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 For Sandro and Mary

For Saunders:

Commissioning Editor: Joyce Rodenhuis

Senior Development Editor: Zoë A Youd
Project Manager: Samantha Ross
Designer: Andrew Chapman
Illustrations: Antbits Illustration
Equine Visualizer: Maggie Raynor
SAUNDERS
An imprint of Elsevier Limited

© 2004, Elsevier Limited. All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without either the prior permission of the publishers or a licence
permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by
the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road,
London W1T 4LP. Permissions may be sought directly from
Elsevier’s Health Sciences Rights Department in Philadelphia,
USA: phone: (⫹1) 215 238 7869, fax: (⫹1) 215 238 2239,
e-mail: [email protected]. You may also complete
your request on-line via the Elsevier Science homepage
(http://www.elsevier.com), by selecting ‘Customer Support’ and
then ‘Obtaining
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First published 2004

ISBN 0702026344

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British
Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of
Congress

Notice
Veterinary medical knowledge is constantly changing.
Standard safety precautions must be followed, but as new
research and clinical experience broaden our knowledge,
changes in treatment and drug therapy may become necessary
or appropriate. Readers are advised to check the most current
product information provided by the manufacturer of each drug
to be administered to verify the recommended dose, the method
and duration of administration, and contraindications. It is the
responsibility of the practitioner, relying on experience and
knowledge of the patient, to determine dosages and the best
treatment for each individual patient. Neither the Publisher nor
the author assumes any liability for any injury and/or damage to
persons or property arising from this publication.

The Publisher

The
Publisher’s
policy is to use
paper manufactured
from sustainable forests

Printed in China
Guest contributors

Chapter 3 was contributed by Dr Caroline Hahn Andrew N McLean BSc DipEd

and Chapter 13 was written jointly by Andrew Director, Australian Equine Behaviour
McLean and Dr Paul McGreevy Centre,Victoria, Australia; PhD candidate
Caroline Nora Hahn BS DVM MSc PhD MRCVS
Lecturer in Neuromuscular Disorders, Royal
(Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University
of Edinburgh, UK
Foreword

The behavior of horses has intrigued horse-lovers, been subject to scientific study, and Dr Paul
since ancient times. The domestication of the horse McGreevy has been one of a handful of veterinari-
and subsequent modern use for recreational pur- ans and scientists who have undertaken pioneer-
poses has led to close observations of and fascina- ing research in this field. This book is an important
tion with horse behavior. Whether or not they milestone in the progress towards better under-
realize it, those who get the best out of their horses standing of the effect of various equine man-
are students of equine behavior. Many opinions agement practices and their impact on horse
exist in relation to what are regarded as normal performance and wellbeing. Dr McGreevy’s book
and abnormal behaviors by horse owners and distills key scientific knowledge on horse behavior
trainers. Most recently, this has culminated in a from over 1000 separate sources and covers the
renaissance for the ‘horse whisperer’, who has salient ethological characteristics of free-ranging
supposedly mythical powers to commune with horses, the impact of various management prac-
horses in their very souls. Undoubtedly, there are tices, as well as the significance of abnormal
individuals who have rare gifts at an intuitive behaviors. In this latter area Dr McGreevy has
level, in understanding horses and their behavior. undertaken groundbreaking research with
Popular interest in the skills of such individuals Professor Christine Nicol on stereotypies, and this
has accompanied demand for more humane material will be of particular interest to those
training and handling techniques. Concurrently, interested in applying equine science.
the scientific study of equine behavior has been Dr McGreevy has provided an important guide
developing, and it is important to bring this to the for veterinarians and scientists and is to be con-
attention of the horse industry. gratulated for drawing together a veritable trove
For veterinarians and equine scientists, under- of scientific data on equine behavior that will be of
standing the key aspects of horse behavior is criti- benefit to the international horse industry.
cal to evaluation of health and welfare. It is only in
relatively recent times that horse behavior has Professor Reuben Rose
Preface

