Electronics

 Materials that conduct electricity are known as conductors.

Eg: Copper, Aluminium).
 Materials that do not conduct electricity are known as insulators
Eg: Wood, plastic, polythene
 Materials with conductors ionic and electronic are known as mixed
conductors
Eg: Nichrome, Mangunin, Brass
 Some materials conduct a small amount of electricity and are known as
semiconductors.
Eg- Silicon, Germanium

Materials such as Silicon and Germanium are crystalised, and they belong to
the fourth group in the periodic table. The elections in silicon's outermost
energy level consist of four electrons.
These electrons contribute to forming a covalent bond by sharing electrons
with nearby silicon atoms. The atomic lattice is formed by sharing electrons in
this way.
These bonds are very weak. By increasing the temperature than O K can break
down these bonds. When bonds are broken remove the electrons and holes
are formed. As a result of that electron deficiency occurs at the positions that
the free electrons occupy Such positions with an electron deficiency are
known as holes.
Wholes are charged as positive due to the positive charge of the nucleus.

In semi-conductors not only electrons contribute to conduct electricity.

When an electron is jumped into the hole the position of the hole is changed
and electric current is conducted in this manner.
Electrons act as negatively charged carriers while holes act as positively
charged carriers.
Holes move from positive to negative while the electrons move from negative
to positive and the electric current flows from positive to negative.
Holes generated in the breaking of a bond to release an electrons, the no of
electrons present in semiconductor is equal to the lattice no. of holes.
Therefore semiconductor lattice is electrically neutral.

Intrinsic Semiconductors
Pure semiconductor materials such as silicon, and germanium that exist in
crystalized form are known as intrinsic semiconductors.

Effect of Temperature on the Conduction of Electricity .

The random movement of electrons is increased and conductivity is decreased
when the temperature of the conductors is. But when the temperature rises
in the semiconductors the bonds break and remove electrons and form holes
Because of that the semiconductor's conductivity increases when applying
temperature.

Extrinsic Semiconductors
Phosphorous is the element belonging to the 5th group. It has 5 electrons in
the outermost energy level. Phosphorous shares electrons with silicon and
makes a bond
When making the bond 4 electrons of the Phosphorous atom are shared with
4 electrons of the silicon atom. Because of that 1 election is left without taking
part to form a bond. This election can move freely in the lattice.
Since negatively charged electrons are produced in the lattice as charge
carriers the semi-conductor is known as n-type or negative type
semiconductor.
Semi-conductors whose carriers have been increased by dopping it with
another element are known as extrinsic semi conductus.
By dopping intrinsic semiconductors with other elements in the group in group
5 (Phosphorous, Asanic) negative type semiconductors can be formed.
The elements in group 5 are known as donor atoms.
P – Type

Element in 3rd group such as Boran is dopped into the intrinsic semiconductor
such as Silicon Due to that to form a bond electrons in Boron are shared with
electrons in Silicon nearby in the lattice. When the bond is formed it makes a
1 election deficiency. Because of that hole is formed.
The positively charged holes are produced in the lattice as charge carriers the
semiconductor is known as p-type or positive type.

Some holes that can receive electrons are produced by group 3 elements they
are known as acceptor atoms.

p-n Junction
p-n Junction can be formed by dopping the elements in which group 3 to the
intrinsic semiconductors such as Silicon or Germanium to form a p-type
semiconductor and the other side with group 5 element to form an n-type
conductor.

The free elections in the n-region diffuse across the junction towards the p-
region while the holes in the p-region diffuse across the junction towards the
n-region.
Due to this diffusion electrons and holes are combined to form a region. The
region is known as the depletion layer or depletion region.

Extra electrons have entered the p-side of the depletion region giving it
(-) charge.
Extra holes have entered the n-side of the depletion region giving it
(+) charge.
Thus potential difference is known as a potential barrier. It repels the charges.
The magnitude of the potential barrier in a p-n junction formed by Silicon is
0.7 V.
The magnitude of the potential barrier in a p-n junction formed by Germanium
0.3 V.

Biasing a p-n Junction

Applying a potential difference across the p-n junction using an external

electric source is known as biasing.
There are two types of biasing.
1. Forward biasing
2. Reverse biasing
In A, the battery is connected to the diode positive terminal to the (+) and
(-) terminal to the negative. Therefore, current passing through the circuit and
blub is lighted.

