY expression

Using the HAVING Clause

A HAVING clause restricts the results of a GROUP BY in a select expression. The HAVING clause
is applied to each group of the grouped table. Having clause is used to restrict the groups as
follows:
 Rows are grouped
 The group function is applied to the group
 The groups that match the criteria in the HAVING clause are displayed.

AGGREGATE Function, WHERE GROUP BY, HAVING, ORDER BY Clause

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT [column_list], aggregate_function (column), …
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition(s)]
[GROUP BY column(s)]
[HAVING group_condition(s)]
[ORDER BY column(s)];

HAVING Clause | Example

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT dept_id, SUM (salary) AS "Total Salary"
FROM faculty
GROUP BY dept_id
HAVING SUM (salary)>150000
ORDER BY dept_id;
Output: (Actual results may vary depending on data)
DEPT_ID Total Salary
D01 180000
D03 308125

6.9 Retrieving Data from Multiple Tables

6.9.1 Using Comma Operator

The comma operator (,) is used to combine records from two or more tables in a database.
Suppose there are two tables T1 having x no of columns, m no of records, and table T2 having
y no of columns, n no of records. After applying the comma operator, x+y no of column and
m*n no of records will be in the resultant table. To filter some desired records from the
resultant table, we can use the WHERE clause.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

 SELECT * FROM TABLE1 [alias name], TABLE2 [alias name], TABLE3 .......................... [WHERE
condition(s)];

Example: Suppose we would like to display COURSE information along with DEPARTMENT
information. This means we have to combine two tables using a comma operator.
Course Department
course_id course_name course_credit dept_id dept_id dept_name dept_location
KCS301 Data Structure 3 D01 D01 CS Aryabhatta Block
KCS401 DBMS 3 D02 D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
KME502 Machine Design 2 D05 D03 IT Aryabhatta Block
KEC301 Digital Electronics 2 D03 D04 CSE-DS Bhabha Block
KAS101 Physics 3 D02 D05 ME Ramanujan Block

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT * FROM course c, department d;
Output:
course_id course_name course_credit dept_id dept_id dept_name dept_location
KAS101 Physics 3 D02 D01 CS Aryabhatta Block
KCS301 Data Structure 3 D01 D01 CS Aryabhatta Block
KCS401 DBMS 3 D02 D01 CS Aryabhatta Block
KEC301 Digital Electronics 2 D03 D01 CS Aryabhatta Block
KME502 Machine Design 2 D05 D01 CS Aryabhatta Block
KAS101 Physics 3 D02 D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
KCS301 Data Structure 3 D01 D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
KCS401 DBMS 3 D02 D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
KEC301 Digital Electronics 2 D03 D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
KME502 Machine Design 2 D05 D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
KAS101 Physics 3 D02 D03 IT Aryabhatta Block
KCS301 Data Structure 3 D01 D03 IT Aryabhatta Block
KCS401 DBMS 3 D02 D03 IT Aryabhatta Block
KEC301 Digital Electronics 2 D03 D03 IT Aryabhatta Block
KME502 Machine Design 2 D05 D03 IT Aryabhatta Block
KAS101 Physics 3 D02 D04 CSE-DS Bhabha Block
KCS301 Data Structure 3 D01 D04 CSE-DS Bhabha Block
KCS401 DBMS 3 D02 D04 CSE-DS Bhabha Block
KEC301 Digital Electronics 2 D03 D04 CSE-DS Bhabha Block
KME502 Machine Design 2 D05 D04 CSE-DS Bhabha Block
KAS101 Physics 3 D02 D05 ME Ramanujan Block
KCS301 Data Structure 3 D01 D05 ME Ramanujan Block
KCS401 DBMS 3 D02 D05 ME Ramanujan Block
KEC301 Digital Electronics 2 D03 D05 ME Ramanujan Block
KME502 Machine Design 2 D05 D05 ME Ramanujan Block

In the above output, the orange box showing the COURSE table, and the green box showing
the DEPARTMENT table. In the resultant table, some records are not valid as per our case
study, e.g., Record no 1, physics course is mapping with CS department, but our case study
physics course is only running in CSE department and many more invalid records. We are
getting these records because of the comma operator working. Comma operator maps each
record of the first table with each record of the second table.

To eliminate these invalid records, we can use the WHERE clause.

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT * FROM course c, department d WHERE c.dept_id = d.dept_id;

Output:

course_id course_name course_credit dept_id dept_id dept_name dept_location

KAS101 Physics 3 D02 D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
KCS301 Data Structure 3 D01 D01 CS Aryabhatta Block
KCS401 DBMS 3 D02 D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
KEC301 Digital Electron 2 D03 D03 IT Aryabhatta Block
KME502 Machine Desig 2 D05 D05 ME Ramanujan Block

Limitations of Comma Operator

Using the comma operator, we can combine two or more tables, and with the help of the
WHERE clause, we can eliminate invalid records.
Let us assume one scenario; some courses are not mapped with any department, which
means these courses are college-level additional courses. Suppose we would like to display
all course information which are mapped or not mapped with any department. This types of
queries are not possible with a comma operator. To handle these types of scenarios new
concept was added that is called SQL Joins.

6.9.2 Using SQL Joins

The SQL Joins clause is used to combine records from two or more tables in a database. A
JOIN is a means for combining fields from two tables by using values common to each one.
To apply the JOIN on two relations, there must be one common attribute. In addition, the
common attribute must have the same data type and size in both relations; the name of the
attribute may be or may not be the same.

For example, we have to display the COURSE information (course id, course_name,
course_credit, dept_id) along with their DEPARTMENT information (dept_id, dept_name,
depat_location). We can do this by combing the columns from the following tables.

Course Department
course_id course_name course_credit dept_id dept_id dept_name dept_location
KCS301 Data Structure 3 D01 D01 CS Aryabhatta Block
KCS401 DBMS 3 D02 D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
KME502 Machine Design 2 D05 D03 IT Aryabhatta Block
KEC301 Digital Electronics 2 D03 D04 CSE-DS Bhabha Block
KAS101 Physics 3 D02 D05 ME Ramanujan Block

To combine the columns as per requirement, from these two tables, we can use SQL Joins.
Different types of SQL Joins are:
 NATURAL JOIN
 INNER JOIN
 LEFT JOIN
 RIGHT JOIN
 FULL JOIN
 SELF JOIN

NATURAL JOIN: The NATURAL JOIN keyword selects all rows from both the tables as long as
the condition satisfies. We apply NATURAL JOIN when common attributes in both relations
have the same name and the same data type and size. This keyword will create the result-
set by combining all rows from both the tables where the condition satisfies, i.e., the
common field's value will be the same.

Syntax | Oracle
SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,…
FROM table1 NATURAL JOIN table2;

Example: Display COURSE Information along with DEPARTMENT Information with NATURAL
JOIN.

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT * FROM course NATURAL JOIN department;
Output:
DEPT_ID COURSE_ID COURSE_NAME COURSE_CREDIT DEPT_NAME DEPT_LOCATION
D01 KCS301 Data Structure 3 CS Aryabhatta Block
D02 KCS401 DBMS 3 CSE Aryabhatta Block
D02 KAS101 Physics 3 CSE Aryabhatta Block
D03 KEC301 Digital Electronics 2 IT Aryabhatta Block
D05 KME502 Machine Design 2 ME Ramanujan Block

Explanation: In the above output, we have applied NATURAL JOIN. When the dept_id of
COURSE table is the same as the dept_id of the DEPARTMENT table, that record will be
displayed.

INNER JOIN: The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both the tables as long as the
condition satisfies. This keyword will create the result-set by combining all rows from both
the tables where the condition satisfies, i.e., the common field's value will be the same.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT table1.column1, table1.column2, table2.column1,
FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2
ON
join_predicate [WHERE condition(s)];

Example 1: Display COURSE Information along with DEPARTMENT Information with INNER
JOIN.
SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT course.course_id, course.course_name, course.course_credit, course.dept_id,
department.dept_id,department.dept_name,department.dept_location
FROM course INNER JOIN department ON course.dept_id = department.dept_id;

Output:
course_id course_name course_credit dept_id dept_id dept_name dept_location
KAS101 Physics 3 D02 D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
KCS301 Data Structure 3 D01 D01 CS Aryabhatta Block
KCS401 DBMS 3 D02 D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
KEC301 Digital Electron 2 D03 D03 IT Aryabhatta Block
KME502 Machine Desig 2 D05 D05 ME Ramanujan Block

Explanation: In the above output, we have applied INNER JOIN. Orange box showing COURSE
table and green box showing DEPARTMENT table. When the dept_id of COURSE table is the
same as the dept_id of the DEPARTMENT table, that record will be displayed.