Equine Behavior: A Guide for Veterinarians and Equine growing sensitivity to what horses have been
Scientists has been an enlightening labor of love for telling us for a very long time. The influence of
me and I am honored to be commissioned to write science has helped to prompt fresh thinking
it. Destiny may have had a hand in my selection, about the relationship between horses and train-
since legend has it that Ireland’s McGreevy clan ers. Science has also shown that horses learn in
were keen horsemen and, indeed, were notorious the same ways as other animals, in accordance
for having stolen St Patrick’s horses. For their with the principles of learning theory. This means
alleged crime the Church forbade them to become that we are better placed to do the right thing
priests. I doubt if that would have troubled them, by our horses and get the best out of them. This
as long as they had horses with which to work. For volume coins the term equitation science not as an
me the study of equine behavior is the most fasci- attempt to undermine the art and skill of out-
nating occupation in the world. Along with other standing riders, but rather to demystify equi-
enthusiasts, I delight in watching horses at work tation and to allow more people to achieve better
and play, and comparing notes on our observa- results and reduce wastage.
tions. The aim of this book is to be a companion for As a veterinarian and a qualified riding
all horse watchers. instructor I had two related audiences in mind:
Horse lovers are often tempted to conjure my colleagues in the veterinary profession and
interpretations of how horses may process infor- the veterinary students who will soon join us,
mation and to imagine that horses share many of and equine scientists and graduates in equine
our value systems. On occasion, I have been crit- studies, who are assuming their place in the
icized for failing to consider the rich emotional industry hierarchy. Veterinary professionals are
qualities horses may well possess. Suffice it to say uniquely placed to benefit from the book’s scien-
that when we have a scientific way of measuring tific examination of those rare and poorly defined
these qualities – and that time may not be too far commodities, horse-sense and horsemanship.
away – I will be its strongest advocate, but until Owners naturally look to veterinarians for advice
then I make no apology for confining myself to on the physical health of their horses, but this
what we sometimes call the facts. book is designed to empower veterinarians to
The past three decades have witnessed a ter- become, also, a source of enlightened views on
rific explosion in equine ethology – the science of the mental health of their patients. Similarly,
horse behavior – so this is an exciting time for equine scientists can use the book to support
horse welfare. This book examines the truth scholarly approaches to enhance the manage-
behind modern trends and ancient traditions, by ment of horses. I hope this volume is written in a
bringing together the latest cutting-edge research style that makes it accessible to a very wide audi-
and best practice from around the world. The ence and that it helps the industry as a whole to
increased availability of data is matched by a work with these two stakeholders in designing
XII PREFACE

optimal scientific responses to behavior prob- technology means that, more than ever before, we
lems and in developing management and train- can disseminate our observations, management
ing systems that avoid their appearance. innovations, and empirical findings and training
Although this is a book that can be browsed, successes through scientific abstracts, Internet
I strongly encourage you to digest some of its discussion forums and email chat lists. Although
chapters in sequence. Specifically, the chapter on horse enthusiasts are notoriously traditional and
social behavior should be read before those on resistant to change, there is a pleasing uptake in
the behavior of the mare and stallion. Similarly, these methods of exchanging information and an
the chapter on learning contains material that acceptance of new approaches.
facilitates understanding of the chapters on train- I hope you enjoy Equine Behavior: A Guide for
ing, handling and miscellaneous problems. Veterinarians and Equine Scientists and that it
The future for our relationship with horses improves your understanding of horses and
seems bright. As we appreciate how to com- inspires you to find out more. I warmly invite
municate with them sensitively and consistently, you to submit suggestions (through my website
misunderstanding and misinterpretation by both www.animalbehaviour.net) on how to improve
parties will diminish. These advances are likely future editions of this text. Finally, on behalf of
to be matched by greater sharing of knowledge my ancient and far-flung clan, I hope that St
among practitioners. Gone are the dark days Patrick might regard my work as some kind of
when shamans locked themselves in stables to atonement.
weave their magic on equine subjects and
emerged with impressive results but no intention Paul McGreevy
of divulging the techniques used. Information 2004
Acknowledgments