In B, the battery connected to the diode positive terminal to the (-) and
(-) terminal to the positive. Therefore current does not pass through the circuit
and the bulb is not lighted.

Reverse biased p-n junction.

Elections in the n region attract to the (+) terminal of the depletion region.
Holes in the p region attract to the (-) for minimal depletion region.
This occurs only when the external source is applied.
After that the depiction region broadens at that time the charges do not flow.
That is called reverse bias.

Forward biased p-n junction

The external potential source is connected with the positive potential

connected to the P-region and the (-) potential connected to the n-region.
The holes in the 8-region repel the positive terminal potential towards the
junction and the electrons in the P region repel by the negative potential
towards the junction.
At that time the deflection region narrows down and the current passing
through it is called forward bias.
If the external supply is lower than the 0.7 V, the electric current does not flow.
If it is higher than 0.7 V, the current flows across the junction.

p-n Junction Diode

A component consisting only of a p-n junction is known as a junction diode.
Electricity is conducted through the junction only when the anode the
connected to the positive terminal of an external voltage supply and the
direction of the current through the junction is shown by using an arrow.

The external appearance of a junction diode has a cylindrical shape and have
black colour.
The white or silver colour range shows the terminals of a cathode.

Rectification of Alternating Currents

The task of converting an alternating current into a direct current that flows
only in one direction is known as rectification.

Half Wave Rectification

First, the voltage is lowest to the desired value using step down transformer
since the current passing through the diodes only takes place to the resistance
then current passing through the resistance flow only during the positive half
of the cycle of the AC on that occasion, the negative half becomes zero.
The output always consists only of half of a cycle of the current is known as
half-wave rectification

Full Wave Rectification

Observation:
The galvanometer deflects only one direction.
Conclusion:
The AC flows from the bicycle dynamo and is converted into DC.
In the two figures, the bulb lights up with the same brightness.
In the (a) figure D2 and D4 are the forward biased and D1 and D3 are reverse
biased.
In figure B the D1 and D2 are forward biased and D3 and D4 are reverse biased.
Both cycles of the alternating current through the bulb are made to flow in the
same direction in the output is known as full wave rectification.

Smoothing
Smoothing of a half wave rectification

By connecting a capacitor with a large capacitance parallel to the output

terminals of the rectified circuit the variation is reduced this process is known
as smoothing.
When the voltage supplied by the diode gradually increases from zero the
capacitor gets charged. When the voltage drops back after reaching the
maximum value the charge in the capacitor is released. Therefore, the voltage
through the diode gets zero.
Smoothing of a full wave rectification output

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

When a p-n junction formed with a semiconductor material such as Gallium
arsenide is forward biased.
Light is emitted at the junction. These types of diodes are capable of emitting
light.

(-)

(+)

Solar Cells
Solar cells are constructed using a p-n junction. Therefore, they are diodes.
When the sunlight falls on the Silicon p-n junction a small electromotive force
is generated across the junction.
Solar panels are arranged using a large number of solar cells which are
connected in series and parallel.

Transistors
There are 2 forms of transistors,
1. pnp transistor
2. npn transistor

Emitter (E)
The terminals which emit electrons or holes.
Collector (C)
The terminal collects electrons and holes.

Base (B)
The terminal at the middle can control the electrons and holes flowing from
the emitter to the collector.
Amplifying Process of a transistor
Current Amplifier
A transistor is used as a current amplifier.
When a small current is supplied as the input of that transistor gets large
amount as output.

Bulb L1 Bulb L2
S1 S2 Lighting Lighting
Brightness Brightness
Up Up
off off - -
on off less -
off on - -
on on less high

Conclusion: a small current in the import can be amplified into a large current
in the output using a transistor is known as current amplification.
Signal Amplifier
Transistors can also used as signal amplifiers.

When connecting an audio frequency signal generator to points A and B the

sound is increased due to the amplifier of sound through transistors.

Switching action of a transistor

When the V difference between the emitter and the base is less than 0.7 V
there is no collector current. When the V difference between E and B is about
0.7 the collector current begins to flow.
When the V difference between E and Bis is more than 0.7 the collector
current reaches a maximum.

Therefore, when the V difference between B-E is less than 0.7 the transistor
acts as an open switch and the V difference between B-E is greater than 0.7
transistor act as a closed switch.