Example 2: Suppose we would like to display the section information (section_name,

max_capacity, students_nos) of all the departments.

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT department. dept_id, department.dept_name, section.section_name,
section.max_capacity, section.student_nos
FROM department INNER JOIN section ON department.dept_id = section.dept_id;

Output:
dept_id dept_name section_name max_capacity student_nos
D01 CS A 70 63
D01 CS B 70 67
D02 CSE A 70 65
D04 CSE-DS A 70 NULL
D03 IT A 70 70
D05 ME A 60 32
D05 ME B 60 31

LEFT JOIN: The LEFT JOIN returns all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches
in the right table. This means that a left join returns all the values from the left table, plus
matched values from the right table or NULL in case of no matching join predicate.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2... FROM table1 LEFT JOIN table2
ON join_predicate;

Example: Let us assume one scenario in our case study. Mini Projects are allocated to the
students. Some mini projects are not assigned because it is not mandatory to choose a mini
project for every student. Display the student’s information (roll_no, first_name, dept_id)
with their allocated mini project details (miniproj_id, miniproj_name, domain, subject,
description)

In this example, we have to display all student’s information with allocated mini-project
details.
MINI_PROJECT
miniproj_id miniproj_name domain subject description roll_no(FK)

It seeks to predict the rating a user

MP001 Recommender System Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning 191306280
would give to an item.

Malware has become a big risk in

MP002 Malware detection System Network Security Cryptography 191006345
todays time
AI is used to construct models to
MP003 Tumor detection System Artificial Intelligence Deep Learning 190006876
predict any kind of tumor
The management of the flow of
MP004 Supply chain management Blockchain HyperLedger 191306286
goods and services
It is a text analysis technique that
MP005 Opinion Mining Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning uses computational linguistics and 191106654
natural language processing
Development of a new crawler
MP006 Design of crawler system Web Mining Internet Technology algorithm for mining social data from 191106660
internet.

Designing Machine Learning Classifier

MP007 Stock Market Prediction Cla Artificial Intelligence Machine Learning NULL
for Stock Market Prediction

STUDENT
roll_no first_name middle_ name last_ name dob gender house_no street_name city state pincode dept_id (FK) section_name(FK)
190006876 Nikhil NULL Gupta 22-07-2000 Male G/67 Shahi Road Shimla Himachal Pradesh 223344 D02 A
191006345 Satynder Kumar Bhatia 15-06-2001 Male B/35 Kavi Nagar Ghaziabad Uttar Pradesh 200100 D01 B
191106654 Anmol Lal Ranjan 20-02-2002 Male A/987 Main Market Mysore Karnataka 102030 D05 A
191106660 Amit NULL Singh 14-01-2002 Male C/21 Main Market Raj Nagar Ghaziabad 200101 D03 A
191306279 Ram Kumar Singh 21-04-2002 Male 34/45 Civil Line Allahabad Uttar Pradesh 201016 D02 A
191306280 Aayushi NULL Mishra 12-03-2002 Female 243 Shahdra Delhi Delhi 110063 D01 A
191306286 Swati NULL Srivastava 19-12-2001 Female 456 Rajpur Road Dehradun Uttarakhand 114455 D02 A

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT S.roll_no, S.first_name, S.dept_id, M.miniproj_id, M.miniproj_name,
M.description FROM student S LEFT JOIN mini_project M ON S.roll_no=M.roll_no;

Output:
roll_no first_name dept_id (FK) miniproj_id miniproj_name description
AI is used to construct models to
190006876 Nikhil D02 MP003 Tumor detection System
predict any kind of tumor
Malware has become a big risk in
191006345 Satynder D01 MP002 Malware detection System
todays time
It is a text analysis technique that uses
191106654 Anmol D05 MP005 Opinion Mining computational linguistics and natural
language processing
Development of a new crawler
191106660 Amit D03 MP006 Design of crawler system algorithm for mining social data from
internet.
191306279 Ram D02 NULL NULL NULL
It seeks to predict the rating a user
191306280 Aayushi D01 MP001 Recommender System
would give to an item.
The management of the flow of goods
191306286 Swati D02 MP004 Supply chain management
and services
Explanation: In the above output, all students are shown with only allocated mini-project
details. One student (RAM) has not chosen any mini-project.

RIGHT JOIN: The RIGHT JOIN returns all rows from the right table, even if there are no
matches in the left table. This means that a right join returns all the values from the right
table, plus matched values from the left table or NULL in case of no matching join predicate.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server

SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2... FROM table1 RIGHT JOIN table2
ON join_predicate;

Example: Let us assume one scenario in our case study. Mini projects are allocated to the
students. It may be the possibility that some mini projects are unallocated. Display all mini-
project details (miniproject_id, miniproject_name, domain, description) with their allocated
with student’s details (roll_no, first_name, dept_id).

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT mini_project. miniproj_id, mini_project. miniproj_name, mini_project.
domain, mini_project. description, student. roll_no, student. first_name FROM
student RIGHT JOIN mini_project ON student.roll_no= mini_project.roll_no;

Output:
miniproj_id miniproj_name domain description roll_no first_name
It seeks to predict the rating a user
MP001 Recommender System Artificial Intelligence 191306280 Aayushi
would give to an item.
Malware has become a big risk in
MP002 Malware detection System Network Security 191006345 Satynder
todays time
AI is used to construct models to
MP003 Tumor detection System Artificial Intelligence 190006876 Nikhil
predict any kind of tumor
The management of the flow of goods
MP004 Supply chain management Blockchain 191306286 Swati
and services
It is a text analysis technique that uses
MP005 Opinion Mining Artificial Intelligence computational linguistics and natural 191106654 Anmol
language processing
Development of a new crawler
MP006 Design of crawler system Web Mining algorithm for mining social data from 191106660 Amit
internet.
Design Stock Market Prediction Designing Machine Learning Classifier
MP007 Artificial Intelligence NULL NULL
Classifier for Stock Market Prediction

Explanation: In the above output, all mini-projects are shown. One project is not allocated for
any students.

FULL JOIN: The SQL FULL JOIN combines the results of both left and right outer joins.
The joined table will contain all records from both the tables and fill in NULLs for missing
matches on either side.
Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server
SELECT table1.column1, table2.column2... FROM table1 FULL JOIN table2 ON
join_predicate;
Example: Let us assume one scenario in our case study. Mini projects are allocated with
students. However, some mini projects are not assigned because every student doesn’t need
to choose a mini-project. So It may be the possibility that some mini projects are unallocated.
Therefore, display all the mini-project details (miniproj_id, miniproj_name, domain,
description) along with all student’s details (roll_no, first_name, dept_id).