Horses deserve the unique place they hold in Townsend-Sweeting from the University of
the hearts and minds of humans, so it should be Bristol. A number of undergraduate students
no surprise that horse behaviour as a research studying both veterinary science and agricultural
domain is populated by some extremely well- science made valuable contributions to early
motivated and talented people, who have demon- research for the book. They include Hilary Bugg,
strated their commitment to the species and their Russell Bush, Elvira Currie, Bradley Dong, Jayne
great kindness to me by providing invaluable Foster, Tanya Grassi, Lesley Hawson, Tammy Hunt,
feedback on various chapters of this book. They Kate Ireland, Lyndel Kruusamagi, Sally Leigo,
include Cheri Asa, Francis Burton, Hilary Therese McGillion, Joe McGrath, Shawn McGrath,
Clayton, Amy Coffman, Sharon Crowell-Davis, Sarah Mitchell, Kate Montgomery, Alex Nash,
Nancy Diehl, Machteld van Dierendonck, Brian Katherine O’Toole, Claire Ruting, Denbigh Simond,
Farrow, Jane French, Debbie Goodwin, Caroline Cathy Stimson and Joseph Toohey.
Hahn, Alison Harman, Kathe Houpt, Kevin The staff at the University of Sydney Library
Keay, Cecilia Lindberg, Andrew McLean, Finola have been characteristically helpful, efficient and
McConaghy, Sue McDonnell, Christine Nicol, professional in supplying research materials. In
Kim Ng, Sarah Ralston, Ken Sedgers, Amanda particular I would like to thank Joanne Bottcher,
Warren-Smith and Elaine Watson. One colleague, Ross Coleman, Su Hanfling and Alison Turner.
Daniel Mills, distinguished himself by going way My extraordinary friends have been both
beyond the call of duty and reading the entire supportive of my endeavours and tolerant of the
draft manuscript. I am tremendously grateful to extent to which writing has consumed my life
him for his advice and encouragement. over the past few years. Among the most helpful
Other veterinary and academic colleagues and supportive I wish to acknowledge Chris
who have provided helpful comments on specific Coffey, Nick Copping, Lucy Hall, Claudia Jones,
topics include George Abrams, Ian Bidstrup, Emma Lawrence, Bryan McMahon, Alastair
Heather Clegg, Sheila Crispin, Janet Eley, David Paterson, Julia Perry, Jarther Taylor and Ben
Evans, Elsa Flint, Merran Govendir, Josie Hall, Scandrett-Smith. While Michael Jervis-Chaston
Lee Morris, Chris Murphy, Justine O’Brien, Trank gave the most refreshingly blunt advice on all the
Odberg, Mellisa Offord, Lesley Rogers, David early chapters, Lynn Cole voluntarily cast an edi-
Todd, Claire Weekes, Elsa Willis, Bonnie Williams torial eye over every last sentence and this has
and Carol Wyldes. Others who have helped me made the transition from manuscript to proofs
obtain particular illustrations include Victor smoother than any author deserves. I have learned
Cabello, Natasha Ellis, Caroline Foote, Luke a great deal in the process and will remain forever
Henderson, Geoffrey Hutson, Peter Knight, grateful. Meanwhile, Sandro Nocentini happily
Peter Read, Peter Thomson, and Clive Wynne gave up an untold number of weekends to format
and, most notably, John Conibear and Tracey illustrations and draw samples for the book.
XIV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Finally I would like to thank the outstanding McConville, Deni McKenzie, Daniel Naprous,
horse riders, trainers and enthusiasts who Gerard Naprous, Megan Roberts, Jo-Anne
have given their time and expertise to help with Rooker, Katie Rourke, Sigrid Schaerf, Daren
photography for the book. These include Terry Taylor and David Todd.
Cooper, Valmai Furlong, Scott Glover, Brenna Special thanks to Richard Tibbitts of Antbits
Harrison, Greg Hogan, Les Holmes, Portland Illustration and Maggie Raynor for all their hard
Jones, Victoria Kendall-Hawk, John Leckie, Dave work in the illustration of this title.
CHAPTER CONTENTS
1
Evolution and classification 1
Evolutionary background 1
Classification of equids 2 Introduction
Changing roles 4
Domestication 4
Current status 7
The horse’s future 11

Stable management 13
Traditional stable management 13
Modern stable management 13
Management practices 14

Behavior 16
Normal behavior in stabled horses 16
Abnormal behavior in stabled horses 21
Stereotypic behaviors 23
Introduction to evaluating behavior problems 28 EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION
References 31
Because the evolution of the horse has been dealt
with many times elsewhere, I shall spare the
reader detailed descriptions of three-toed forest-
dwelling dog-like creatures. Suffice it to say that
we have been left with a most remarkable animal
that can exploit impoverished grazing niches by
foraging on very poor fibrous material and digest-
ing it quicker than ruminants. Various anatomical,
physiological and behavioral features of the
modern horse mean that it is useful to humans in
many ways (Fig. 1.1).

EVOLUTIONARY BACKGROUND
A plains feeder that does not disperse and defend
territories individually or in pairs as foragers of
richer resources tend to, the horse has a long nose
that allows it to graze while maintaining surveil-
lance above the sward. As an animal without
horns or antlers it relies largely on caution, speed
and agility as its chief means of self-preservation.
A social herbivore that capitalizes on companions
for added safety, mutual comfort and enhanced
detection of food, this is a creature that is likely to
feel insecure when isolated.
To digest material ruminants generally discard,
the horse needs a large fermentation chamber, the
cecum. Obliged to carry such a voluminous diges-
tive vat, the successful horse must therefore have
tremendous muscular power to shift its necessary
and considerable bulk from rest to top speed in
the event of danger, so it has developed the ability
1
 2 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

are therefore likely to be more profound insults

to equids than to members of many other species.

CLASSIFICATION OF EQUIDS
Prior to the beginning of domestication, in the
late Pleistocene, long-term geographic isolation
of equid populations occurred.1 This led to the
distinct species that exist today (Table 1.1). True
horses (Equus caballus) occupied the Eurasian low-
(a) lands north of the great mountain ranges, while
the asses occupied the arid zones of Asia. Crosses
with asses, zebras and onagers are possible but
the hybrids are normally sterile.