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT mini_project.miniproj_id, mini_project.miniproj_name, mini_project.domain,
mini_project.description,
student.roll_no, student.first_name FROM
student FULL JOIN mini_project ON mini_project.roll_no = student.roll_no;

Output:
miniproj_id miniproj_name domain description roll_no first_name
AI is used to construct models to predict any
MP003 Tumor detection System Artificial Intelligence 190006876 Nikhil
kind of tumor
MP002 Malware detection System Network Security Malware has become a big risk in todays time 191006345 Satynder
It is a text analysis technique that uses
MP005 Opinion Mining Artificial Intelligence computational linguistics and natural language 191106654 Anmol
processing
Development of a new crawler algorithm for
MP006 Design of crawler system Web Mining 191106660 Amit
mining social data from internet.
NULL NULL NULL NULL 191306279 Ram
It seeks to predict the rating a user would give
MP001 Recommender System Artificial Intelligence 191306280 Aayushi
to an item.
The management of the flow of goods and
MP004 Supply chain management Blockchain 191306286 Swati
services
Design Stock Market Designing Machine Learning Classifier for Stock
MP007 Artificial Intelligence NULL NULL
Prediction Classifier Market Prediction

SELF JOIN: A self-join allows you to join a table to itself. It is useful for querying hierarchical
data or comparing rows within the same table.
A self-join uses the inner join or left join clause. Because the query that uses self-join
references the same table, the table alias assigns different names to the same table within
the query.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT select_list FROM table t1 [INNER | LEFT] JOIN table t2 ON join_predicate;

Example: Suppose we have to find the second highest salary college paid by the college.
There can be multiple queries possible to find the above result. For example, one way can be
using SELF JOIN.
If we see the records of faculties and apply SELF JOIN on it, we will get the 2nd highest salary.
 faculty_id first_name designation doj salary
1123 Ashutosh Assistant Professor 12-06-2010 76000
1231 Ram Assistant Professor 17-12-2010 54000
1386 Shyam Assistant Professor 03-04-2011 57000
1497 Mala Associate Professor 04-06-2011 70300
1695 Sneha Associate Professor 06-09-2011 76000
1711 Elina Assistant Professor 17-10-2011 55000
1734 Nidhi Assistant Professor 06-12-2011 56000
1762 Ankur Assistant Professor 23-03-2012 56000
1793 Babita Associate Professor 17-08-2012 70000
1859 Divya Professor 17-09-2012 77000
1987 Ayush Professor 13-11-2012 100125
1998 Ashutosh Assistant Professor 20-03-2013 57000
2345 Gagan Assistant Professor 10-10-2013 52000
2765 Grish Assistant Professor 01-12-2013 62000
3768 Aakash Associate Professor 04-04-2014 63000
9765 Laxman Associate Professor 19-09-2018 72000

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT MAX(f1.salary) FROM faculty f1 INNER JOIN faculty f2 ON f1.salary <
f2.salary;
Output:
2nd Highest Salary
77000

6.10 Retrieving data using Subqueries

A subquery answers multiple-part questions. For example, to determine who works in Ayush's
department, you can first use a subquery to determine the department in which Ayush works.
You can then answer the original question with the parent SELECT statement. A subquery in
the FROM clause of a SELECT statement is also called an inline view. A subquery in the WHERE
clause of a SELECT statement is also called a nested subquery.

A subquery can contain another subquery. Oracle Database imposes no limit on the number
of subquery levels in the FROM clause of the top-level query.
Let’s take this example of knowing the faculties working in Ayush’s department.
Inner query to know Ayush’s Department:
SELECT dept_id FROM faculty WHERE first_name='Ayush;

Outer query to know faculties working in Department D03:

SELECT first_name FROM faculty WHERE dept_id='D03';

So we have divided to use a subquery as a better option than the query used in two parts. By
using a subquery, we can nest the first query inside the second one, as shown in the following
statement:

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL SER

SELECT first_name
FROM faculty
WHERE
dept_id=
(SELECT dept_id
FROM faculty
WHERE first_name='Ayush');
Output:
FIRST_NAME
Ayush
Nidhi
Sneha
Ashutosh

Explanation: The inner query will retrieve the department id D03, and the outer query will
retrieve the first name of all faculties working in the same department.
Subqueries can be used with the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements along with
the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN, etc.

Types of subqueries:

Single Row Subquery

A single row subquery returns zero or one row to the outer SQL statement. You can place a
subquery in a WHERE clause, a HAVING clause, or a FROM clause of a SELECT statement.
Example 1: Find the name of faculty who is getting maximum salary along with their
department id and the salary

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT FIRST_NAME, DEPT_ID, SALARY
FROM FACULTY
WHERE
SALARY=
(SELECT MAX(SALARY)
FROM FACULTY
);
Output:

Multiple Row Subquery

Multiple row subquery returns one or more rows to the outer SQL statement. You may use
the IN, ANY, or ALL operator in the outer query to handle a subquery that returns multiple
rows.

Example 2: Display the name and department of the faculties who have the designation as
'Professor' using IN operator

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT FIRST_NAME, DEPT_ID FROM FACULTY
WHERE DEPT_ID IN(
 SELECT DISTINCT DEPT_ID
FROM FACULTY
WHERE DESIGNATION='Professor');
Output:
FIRST_NAME DEPT_ID
Ashutosh D03
Sneha D03
Nidhi D03
Ayush D03
Ashutosh D04
Divya D04

The ANY operator compares a value to each value returned in the subquery.<ANY means less
than the maximum, >ANY means more than the minimum, and =ANY is equivalent to IN
operator
Example 3: Display the list of faculty who are not 'Assistant Professor' and whose salary is less
than any 'Assistant Professor' using ANY Operator.
SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT first_name, designation, salary, dept_id

FROM faculty
WHERE salary < ANY
(SELECT salary
FROM faculty
WHERE designation='Assistant Professor')
AND designation<>'Assistant Professor'
ORDER BY dept_id;
Output:
FIRST_NAME DESIGNATION SALARY DEPT_ID
Associate
Babita 70000 D01
Professor
Associate
Laxman 72000 D02
Professor
Associate
Mala 70300 D02
Professor
Associate
Aakash 63000 D02
Professor

The ALL operator compares a value to every value returned in the subquery. Here >ALL means
that greater the maximum value and <ALL means that the minimum value.
Example 4: Display the list of faculties who are not 'Associate Professor' and whose salary is
less than all Associate Professors using ALL operator.

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT first_name, designation, salary, dept_id
FROM faculty
WHERE salary < ALL
(SELECT salary
FROM faculty
WHERE designation='Associate Professor')
AND designation<>'Associate Professor'
ORDER BY dept_id;
Output:

To better understand this output run one more query as

SELECT first_name, designation, salary, dept_id
FROM faculty
WHERE designation<>'Associate Professor'
ORDER BY dept_id;
Output:

Eleven faculty members are not Associate Professor and eight faculty out of these eleven have
less salary than all Associate Professors.
Scalar Subquery

A scalar subquery expression is a subquery that returns exactly one column value from one
row. The value of the scalar subquery expression is the value of the select list item of the
subquery. If the subquery returns 0 rows, then the value of the scalar subquery expression is
NULL.

Example 5: Find the name of employees for whom salary is greater than the average salary

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT first_name FROM faculty
WHERE salary> (
SELECT AVG(salary)
FROM faculty
);
Output:
Multiple Column Subquery
Multiple-column subqueries enable you to combine duplicate WHERE conditions into a single
WHERE clause.

Example 6: Write a query that displays the faculty details which get the maximum salary in
their respective departments.

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT first_name, dept_id, salary FROM faculty
WHERE
(dept_id, salary)
IN
(SELECT dept_id, MAX (salary)
FROM faculty
GROUP BY dept_id)
ORDER BY dept_id;
Output

Nested Subquery
A subquery that is placed in the WHERE clause of a SELECT statement is also called nested
subquery. There is no limit on the number of subqueries that could be placed in the FROM
clause of a SELECT statement, but we could nest up to 255 levels of subqueries in
the WHERE clause.

Example 7: Find the name of faculty who have offices in 'Aryabhatta block'

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT first_name, last_name, designation FROM faculty
WHERE dept_id IN(
SELECT dept_id
FROM department
WHERE
dept_location='Aryabhatta Block');
Output:
Correlated Subquery
Correlated Subqueries are used to select data from a table referenced in the outer query. The
subquery is known as correlated because the subquery is related to the outer query. In this
type of query, a table alias (also called a correlation name) must be used to specify which
table reference is to be used.

Syntax | Oracle
SELECT column1, column2, ....
FROM table1 outer
WHERE column1 operator
(SELECT column1, column2
FROM table2
WHERE expr1 =
outer.expr2);

Example 8: Find all faculties who earn more than the average salary in their department.
SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT last_name, salary, dept_id
FROM faculty outer
WHERE salary >
(SELECT AVG(salary)
FROM faculty
WHERE dept_id =
outer.dept_id);
Output

Other use of correlation are in UPDATE and DELETE.

Correlated Update
Syntax | Oracle
UPDATE table1 alias1
SET column = (SELECT expression
 FROM table2 alias2
WHERE alias1.column =
alias2.column);

Example 9: Update the faculty record by substituting its department id from the department
name.

Correlated Update
SQL Statement | Oracle
UPDATE faculty f
SET dept_id = (SELECT dept_name
FROM department d
WHERE f.dept_id =
d.dept_id);
SELECT faculty_id, first_name, dept_id
FROM faculty;
Output:

Correlated Delete
Syntax | Oracle
DELETE FROM table1 alias1
WHERE column1 operator
(SELECT expression
FROM table2 alias2
WHERE alias1.column = alias2.column);

Example 10: Delete the records of all faculty who have offices in Aryabhatta block
SQL Statement | Oracle
DELETE FROM faculty f
WHERE dept_id =
(SELECT dept_id
FROM department d
WHERE (f.dept_id = d.dept_id and d.dept_location='Aryabhatta
Block'));
SELECT faculty_id, dept_id FROM faculty;
Output: (Output may vary depending on the data)

Nested Subqueries versus Correlated Subqueries:

With a regular nested subquery, the inner SELECT query runs first and executes once,
returning values to be used by the main query. A correlated subquery, however, executes
once for each candidate row considered by the outer query. In other words, the inner query
is driven by the outer query.

NOTE: You can also use the ANY and ALL operator in a correlated subquery.

6.11 Using Set Operators

The Set operators are used to combine two or more SELECT queries into a single result.
Queries containing set operators are called compound queries.

Here are the four SQL set operators with their respective returns
Operator Returns
UNION All distinct rows selected by either query
UNION ALL All rows selected by either query, including all duplicates
INTERSECT All distinct rows selected by both queries
MINUS All distinct rows selected by the first query but not the second

Before using any of these operators, we have to follow a set of rules

 The result set of all SELECT queries must have the same number, type, and position of
columns 
 To sort the result, an ORDER BY clause should be part of the last statement
 The first SELECT statement must find out the column names or aliases.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT [column_name, ...] FROM [table1]
[set Operator]
SELECT [column_name, ...] FROM [tableN]

UNION Operator
The UNION operator is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT statements.
However, it will eliminate duplicate rows from its result set.
Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT [column_came, ...] FROM [table1]
UNION
SELECT [column_name, ...] FROM [table2]
Example 1
If we want to display all faculty members who have their designation as 'Assistant Professor'
we have to make the following SELECT statement.

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT faculty_id ,first_name, designation FROM faculty
WHERE designation = 'Assistant Professor';

Output:
It will display nine records in the result set, as shown below.
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME DESIGNATION
1231 Ram Assistant Professor
2765 Grish Assistant Professor
1734 Nidhi Assistant Professor
1386 Shyam Assistant Professor
2345 Gagan Assistant Professor
1123 Ashutosh Assistant Professor
1762 Ankur Assistant Professor
1998 Ashutosh Assistant Professor
1711 Elina Assistant Professor

If we want to display all faculty members who have their gender as 'Female' we have to make
the following SELECT statement.

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT faculty_id,first_name, designation FROM faculty WHERE gender = 'Female';
Output:

It will display six records in the result set.

FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME DESIGNATION

1734 Nidhi Assistant Professor
1497 Mala Associate Professor
1695 Sneha Associate Professor
1793 Babita Associate Professor
1859 Divya Professor
1711 Elina Assistant Professor

If we see here, these two records are present in both result sets.
 1734 Nidhi Assistant Professor
1711 Elina Assistant Professor

If we want to find the set of all faculties having designation as 'Assistant Professor' or gender
as 'Female', we write the following compound SQL queries.

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT faculty_id ,first_name, designation FROM faculty
WHERE designation = 'Assistant Professor'
UNION
SELECT faculty_id,first_name, designation FROM faculty
WHERE gender = 'Female';
Output:
The result set shows 13 records instead of 15 records since the UNION operators have
removed two duplicate records.
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME DESIGNATION
1123 Ashutosh Assistant Professor
1231 Ram Assistant Professor
1386 Shyam Assistant Professor
1497 Mala Associate Professor
1695 Sneha Associate Professor
1711 Elina Assistant Professor
1734 Nidhi Assistant Professor
1762 Ankur Assistant Professor
1793 Babita Associate Professor
1859 Divya Professor
1998 Ashutosh Assistant Professor
2345 Gagan Assistant Professor
2765 Grish Assistant Professor

Example 2: To find the students who have a phone number or having 'Technical' hobby or
both, we write the SQL statement
SELECT roll_no
FROM student_phone_no
UNION
SELECT roll_no
FROM student_hobby
WHERE student_hobby.hobby='Technical';
 OUTPUT of Query 1 OUTPUT of Query 2

ROLL_NO ROLL_NO
190006876 190006876
190006876 191106654
191006345 191106660
191106654 UNION 191306280
191106660 191306286
191306280
191306280
191306286
ROLL_NO
190006876
191006345
191106654
191106660
191306280
191306286

UNION ALL Operator

The UNION ALL operator is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT statements.
However, it will not eliminate duplicate rows from its result-set.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT [column_came, ...] FROM [table1]
UNION ALL
SELECT [column_name, ...] FROM [table2]

Example

If we want to find all faculties having designation as 'Assistant Professor' or gender as

'Female', write the following compound SQL queries.
SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT faculty_id ,first_name, designation FROM faculty
 WHERE designation = 'Assistant Professor'
UNION ALL
SELECT faculty_id,first_name, designation FROM faculty
WHERE gender = 'Female';
Output:

Now it displays 15 records since UNION ALL does not remove duplicate records.
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME DESIGNATION
1231 Ram Assistant Professor
2765 Grish Assistant Professor
1734 Nidhi Assistant Professor
1386 Shyam Assistant Professor
2345 Gagan Assistant Professor
1123 Ashutosh Assistant Professor
1762 Ankur Assistant Professor
1998 Ashutosh Assistant Professor
1711 Elina Assistant Professor
1734 Nidhi Assistant Professor
1497 Mala Associate Professor
1695 Sneha Associate Professor
1793 Babita Associate Professor
1859 Divya Professor
1711 Elina Assistant Professor

INTERSECT Operator

The INTERSECT operator is used to combine two SELECT statements, but it only returns the
records which are common from both SELECT statements.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT [column_came, ...] FROM [table1]

INTERSECT
SELECT [column_name, ...] FROM [table2]

Example

To find the set of all 'Female' faculties having designation as 'Assistant Professor', we have to
write the following compound query.
SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL
SELECT faculty_id ,first_name, designation FROM faculty
WHERE designation = 'Assistant Professor'
INTERSECT
SELECT faculty_id,first_name, designation FROM faculty
WHERE gender = 'Female';
Output:
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME DESIGNATION
1711 Elina Assistant Professor
1734 Nidhi Assistant Professor

MINUS Operator
The MINUS operator combines two SELECT statements and returns only those in the final
result, which belongs to the first result set but not in the second result set.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

SELECT [column_came, ...] FROM [table1]
MINUS
SELECT [column_name, ...] FROM [table2]

Example
To find the set of all faculties with designation as 'Assistant Professor' but not 'Female'
SQL Statement | Oracle
SELECT faculty_id ,first_name, designation FROM faculty
WHERE designation = 'Assistant Professor'
MINUS
SELECT faculty_id,first_name, designation FROM faculty
WHERE gender = 'Female';
Output:

Now it returns, 7 seven records

 FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME DESIGNATION
1123 Ashutosh Assistant Professor
1231 Ram Assistant Professor
1386 Shyam Assistant Professor
1762 Ankur Assistant Professor
1998 Ashutosh Assistant Professor
2345 Gagan Assistant Professor
2765 Grish Assistant Professor

So, we need to select the set operator as per requirements carefully.

6.12 Working with Views

A view is a logical representation of a table or combination of tables. In a database, a view is

the result set of a stored query on the data, which the database users can query just as they
would in a persistent database collection object. A view does not form part of the physical
schema: as a result set, a virtual table is computed or collated dynamically from data in the
database when access to that view is requested. A view derives its data from the tables on
which it is based. These tables are called base tables. Base tables might, in turn, be actual
tables or might be view themselves. All operations performed on a view affect the base table
of the view. You can use views in almost the same way as tables. You can query, update, insert
into, and delete from views, just as you can standard tables.