Order: perissodactyla (odd-toed

ungulates)
Suborder: hippomorpha
Super-family: equoidea
Family: equidae

(b) Despite their sometimes great morpholog-

ical differences, all the breeds, groups and types
of domestic horses belong to one species, E. caballus.
Populations such as ‘mustangs’ and ‘brumbies’
found roaming in North America and Australia
are feral representatives of this species. Within the
E. caballus the occurrence of isolated environmen-
tal niches has given rise to the types we see among
modern horses. Equine remains found in the
Siberian permafrost suggest the presence of two
distinct types of E. caballus: a small, heavily set
type and a finer-boned ‘Oriental’ type of up to 14.3
hands (150 cm). The latter, less sturdy version
(c)
was probably swifter and most likely the
Figure 1.1 Humans and horses have had a long forebear of our modern ‘hot-blooded’ animals (so
association. From depictions in cave paintings such as in named because of their adapted suitability to hot-
Lascaux, France (a), we know that horses were originally ter climes), the Arabians and Thoroughbreds.
hunted as a source of food, but since then the relationship
has been developed through teamwork (b) and
Reactivity and athleticism are the core characteris-
companionship (c). ((c) courtesy of Francis Burton.) tics of the hot-bloods that have led to their being
favored as race, performance and sports horses.
To respond rapidly to pivotal stimuli such as the
to use minimal physical effort to rest while stand- opening of the starting stalls and the impact of the
ing. With its small stomach this ‘trickle feeder’ is whip, racehorses have been selected for height-
obliged to forage frequently and has not evolved ened reactivity to environmental changes. It seems
to eat and then ruminate in one spot. Instead it likely that this is why they are over-represented in
eats and moves and eats and moves. Restriction of surveys of abnormal behaviors in stables, behav-
movement and imposition of periods of fasting iors that are seen by many as responses to aversive
 INTRODUCTION 3

Table 1.1 Classification of equidae

Diploid chromosome
Common name Species number

Prewalski’s horse ([Mongolian] Wild Horse) Equus prewalskii 66

Horse (domestic) Equus caballus 64
African Wild Ass (and domestic donkey) Equus asinus 62
Nubian Wild Ass Equus asinus africanus
Somali Wild Ass Equus asinus somalicus
Asian Ass Equus hemionus 56
Mongolian Wild Ass Equus hemionus hemionus
Onager Equus hemionus onager
Indian Wild Ass Equus hemionus khur
Kiang Equus hemionus kiang
Grevy’s zebra Equus grevyi 46
Common zebra Equus burchelli 44
Chapman’s zebra Equus burchelli antiquorum
Grant’s zebra Equus burchelli boehmi
Selous’s zebra Equus burchelli selousi
Mountain zebra Equus zebra 32
Cape Mountain zebra Equus zebra zebra
Hartman’s zebra Equus zebra hartmannae

stimuli. The least reactive equids are the so-called single fusion mutation in the haploid state (32)
‘cold-bloods’, the heavy horses and solid ponies. could have brought about their differences. They
In between the two groups are the ‘warmbloods’. could be part of a single species exhibiting
These can be described as crosses between hot and chromosomal dimorphism as occurs in the Asian
cold bloods and are exemplified by European per- ass (Equus hemionus).3 This then is the single-
formance horse breeds such as the Hannoverian. dichotomy theory that currently prevails over less-
fashionable claims of multiple lineage.
Subsequent isolation of the two gene pools
Equus caballus and Equus could perhaps have arisen because of capricious
przewalskii selectivity on the part of Caballus stallions (see
Although mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid Ch. 11) and the retreat of Przewalski herds into
(DNA) studies suggest a divergence occurred as regions of the steppe uninhabited by humans.4
long ago as a quarter of a million years, it seems While outnumbered by the similarities between
that the most likely link between modern horse the two species, the differences are fascinating.
(E. caballus) and its more numerous and diverse For example, the striking bistability of hock joints
predecessors is the pony-shaped Mongolian Wild that allows a very rapid switch from one extreme
Horse, Przewalski’s Horse (E. przewalskii). Apart position to the other is much more marked in
from Caspian ponies that appear to be polymor- domestic horses than in Przewalski horses and,
phic in the diploid number (some having 64 chro- for that matter, zebras.5
mosomes while others have 65),2 E. caballus has 64 Przewalski horses became extinct in the wild in
chromosomes. Equus przewalskii, on the other hand, the 1950s.6 However, from a nucleus of 11 founda-
has 66 chromosomes in the diploid state. tion animals, they survive today in captivity and
There is some debate as to how closely the first in successfully re-introduced wild populations,
ancestors of E. caballus were related to E. przewal- e.g. in Mongolia.7,8 The survival story of the
skii. Cross-breeding between E. caballus and Przewalski horse is an extraordinary one, and we
E. przewalskii does produce fertile offspring, and are indeed fortunate to be able to study them in a
there are similarities in their serum proteins variety of contexts. It is fascinating that we now
and their blood groups. Geneticists explain that a have data to refute the notion that Przewalski
4 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