Physical Data in the database table

Logical view of the data for user 1

Just as a function (in programming) can provide abstraction, so can a database view. In
another parallel with functions, database users can manipulate nested views; thus, one view
can aggregate data from other views. Without the use of views, the normalization of
databases above the second normal form would become much more difficult. Views can make
it easier to create lossless join decomposition.
Views can provide advantages over tables:
 Views can represent a subset of the data contained in a table. Consequently, a view
can limit the degree of exposure of the underlying tables to the outer world.
 Views can join and simplify multiple tables into a single virtual table
 Views can act as aggregated tables, where the database engine aggregates data (sum,
average, etc.) and presents the calculated results as part of the data.
 Views can hide the complexity of data. For example, a view could appear as
faculty_d01 or student_cse, transparently partitioning the actual underlying table.
 Views take very little space to store; the database contains only the definition of a
view, not a copy of all the data.

Creating Views
You can create views using the CREATE VIEW statement. Each view is defined by a query that
references base tables or other views.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_list
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Example 1: Create a view as facuty_d01 having personal details (faculty_id, first_name,

designation, gender) of all faculty members that belong to dept_id as 'D01'.

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

CREATE VIEW faculty_d01 AS
SELECT faculty_id,first_name,designation,gender
FROM faculty
WHERE dept_id='D01';

Execute the SQL statement to create the view. Once the view is created, we can use it as a
normal table. For example, if we run a SELECT query on the view faculty_d01, it will display
all the faculty members of dept_id as 'D01'.

SELECT * FROM factuly_d01;

Output:
FACULTY_ID FIRST_NAME DESIGNATION GENDER
1231 Ram Assistant Professor Male
1386 Shyam Assistant Professor Male
2345 Gagan Assistant Professor Male
1762 Ankur Assistant Professor Male
1793 Babita Associate Professor Female
Example 2: Create a view student_cse, having all the students from the 'CSE' department.

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

CREATE VIEW student_cse AS
SELECT roll_no,first_name,gender,dept_name
FROM student,department
WHERE dept_name = 'CSE' AND student.dept_id=department.dept_id;

Now display the records from the view student_cse.

SELECT * FROM student_cse;
Output:
ROLL_NO FIRST_NAME GENDER DEPT_NAME
190006876 Nikhil Male CSE
191306286 Swati Female CSE

Altering a View
If you want to make some changes to any existing view, you can use ALTER VIEW statement.

Syntax | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

ALTER VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_list
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

For example, if you want to alter the view, student_cse to have only Female students of the
'CSE' department, we can write the following SQL statement.

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

ALTER VIEW student_cse AS
SELECT roll_no,first_name,gender,dept_name
FROM student,department
WHERE dept_name = 'CSE' AND gender='Female' AND
student.dept_id=department.dept_id;

If we display records in the student_cse view; you will get only one record
ROLL_NO FIRST_NAME GENDER DEPT_NAME
191306286 Swati Female CSE

Dropping a View
If you want to remove a view from the database, you can drop it using the DROP VIEW
statement.

Syntax | Oracle | Server Server | MySQL

DROP VIEW view_name;

SQL Statement | Oracle | Server Server | MySQL

 DROP VIEW student_cse;

Inline View
An inline view is not a real view but a subquery in the FROM clause of a SELECT statement.
Consider the following SELECT statement:

Syntax | Oracle
SELECT column_list FROM table_name;

In the FROM clause, you can specify a table from which you want to query data. Besides a
table, you can use a subquery as shown in the following example:

Syntax | Oracle
SELECT column_list FROM (SELECT * FROM table_name);

The subquery specified in the FROM clause of a query is called an inline view. Because an
inline view can replace a table in a query, it is also called a derived table.

Simple Oracle inline view example

Example 1: Find the faculty name, faculty id, department id, and salary of the top 5 most well-
paid faculties.

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT *
FROM
(SELECT first_name, faculty_id, dept_id, salary
FROM faculty
ORDER BY salaryDESC)
WHERE ROWNUM<=5;

In the above query for each row returned by a query, the ROWNUM pseudo-column returns
a number indicating the order in which Oracle selects the row from a table or set of joined
rows. The first row selected has a ROWNUM of 1, the second has 2, and so on. In the preceding
example, the ROWNUM values are those of the top-level SELECT statement, so they are
generated after the rows have already been ordered by the salary of the faculty in the
subquery.

Output
Explanation: In this output, first, the inline view returns all faculty sorted by the salary of
faculty in descending order, and then the outer query retrieves the first five rows from the
inline view.

Inline view joins with a table example.

The following example joins an inline view with a table in the FROM clause.
Example 2: Retrieve the department name and the highest salary paid in each department.

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT dept_name, Maximum_Salary
FROM
department d1,
(
SELECT dept_id, max(salary) Maximum_Salary
FROM faculty
GROUP BY dept_id
) d2
WHERE d1.dept_id = d2.dept_id
ORDER BY dept_name;

In this example, the inline view returns the department id list and the highest salary paid in
each department. The outer query joins the inline view with the department table to get the
department name.

Output:

LATERAL Inline view example

Example 3: Retrieve the names of faculty, their department name, and the salary of each of
them.

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT dept_name, first_name, salary
FROM
department d,
(
SELECT dept_id, first_name, salary
FROM faculty f
WHERE d.dept_id = f.dept_id
)
ORDER BY dept_name;

ORA-00904: "D"."DEPT_ID": invalid identifier

This error comes because the inline view cannot reference the tables from the outside of its
definition.
Since Oracle 12c, the LATERAL keyword can refer to the table on the left of the inline view
definition in the FROM clause. The same example is shown next without error.

SQL Statement | Oracle

SELECT dept_name, faculty, salary
FROM
department d,
LATERAL
(
SELECT dept_id, salary
FROM faculty f
WHERE d.dept_id = f.dept_id
)
ORDER BY dept_name;

Output:

Oracle inline view: data manipulation examples

We can use data manipulation statements such as INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE with an
updatable inline view.

Example 4: Increase the salary of all faculty of the 'CSE' Department by 15%.
SQL Statement | Oracle
UPDATE
(
SELECT salary
FROM faculty f INNER JOIN department d using(dept_id)
WHERE d.dept_name='CSE'
)
SET salary = salary*1.15
Output
4 row(s) updated.

Example 5: Delete the records of all faculties who are working as an 'Assistant Professor' in
the 'CSE' Department.

SQL Statement | Oracle

DELETE
(
SELECT designation
FROM faculty f INNER JOIN department d USING (dept_id)
WHERE d.dept_name='CSE' ANDf.designation='Assistant Professor'
)

Output:
1 row(s) deleted.

Difference between table and view

The table is the primary storage for storing data and information in RDBMS. A table is a
collection of related data entries and consists of columns and rows.

A view is a virtual table whose contents are defined by a query. Unless indexed, a view does
not exist as a stored set of data values in a database. Advantages over the table are
  We can combine columns/rows from multiple tables or another view and have a
consolidated view.
 Views can be used as security mechanisms by letting users access data through the
view without granting the users permissions to access the view's underlying base
tables directly.
 It acts as an abstract layer to downstream systems, so any change in the schema is not
exposed and hence the downstream system does not get affected.

6.13 Working with Sequences

Sometimes we require some column in a table that should have auto-generated sequence
numbers, which are not filled by us but automatically generated and filled by the RDBMS
itself. Such values are in sequences and the columns which contain such values are known as
identity columns or auto-incremented columns. A sequence number is a value generated right
before the record is inserted into a table.

Different RDBMS provide different syntaxes to create the identity columns. It is generally
defined at the time of the creation of the table but can also be used separately by some
RDBMS.

Syntax | Oracle
CREATE TABLE table_name(
identity_column_name NUMBER GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY PRIMARY KEY,
column_name datatype(size) constraints,
...
);

Syntax | SQL Server

CREATE TABLE table_name(
identity_column_name INT IDENTITY PRIMARY KEY,
column_name datatype(size) constraints,
…
);

Syntax | MySQL
CREATE TABLE table_name(
identity_column_name INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
column_name datatype(size) constraints,
…
);

For example, we want to create a table quiz with some questions to be used for an
examination. The quiz number will be generated automatically.

SQL Statement | Oracle

CREATE TABLE quiz(
quizno NUMBER GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY PRIMARY KEY,
question VARCHAR2(50) NOT NULL
);
SQL Statement | SQL Server
CREATE TABLE quiz(
quizno INT IDENTITY PRIMARY KEY,
question VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL UNIQUE
);

SQL Statement | MySQL

CREATE TABLE quiz(
quizno INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
question VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL UNIQUE
);

If we add some sample questions and see the records, the RDBMS will automatically generate
the sequence number as a quiz number.

SQL Statement | Oracle | SQL Server | MySQL

INSERT INTO quiz(question) VALUES('Who is known as Father of Computers');
INSERT INTO quiz(question) VALUES('Who is known as founder of C Language');
INSERT INTO quiz(question) VALUES('Who is known as founder of Java');

SELECT * FROM quiz;

Output:
QUIZNO QUESTION
1 Who is known as Father of Computers
2 Who is known as founder of C Language
3 Who is known as founder of Java

Impact of DELETE and TRUNCATE statements on Sequences

When we delete a record using the DELETE statement, the RDBMS automatically takes the
next sequence number and the deleted sequence number is not used.

For example, if I delete the record having quizno as 3 and insert a new record, its quizno will
be 4.

If you delete all the records from a table, even then, RDBMS remembers the last sequence
value and starts with the next value and does not start with sequence number 1.

If you want to remove all records from a table and restart the sequence number again from
1, you need to use the TRUNCATE statement. TRUNCATE TABLE statement removes all the
records and resets the sequence to 1.

Syntax | SQL Server | MySQL

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

SQL Statement | SQL Server | MySQL

 TRUNCATE TABLE QUIZ;
INSERT INTO quiz(question) values('What is BIT');
SELECT * FROM quiz;
Output:

6.14 Controlling user access with DCL Statements

The Overview of Privileges

After creating a user, you need to decide which actions the user can do in the database. The
user may be provided several forms of authorization to perform those actions on parts of the
database.

• Authorization to read data.

• Authorization to insert new data.
• Authorization to update data.
• Authorization to delete data.

The users may also be granted authorizations on the database schema, allowing them to
create, modify, or drop relations.

The various authorizations will be allowed by providing the privileges to the user through the
GRANT command. A privilege is a right to execute an SQL statement or a right to access an
object of another user.

For the types mentioned above of authorizations, Oracle defines two main types of privileges:
1. System Privileges
2. Object Privileges

System Privileges
System privileges determine what a user can do in the database. They mainly allow users to
add or modify schema objects in the database, such as creating tables, creating views, and
removing tablespaces.

The most crucial system privileges are:

 CREATE SESSION
 CREATE TABLE
 CREATE VIEW
 CREATE PROCEDURE
 SYSDBA
 SYSOPER
Object privileges
Object privileges decide how a user can access the data in the database. The object privileges
apply to the records in tables or views.

Here are some standard object privileges:

 SELECT
 INSERT
 UPDATE
 DELETE
 INDEX
 EXECUTE

To grant one or more privileges to a user, you use the GRANT statement.

Creating a User - Revisit

SQL> CREATE USER newuser IDENTIFIED BY abcd1234;
Here we have created a new user login as newuser and password as abcd1234.

6.14.1 GRANT Command for System Privileges:

The GRANT statement assigns one or more system privileges to a specific user.
Syntax | Oracle

SQL> GRANT {system_privileges} TO user_name

In the given syntax, "system_privileges" specify the system privileges you want to assign to a
"user_name" after the GRANT keyword. If you assign more than one privilege, you use a
comma-separated list of privileges.

Examples:
CREATE SESSION Privilege:

After creating the user, to make the newuser enable to log in to the Oracle database, it is
required to provide the CREATE SESSION system privilege to the newuser by using the
GRANT command.

SQL> GRANT CREATE SESSION TO newuser;

CREATE TABLE Privilege:

If you want to grant the CREATE TABLE system privilege to the user newuser, we need to
execute the following statement:

SQL> GRANT CREATE TABLE TO newuser;

GRANT Command for Object Privileges:
The Grant statement is also used for providing Object Privileges to the user on the objects
that belong to a different user. When a user creates a new relation, all privileges on that
relation are assigned to that user automatically.

Syntax | Oracle

GRANT {object_privileges}

ON {relation name or view name}

TO user

Examples:
SELECT Privilege
If the user 'UserX' executes the Select query on the table created by 'UserY', the system will
throw an error: table or view does not exist because the 'UserX' does not have privileges to
execute select query on the table.
The privilege to execute Select query on the table belongs to 'UserY' is given by using the
following syntax by the 'UserX' as:

SQL> GRANT SELECT ON table_name TO UserX

After this command, the user 'UserX' will be able to execute the SELECT command on
'table_name' created by 'UserY'.
INSERT | UPDATE Privilege
To allow 'UserX' to INSERT and UPDATE tuples in the 'table_name', 'UserY' need to grant the
INSERT and UPDATE object privilege to 'UserX'.

SQL> GRANT INSERT, UPDATE ON table_name TO UserX

The insert/update authorization may be given either on all attributes of the relation or on
only some. In that case, the list of attributes on which insert/update authorization is granted
optionally appears in parentheses immediately after the insert/update keyword.

6.14. 2 REVOKE Statement

To revoke an authorization, we use the revoke statement. The syntax is almost identical to
that of Grant:

Syntax |Oracle

SQL> REVOKE {system_privilege | object_privilege } ON relation_name or viewname

 FROM user_name;

In the given syntax, {system_privilege | object_privilege} specify the system or object

privileges that you want to revoke from the user and 'user_name' specifies the user name
from which you want to revoke the privileges. Relation name or view name is the name of
relation or view from which privileges need to be revoked. The relation name or view name
is not mandatory to mention.

Example:
To revoke select, insert, and update authorization from 'UserX' on 'table_name', we use the
following command:
SQL> REVOKE SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE ON table_name FROM UserX

To revoke all system privileges from 'UserX', you can use the following statement:
SQL> REVOKE ALL PRIVILEGES FROM UserX

Note:

We can use the REVOKE statement to revoke only privileges that are granted directly with a
GRANT statement. In other words, you cannot use the REVOKE statement to revoke privileges
that are granted through the operating system or roles.

6.15 Transaction Control using TCL Statements

Concept of Transaction

A transaction is an executing program that includes some database operations, such as

reading from the database or applying insertions, deletions, or updates. At the end of the
transaction, it must leave the database in a valid or consistent state that satisfies all the
constraints specified on the database schema. A single transaction may involve any number
of retrieval operations and any number of update operations. These retrievals and updates
will together form an atomic unit of work against the database. For example, a transaction to
apply a bank withdrawal will typically read the user account record, check if there is a
sufficient balance, and then update the record by the withdrawal amount.
Transaction Control Language (TCL) is the part of SQL used to maintain the database's
consistency and manage transactions in the database.
TCL commands are as follows:

1. COMMIT
2. SAVEPOINT
3. ROLLBACK

6.15.1 COMMIT Statement

  The COMMIT statement is used to save any transaction into the database
permanently.
 It ends the current transaction and marks the changes permanently done during the
transaction.
Syntax | Oracle

COMMIT;

SQL Statement | Oracle

UPDATE STUDENT SET FIRST_NAME ='Mohit' WHERE FIRST_NAME ='Nikhil';

COMMIT;
Explanation: In the above example, we have updated the student's first name from Nikhil to
Mohit and permanently saved it in the database. Now it is not possible to roll back this
transaction. The update transaction gets completed when a commit is used.
SQL Statement | SQL Server

BEGIN TRANSACTION
UPDATE STUDENT SET FIRST_NAME='Mohit' WHERE FIRST_NAME='Nikhil';
COMMIT;

6.15.2 SAVEPOINT Statement

 The SAVEPOINT statement is used to temporarily save a transaction so that we can

roll back to that point whenever required.
 Using this command, we can define the name to different states of our data in any
table and then roll back to that state using the ROLLBACK command whenever
required.
 It marks and saves the current point in the processing of a transaction.