horses are socially more aggressive than domestic remains elsewhere dating from periods since
horses.9 However, studies of their behavior should 9000 years ago are rare for this reason.13
be treated with some caution since they have Interestingly, it seems the ‘true horse’
emerged from a shallow gene pool that has been (E. caballus) survived in Eurasia but with patchy
filtered through 20 generations of captivity. There- distribution14 despite, or perhaps even because
fore before assuming that present-day Przewalski of, this predation.
horses behave as true wild horses, we should bear Archaeological evidence of horse domestica-
in mind that some would regard them as survivors tion dates from 4000 BC (late Neolithic or Bronze
of the first stages of domestication. Age) in the Eurasian Steppes of the Ukraine.15
In this text, I have selected examples of feral Ancient middens used as dumping grounds for
horse behavior rather than Przewalski horse the bony remains of human meals, most notably
behavior as benchmarks for what is normal. in a place called Dereivka on the steppes north of
Discussions of such free-ranging behavior appear the Black Sea, have proved an especially rich
in each of the subsequent chapters. source of domestication data. This is where river-
valley agricultural economies evolved, relying on
the use of stone enclosures to trap large numbers
of game. The numbers involved in a draft often
CHANGING ROLES exceeded the immediate demand for consump-
tion and prompted the maintenance of surviving
Although initially horses found themselves in the herd members, to be slaughtered at a later stage.
human domain as a food source, their subsequent From studies of the bone remains found in
roles are nearly as varied as those of the other most middens, the first pastoral species seems to have
domesticated species, the dog, and include the been bovine. A colder climatic shift that affected
provision of power, leisure and companionship. this region around 3500 BC is thought to have
favored equids rather than other domestic or
wild herbivores because, being large and long-
DOMESTICATION legged, they were better able to forage in snow.
French and Spanish cave paintings from around The prevalence of horses in Ukrainian communi-
15 000 years ago, depicting hunting for food and ties saw a dramatic rise at this time, with horse
hides, represent the earliest record of human use bones comprising 74% of animal bones at
of horses.10 Dereivka.16 Evidence of domestication at this site
While early horses would eventually provide includes this dramatic rise and the predominance
their keepers with unprecedented mobility and of colt skeletons. Analysis of the dental remains
power, the herding of horses probably had its ori- of horses in these sites suggests that humans con-
gins in the consumption of horseflesh.11 Hunters sumed more males than females and that the age
favor meat, such as that from horses, that has a range of these animals did not show a normal
high glycogen content. As a source of dietary distribution.
sugar, this facilitates endurance, which is impor- Some authors12,17 maintain that the relatively
tant for members of hunting cultures. Horses high number of colts indicates domestication
were regularly consumed in favor of other large rather than hunting which would be more likely
herbivores. In the Palaeolithic, our ancestors to harvest older animals, more often mares. Other
hunted horses by driving them over cliffs and workers suggest that the vast majority of horses at
into traps and pitfalls. They continued to do so this time were hunted, by stalking (Fig. 1.2).11
for thousands of years to the extent that they had Perhaps the age distribution of horse teeth most
a pivotal effect on population numbers.12 It is closely matches what one would expect as rem-
thought that, along with climatic changes, this nants of such activity, but it is worth remembering
exploitation contributed to the extinction of wild that assessing age by dentition is an imprecise
horses in North and South America. Wild horse science.18
 INTRODUCTION 5

20
Archaeological findings
18 Dereivka data
Mortality (percentage of population)

Theoretical models
16 Natural attrition
Carnivorous husbandry
14
Stalking
12

10

6
Figure 1.3 Artifact from what is believed to be an early bit
4 fashioned from antlers.19 The rope would have been held in
place in the mouth by the cheek-pieces. (Reproduced by
2 permission of David Anthony, Dorcas Brown and Antiquity
0
Publications Ltd, from The Origins of Horseback Riding in
Antiquity 65:22–38.)
0 5 10 15 20
Age (years)