Syntax | Oracle
SAVEPOINT savepoint_name;

6.15.3 ROLLBACK Statement

 The ROLLBACK statement restores the database to the original since the last
COMMIT.
 It is used to restores the database to the last committed state.
 It is also used with the SAVEPOINT command to jump to a savepoint_name in an
ongoing transaction.
Syntax | Oracle

ROLLBACK TO savepoint-name;
Example of SAVEPOINT and ROLLBACK
Following is the table Department
Department
dept_id dept_name dept_location
D01 CS Aryabhatta Block
D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
D03 IT Aryabhatta Block
D04 CSE-DS Bhabha Block
D05 ME Ramanujan Block

We have executed below mentioned queries on this table:

SQL Statement | Oracle

SAVEPOINT A;
INSERT INTO department VALUES ('D07','ECE','BHABHA BLOCK');

SAVEPOINT B;
INSERT INTO department VALUES ('D08','EN','RAMAN BLOCK');

SAVEPOINT C;
INSERT INTO department VALUES ('D09','CSE-AI','ARYABHATTA BLOCK');

SELECT * FROM department;

Explanation: In the above example, we have inserted three values in the department table
and created the savepoints named A, B, and C after each statement. After the execution of
the statements, three records will be inserted in the department table, along with the
creation of three savepoints.

The output table will be:

Department
dept_id dept_name dept_location
D01 CS Aryabhatta Block
D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
D03 IT Aryabhatta Block
D04 CSE-DS Bhabha Block
D05 ME Ramanujan Block
D07 ECE BHABHA Block
D08 EN RAMAN BLOCK
D09 CSE-AI ARYABHATTA BLOCK

Now, if we execute the ROLLBACK statement to roll back the state of data to the savepoint B
SQL Statement | Oracle
ROLLBACK TO B;
SELECT * FROM department;
After executing the above statement, the database will be rollbacked till savepoint B, which
means the last two inserted records after savepoint B in the department table will be
removed.
The output table will be:
Department
dept_id dept_name dept_location
D01 CS Aryabhatta Block
D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
D03 IT Aryabhatta Block
D04 CSE-DS Bhabha Block
D05 ME Ramanujan Block
D07 ECE BHABHA Block

Now rollback to savepoint A

ROLLBACK TO A;
SELECT * FROM department;

After executing the above statement, the database will be rollbacked till savepoint A, which
means the data insert after savepoint A in the department table will be removed.

The output table will be:

Department
dept_id dept_name dept_location
D01 CS Aryabhatta Block
D02 CSE Aryabhatta Block
D03 IT Aryabhatta Block
D04 CSE-DS Bhabha Block
D05 ME Ramanujan Block

6.16 Exporting data to CSV Format

CSV stands for comma-separated values. It is one of the standard data formats used by many
programming languages like Java and Python to generate various reports.
This section will help you export your tabular data managed by different RDBMS to CSV
format, which can be beneficial while creating an application. We can open such files into text
editors like Notepad.

Exporting data to CSV format in MySQL

There are many ways to export data to CSV from MySQL. Some require third part tools, while
another uses a command-line tool and via SQL statement.

The simplest way to create a CSV file in MySQL is via SELECT Statement. After selecting the
data, we need to save the data in CSV format into a file that has to be placed in some specific
folder specified by the MySQL RDBMS.
To see the folder name where you can export the files, we need to execute the following SQL
statement.
SHOW VARIABLES LIKE "secure_file_priv";

Here, secure_file_prev is a predefined system variable that contains the folder name where
we can export the data.
Variable_name Value
secure_file_priv C:\ProgramData\MySQL\MySQL Server 8.0\Uploads\

Now we can export the result set of any SELECT query using the following SQL Statement.
Remember to add one more \ in the path wherever you have \ to since to print a \ we need
to use the Escape Sequence Character \\.
USE SMS;
SELECT * INTO OUTFILE 'C:\\ProgramData\\MySQL\\MySQL Server
8.0\\Uploads\\department.csv'
FIELDS TERMINATED BY ',' OPTIONALLY ENCLOSED BY '"'
LINES TERMINATED BY '\n'
FROM department;

Now you can use the file present in the given folder 'C:\ProgramData\MySQL\MySQL Server
8.0\Uploads\' or a similar folder in your machine.

Exporting data to CSV format in MySQL in Oracle SQL Developer

We can export data from a table directly into a CSV file with the following set of steps in Oracle
SQL Developer.

Start the Oracle SQL Developer software

Select View  Connections

Now select your database, e.g., SMS and choose the table to which data need to be exported,
e.g., department table.

Right-click on the table and select Export…

It opens the Export Wizard.
Uncheck the check box [ ] Export DDL
Select Format as CSV from the dropdown
Define the location of the exported file with the file name and click on the Next button
Click the Next button again and the Finish button in the last window to export the data.

Exporting data to CSV format in SQL Server

To export SQL Server data to CSV format, we can use the SQL Server Import and Export
Wizard. First, go to SQL Server Management Studio (SSMS) and connect to an SQL instance.
Then, from the Object Explorer, select a database, e.g., SMS, right-click, and from the context
menu in the Tasks sub-menu, choose the Export Data option:
The SQL Server Import and Export Wizard welcome window will be opened:
Click on the Next button
Select the Data Source as SQL Server Native Client 11.0
Define the server name as .\SQLEXPRESS

Check the radio button as Use Windows Authentication

Select your database which you want to export, e.g., SMS
Click on the Next button to get the following dialog

Define the folder and file name where you want to export the data using Browse… button
Click on the Next button.

Click on the Next button.

Select the table or view name to export the data and click on the Finish button

Data is exported in a given file name at the given location.

6.17 Conclusion

In this unit, we have studied how to install the RDBMS and manage our relational database
using SQL. Management of database means creating a database with appropriate privileges,
to create the structure of relations using DDL commands like CREATE, ALTER, DROP,
TRUNCATE, RENAME, COMMENT, manipulations of records using DML commands like
INSERT, SELECT, DELETE, UPDATE, allowing or not allowing user permissions on relations using
DCL like GRANT, REVOKE and basics of TCL commands like ROLLBACK, COMMIT, SAVEPOINT.

In this unit, we have seen how SQL Arithmetic operators, Comparison Operators, SET
Operators work in queries, various Single-row and multi-row SQL functions, including
conversion functions like TO_DATE, TO_CHAR, TO_NUMBER.
We have also studied how to fetch records with multiple tables using nested queries,
subqueries, and various types of joins like NATURAL JOIN, INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN,
FULL JOIN, and SELF JOIN. In the last, we have implemented VIEW and SEQUENCES in RDBMS.
In the next unit, we will see all concepts related to Advance SQL like Stored Procedures,
Triggers, Cursors.

Practice Problems
Subquery

1. Find the names of faculty who are working in the same department in which Gagan
Kumar Verma is working.
2. Find the status of research project/s in which Ram Mohan Prasad is working.
3. Find the names of students who have registered for mini-project.
4. Find the names of faculty who are working in more than two research projects.
5. Find the number of students registered in each course of a department.
6. Create a report that displays the faculty id, last name, and salary of all faculty who
earn more than the average salary. Sort the results in ascending order of salary.
7. Write a query that displays the faculty id and last name of all employees who are
working in a department with any employee whose last name includes letter t.
8. Find the first name and salary of all faculty who are reporting to head of the
department Ayush Giri.
9. Find the names of students who are taking courses of faculty Mr. Ram Mohan
Prasad.
10. Find the department in which a faculty has joined most recently.

Aggregate Functions and Group by Clause

11. What is the difference between WHERE clause and HAVING clause?
12. Why do we need to use the same columns that are selected in the SELECT list in the
GROUP BY Clause?
13. Why do we need to have columns that are not part of GROUP BY Clause as part of
aggregate function?
14. Will fixing the error by adding the columns to Group By clause, result in correct
output?
15. In SQL, what’s the difference between the having clause and the group by
statement?
16. Write a query in SQL to find the number of faculty in each department along with the
department id.
17. Write a query in SQL to find the sum of the allotment of salary amount of all
departments.
18. Write a SQL query to display the average salary amount in each department along
with their id.
19. Write a SQL query to find the number of faculty getting salary more than or equal to
Rs.60000.
20. Write a SQL query to find the number of faculty teaching a course and number of
students registered in that course.
21. Write a SQL query to find the number of facultyof each department who are working
in any research project.
22. Write a SQL query to find the first name, faculty id and department of allfaculty who
are working in more than two research projects.
23. Write a SQL query to display the name and id of faculty who has maximum
experience.
24. Write a SQL query to find the first nameand department of all faculty who have
completed any research project.
25. Write a SQL query to find the student names and their departments who have
registered in mini projects of Artificial Intelligence domain.

Where clause using Arithmetic/ Logical/IN/BETWEEN/IS/LIKE

26. Display all the details of student which belongs to Dept_id = ‘D01’.
27. Display name of all male students.
28. List the faculty of Dept_id = ‘D01’ or ‘D03’.
29. List the faculty who have experience more than 5 years.
30. List the details of faculty those have salary greater than 70,000/-.
31. Find out the name of students whose name begins with ‘A’ and ‘S’.
32. List out the name and salary of faculty whose salary is not in the range of 50,000 and
72,000.
33. Find out the name of faculty that have ‘I’ anywhere in their name.
34. List the name of faculty and position that is without HOD.
35. Find out the name of employee that have ‘I’ as third character in their name.
36. List the faculty working under Hod_id 1231, 9765, 2765.
37. Find out the salary of both Ram and Nidhi.
38. List the faculty whose 10% of salary is equal to year of joining.
39. List the faculty whose name is having a character set ‘ii’ together.
40. List the faculty who joined in the month of JAN.
41. Compute daily salary of faculty Nidhi.
42. List those faculty whose salary is even value.
43. List the name of faculty whose salary is ending with 00.

References:
https://docs.oracle.com/database/121/SQLRF/functions003.htm#SQLRF20035
https://docs.oracle.com/javadb/10.8.3.0/ref/rrefsqlj32693.html
https://www.techonthenet.com/oracle/functions/avg.php
https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B19306_01/server.102/b14231/views.htm#i1006127
https://www.folkstalk.com/2012/01/oracle-general-function-examples.html
https://www.tutorialscampus.com/sql/conversion-functions.htm
ORCl10g_1.pdf
http://www.mathcs.emory.edu/~cheung/Courses/554/Syllabus/5-query-opt/convert4.html
SQL Correlated Subqueries - GeeksforGeeks
https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E57185_01/HIRUG/ch03s06s03.html
https://www.w3resource.com/sql/subqueries/corelated-subqueries-using-aliases.php
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/sql/sql-sub-queries.htm
The Basics of Inline View in Oracle, https://www.oracletutorial.com/oracle-view/inline-view-in-
oracle/
https://docs.oracle.com/cd/B12037_01/server.101/b10759/pseudocolumns008.htm
 DBMS Question Bank

Unit 2 (2 Marks)
Q1 What is the difference between DROP and DELETE command?
Q2 What are different Integrity Constraints?
Q3 What is Equi-Join in database?
Q4 Define Super Key, Candidate Key, Primary Key and Foreign Key.
Q5 Explain different Features of SQL.

Unit 2 (5 Marks)
Q1 Define join and explain its different types.
Q2 Suppose we have the following relational database:
employee (person name, street, city)
works(person name, company name, salary)
company (company name, city)
(a) Find the names of all employees who live in city ‘Miami’.
(b) Find the names of all employees whose salary is greater than $100,000.
(c) Find the names of all employees who live in ‘Miami’ and whose salary is greater than
$100,000.
(d) Find the names of all employees who work for “First Bank Corporation”.
(e) Find the names and cities of residence of all employees who work for “First Bank
Corporation”.
(f) Find the names, street address, and cities of residence of all employees who work for
“First Bank Corporation” and earn more than $10,000.
Q3 Suppose we have the following relational database:
branch(branch name, branch city, assets)
customer(customer name, customer street, custromer city)
loan(loan number, branch name, amount)
borrower(customer name, loan number)
account(account number, branch name, balance)
depositor(custromer name, account number)
(a) Underline appropriate primary keys. Primary keys are bold font.
branch(branch name, branch city, assets)
customer(customer name, customer street, customer city) ** customer names may not be
unique**
loan(loan number, branch name, amount) ** assume that loan numbers are across all
branches borrower(customer name, loan number)
account(account number, branch name, balance)
depositor(customer name, account number)
(b) Given your choice of primary keys, identify appropriate foreign keys. Draw a relation
diagram to indicate foreign keys. try having the students draw a box for each schema and
then draw the relation diagram for the foreign keys as is done on the diagram on the first
page.
branch(branch name, branch city, assets)
customer(customer name, customer street, customer city) ** names may not be unique**
loan(loan number, branch name, amount) ** assume that loan numbers are across all
branches borrower(customer name, loan number)
account(account number, branch name, balance)
depositor(customer name, account number)
Foreign Keys: loan and account have foreign key branch name for branch. borrower has
foreign key loan number for loan. depositor has foreign key account number for account.
(c) Find the names of all branches located in ‘Chicago’.
(d) Find the names of all borrowers who have a loan in branch ’Down-town’.
(e) Find all loan numbers with a loan value greater than $10, 000.
(f) Find the names of all depositors who have an account with a value greater than $6000.
Q4 Describe mapping constraints with its types.
Q5 Notown Records has decided to store information about musicians who perform on its
albums (as well as other company data) in a database. The company has wisely chosen to hire
you as a database designer (at your usual consulting fee of $2,500/day).
Each musician that records at Notown has an SSN, a name, an address, and a phone number.
Poorly paid musicians often share the same address, and no address has more than one phone.
Each instrument that is used in songs recorded at Notown has a name (e.g., guitar,
synthesizer, flute) and a musical key (e.g., C, B-flat, E-flat).
Each album that is recorded on the Notown label has a title, a copyright date, a format (e.g.,
CD or MC), and an album identifier.
Each song recorded at Notown has a title and an author.
Each musician may play several instruments, and a given instrument may be played by
several musicians. Each album has a number of songs on it, but no song may appear on more
than one album.
Each song is performed by one or more musicians, and a musician may perform a number of
songs.
Each album has exactly one musician who acts as its producer.
A musician may produce several albums, of course.
Design a conceptual schema for Notown and draw an ER diagram for your schema. The
following information describes the situation that the Notown database must model. Be sure
to indicate all key and cardinality constraints and any assumptions that you make. Identify
any constraints that you are unable to capture in the ER diagram and briefly explain why you
could not express them.
 Unit 2 (7 / 10 Marks)
Q1. Consider a schema R(A, B, C, D) and functional dependencies A -> B and C -> D. Then
the decomposition of R into R1 (A, B) and R2(C, D) is
(a) dependency preserving and lossless join
(b) lossless join but not dependency preserving
(c) dependency preserving but not lossless join
(d) not dependency preserving and not lossless join
Explain in detail why and how?
Q2 Consider the following relational schema:

Suppliers(sid:integer, sname:string, city:string, street:string)

Parts(pid:integer, pname:string, color:string)
Catalog(sid:integer, pid:integer, cost:real)
Consider the following relational query on the above database:
GATE 2009

SELECT S.sname
FROM Suppliers S
WHERE S.sid NOT IN (SELECT C.sid FROM Catalog C
WHERE C.pid NOT IN (SELECT P.pid FROM Parts P
WHERE P.color<> 'blue'))

Assume that relations corresponding to the above schema are not empty. Which one of the
following is the correct interpretation of the above query?

(a) Find the names of all suppliers who have supplied a non-blue part.
(b) Find the names of all suppliers who have not supplied a non-blue part.
(c) Find the names of all suppliers who have supplied only blue parts.
(d) Find the names of all suppliers who have not supplied only blue parts.

Q3 What are the main tasks performed by DBA? Explain Role and Responsibilities of DBA.
Q4. What is a join and explains different types of joins with the help of example.
Q5 The relation book (title, price) contains the titles and prices of different books. Assuming
that no two books have the same price, what does the following SQL query list?
GATE 2005

Select title
From book as B
Where (Select count(*)
from book as T
Where T.price > B.price) < 5

Find the correct option-

(a) Titles of the four most expensive books
(b) Title of the fifth most inexpensive book
(c) Title of the fifth most expensive book
(d) Titles of the five most expensive books
Explain in detail.