Figure 1.2 Graph of age distribution of remains of 151 heavy-set animals,15 a description strikingly rem-
horses found at Dereivka, Ukraine. In free-ranging horses iniscent of the Przewalski horse. When the skull
death occurs most commonly in the very young and very old of a male equid was removed from a ritual burial
(natural attrition model). In populations raised for meat site shared by two dogs and anthropomorphic
(carnivorous husbandry), the curve is skewed by preferential
figurines, it aroused considerable excitement in
consumption of 2- to 3-year-olds. Meanwhile selective hunting
of prime-age adults (stalking) produces a different pattern, archaeological circles. Dating from the Copper
with a sharp central peak. The age distribution of horse teeth Age, about 4300 BC, the ritualized nature of the
found at Dereivka most closely matches the stalking model. burial was suggestive of profound domestica-
(Reproduced by permission of Marsha Levine and Antiquity tion. Interestingly, in the same grave, excavations
Publications Ltd, from Levine M, The Problems of Horse
revealed antler tines that seemed to have been
Domestication in Antiquity 64:727–740.)
crafted into the cheek-pieces of a crude bit
(Fig. 1.3). By facilitating the comparison of the
The issue here seems to pivot on whether there teeth of modern domesticated and feral horses
is any reason for members of a domesticated pop- with those of the so-called Dereivka cult stallion,
ulation to be selected for consumption at 5–8 electronmicroscopic analysis of anterior premo-
years of age. A more traditional farming approach lar tooth wear has revealed bevels and fractures
would be to harvest the surplus while they were consistent with the use of a bit.19 Even though
younger and their flesh was reasonably tender. the first bit was not as robust and therefore as
Although one might also ask why hunters would damaging as modern hardware, the damage
target animals in a wild group that were undoubt- incurred was regarded as being consistent with
edly in their prime and therefore most fleet of 300 hours of bridled control. However, before
foot, it seems likely that they would be more making such comparisons, it is worth considering
abundant than adolescents or elderly horses. ways in which the evidence may have been
The reported preponderance of what we skewed. Freshly domesticated horses may have
regard as male type canine teeth seems to be cru- been very headstrong and early equitation unre-
cial here. Could it be that small canines as found fined. Notwithstanding this minor point, the
in many modern mares were erroneously identi- Dereivka stallion is regarded as the first ridden
fied as the teeth of stallions? horse and is thought to have predated the inven-
Horse remains at Dereivka have been charac- tion of the wheel by at least 500 years.20 The
terized as being from large-headed, short and domestication of horses on the steppes may have
6 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

been repeated in other places. Recent mitochon- than most on humans, not least in terms of the
drial DNA evidence21 indicates that a large num- dispersion of culture and language.13,20 Beginning
ber of founders was recruited over an extended with the migration of humans across the deep
time period. This ‘multiple origins’ scenario steppes of the Ukraine that could not support
implies that horses may have been independently large human populations prior to the emergence
captured from diverse wild populations and then of riding, horses facilitated the spread of human
bred in captivity as the wild populations disap- genes. Because riders move two or three times
peared.21 This suggests that what spread from faster and farther than pedestrians, exploitable ter-
that equine cradle was not necessarily the horses ritories expanded sixfold. At the same time grass-
themselves but the innovation and technology of land subsistence became more predictable, reliable
taming them. and productive, and decisive military advantages
Although it seems likely that meat production were secured over more static neighbors.20 As a
was the first reason for the domestication of consequence, human social groups grew tenfold,
horses, their prevailing impact was linked to their conflicts over resources escalated and patterns of
use in riding and haulage. When handling an trade and theft expanded in range and variety.
orphan foal, early horse farmers would have While riding was established as the prime means
appreciated the horse’s ability to pull and the fact of hunting, exploring and herding, the additional
that control of the body depended on control use of horses for milk and blood is likely to have
of the head. A natural progression would have peaked at the same time. One should not overlook
seen the development of harnesses for traction the usefulness of horses in the haulage of fallen
and headcollars for control. It may be that too game, firewood, ploughs, produce and physically
much emphasis has been placed on the signifi- challenged members of the group. Such was the
cance of bit wearing as the necessary step that importance of the horse in the early dispersal of
took the use of horses beyond the dining table. Copper Age humans that horses became one of
It is implied that horses could not have been con- the chief tradable items.
trolled from behind by anything less than a bit. The emergence of equestrian cultures is also
This is something of a moot point since it pre- likely to have brought with it an increase in hit-
cludes riding with bitless bridles. Equally, horses and-run warfare (Fig. 1.4). This suggestion is
could have been used for non-riding purposes borne out by the effective use of the horse by
such as traction of non-wheeled haulage devices, American Indians in the 1800s which resulted in
or fallen prey for that matter. the unprecedented rise in conflicts and accumu-
Early farmers had to have some means of pre- lation of wealth leading to the tribal supremacy
venting the usual migratory dispersal of horses but of the Sioux, Comanche and Apache.24
men on foot, even if they were accompanied by Interestingly it was not until approximately
trained dogs, would be no match for galloping 2000 BC that horses arrived in the Middle East and
horses.22 Only when riding was attempted could displaced asses and ass-onager hybrids as the
the herding of horses become efficient. Further- favored draft animals for battle carts from which
more, while using horses is a matter of taming the arrows could be fired. A similar displacement took
individuals as required, breeding them is far more place in mid 19th century Africa when colonists’
technically demanding.23 The difficulty of prevent- demand for the social status inferred by using
ing domestic mares from dispersing in search of apparently superior riding animals prompted
stallions whenever they were in estrus may have the importation of often poorly adapted horses
been the reason why domestication of the horse while the local equid, the quagga (Equus quagga),
took such a long time. For these reasons, horses was hunted to extinction by English and Boer
were domesticated after cattle, pigs, sheep and farmers.25
goats, which were all easier to herd and contain. A new wave of horse-mediated military success
Although the horse was one of the last mam- emerged when the horse’s speed and maneuver-
mals to be domesticated, it has had more impact ability was fully appreciated. In the first place,
 INTRODUCTION 7

Figure 1.5 An etching showing the development of haute

école training, as archived by Le Baron D’Eisenberg (from
L’Art de Monter a Cheval, 1737).
Figure 1.4 Horse being ridden by stunt rider as a
demonstration of use in combat. Equitation improved a
warrior’s usefulness and chances of survival. (Reproduced
with permission of Gerard Naprous.) been marked by considerable wastage. There is
evidence that Roman equids in Britain sustained
chariots, as mobile platforms for archers, provided injuries consistent with poor living conditions
the means of delivering flanking blows to infantry- and gross overwork.35 Horses continued to serve
men,26 then came the complete development of in battle up until the end of the Second World
cavalry warfare. Many authors have discussed the War, when the Polish cavalry suffered horrific
introduction of modern equestrian techniques27,28 losses from the guns of Russian tanks.
and the development of the bits, saddles and stir-
rups16,29,30 and the extent to which each lent a mil-
CURRENT STATUS
itary advantage. The invention of the saddle that
shifted the rider’s weight bilaterally to the lumbar Horses are regarded as a familiar part of many
musculature and subsequently the stirrup that agricultural idylls but their role as farm animals
facilitated the use of weapons by mounted war- is now in question. If we compare the life of a sta-
riors are thought to have been major steps in the bled riding horse to that of other farm species,
culture of mounted combat. With the increasing some differences are obvious. Unlike most cows,
sophistication of equine-dependent power that led pigs and sheep, horses are generally not kept
to the emergence of jousting tournaments and ulti- with a view to productivity in terms of meat or
mately haute école dressage (Fig. 1.5), noblemen milk and therefore are often on limited food
came to be judged by, among other things, the rations. Because they cannot be regarded as pro-
quality and quantity of horseflesh in their posses- duction animals, horses are more often these days
sion.31 The role of the horse in colonial success was described as a ‘companion animal species’. Unfor-
acknowledged by Cortes after the Spanish inva- tunately they do not fit terribly well into this cat-
sion of Mexico, when he noted that (next to God) egory either, since they do not share living space
he owed his victory to the horses. with humans as do true companion animals such
The management of warhorses was often chron- as cats, dogs and caged birds. Their contact with
icled but the emphasis in these accounts seems to humans is largely restricted to being groomed,
have been upon their training, nutrition32,33 and fed and ridden.
medical care34 rather than their housing. The use The key roles of the horse in human activity
of horses by military and invading nations has changed tremendously during the 20th century.
8 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

The overarching fields in which horses are now dogs, and very few populations are inbred.
used include recreational and social purposes, Notable exceptions are the horses of the Namib
breeding, sport and competition and to some Desert, Namibia40 and Blue Arabians from the
extent meat production.36 Huge reductions in the USA.41 In-hand showing as a sole means of select-
use of horses in military, agricultural and trans- ing breeding animals removes many performance
portation activities have been matched, in devel- indicators from the selection process in breeding
oped countries, by increased equine numbers for systems and is therefore short-sighted.
sport and leisure.37–39 While donkeys are still used by the working
Prevalent modern breeds are often used in classes in many parts of the world, the horse is now
more than one activity (Table 1.2), and this may a status symbol in Western cultures, a luxury item
help to account for the retention of some diver- or an emotional focus. Interestingly, this has done
sity. Happily, horse breed societies have tended nothing to guarantee its welfare, since many own-
to avoid the sort of intense line-breeding that ers of luxury items fail to budget for their mainte-
characterizes the bloodlines of many purebred nance. Despite the emergence of equine insurance

Table 1.2 Some generalizations about the attributes and uses of modern breeds and types

Horse use Activities Physical attributes Behavioral attributes Leading breeds

Show-jumping Agility over • Tall yet built close to • Obedience • Thoroughbreds

fences and the ground42 • Boldness • Draft/TB crosses
against the clock • Powerful hindquarters • Responsivensess • Welsh Cob/TB crosses
• Flat pelvis43 • Tendency when • Warmbloods, including
• Forward-sloping femur44 jumping to tuck Trakehners
• Sloping, free-moving in the forelegs
shoulders and kick back
• Long humerus43 the hindlegs
• Large hock angles43
• Agile
• Deep-chested – thought to
be associated with optimal
lung and heart room

Dressage Controlled and • Classic good looks and • Responsive • Draft/TB crosses
yet demonstrably impressive gaits help to • Calm • Warmbloods including
powerful execution keep the judge’s eye on • Classically correct, free, Hannoverians, Dutch
of set maneuvers the horse regular paces Warmbloods,
• Powerful limbs • Confident Lipizzangers,
• Forward-sloping femur44 Oldenburgs
• Neck set on high
• Short neck42
• Long humerus43
• Long upright phalanges43
• Small hip angle43
• Flexible and supple
• ⬎14.2 hands high
(FEI height rule)

Eventing Combined • Generally athletic • Calm • Thoroughbreds

demonstrations of • Powerful limbs • Responsive • Draft/TB crosses
stamina, agility and • Neck set on high • Australian Stock Horse
compliance in the • High withers • Warmbloods,
dressage arena • >14.2 hands high including Trakehners
(FEI height rule 14 hands • Warmblood crosses
21⁄4 inches high
without shoes)
(contd.)
 INTRODUCTION 9

Table 1.2 (Contd.)

Horse use Activities Physical attributes Behavioral attributes Leading breeds

Endurance Long-distance • Stamina and resistance • Tendency to bond • Arabians

riding and ride to dehydration with humans45 • Arabian crosses
and tie events • Short strong back • Calm • Paso Finos
• Strong legs • Compliant • Appaloosas
• Hard hooves • Drink readily • Walers
• A long stride and a floating • Australian Stock Horse
action that helps to
conserve energy
Children’s Junior versions of • Short backs (except for • Tolerant • Arabian crosses
sport premier sports and vaulting horses) • Calm • Ponies, especially
team sports • Short legs making turn • Unflappable Welsh
including vaulting about at speed easier • Fun-loving
and mounted games • Agile • Trainable
(gymkhana games) • Fast over short distances • Responsive
many of which have • Athletic
their origins in latter-
day cavalrytraining
e.g. tent-pegging
Racing Racing: • Croup high • Reactive to stimuli • Thoroughbreds
• Flat • Powerful hindquarters • Desire to run • Arabians
• Hurdles • Strong shoulders • Perhaps a reluctance • Quarterhorses
• Steeple chasing • Deep chests to be at the back
• Arab racing • Modest abdomens of a group
• Quarterhorse racing
Trotting Harness racing • Tall withers46 • Tolerant of harness • Standardbreds
at the trot • Open angles at the and handling
shoulder and stifle joints46 • Desire to run
• Large girth circumference
at the front of the thorax but
narrow girth circumference
at the lowest point of
the back43
Pacing Harness racing at • Elastic fetlock joints47 • Tolerant of harness • Standardbreds
a pacing gait • Long sloping shoulders47 and handling
• Long muscular forearms47 • Desire to run
Ball sports Polo and polocrosse • Strong hindquarters that • Reliable • Polo ponies
allow the horse to be light • Responsive • Stock horses
on the forehand and • Hardworking • Thoroughbreds (small)
therefore easily accelerated • Agile • Quarterhorses
• Athletic • Swift to learn
Working Camp drafting • Strong hindquarters • ‘Cow sense’ • Stockhorses
horse Cutting • Reliable • Quarterhorses
competitions • Calm • Draft crosses
• Quick reaction times42
Leisure Recreational • Generally sound • Adaptable • Any riding breed,
trail-riding/trekking/ • Sloping pasterns • Calm especially
hacking Australian Stock
Riding club activities Horse, American
including quadrilles Saddlebred,
and combined Quarterhorses,
training Standardbreds,
Arabian crosses,
colored horses and
pony breeds
(contd.)
10 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

Table 1.2 (Contd.)

Horse use Activities Physical attributes Behavioral attributes Leading breeds

Hormone, Regular removal of • Bulky • Low reactivity • Draft breeds, notably

vaccine and serum or urine for Percherons
anti-venin processing into
production human and animal
medications

Milk Milk production most • Cup-shaped udders • Tolerant of daily • Bashkir

production notably in Russia • Long lactation separation from foal
where fermented (⭓200 days)48 and machine milking
mares’ milk (koumiss) • High yield ⭓ 1600 kg/
is a popular food for lactation)2
human infants • Fast milk ejection rate
(⭓28 ml/s)48

Meat Slaughter for human Not applicable Not applicable • European heavy
production consumption and breeds
pet food; notably: • Small pony breeds
• Spent working • Feral horses
animals
• Poor young-stock
specimens of
all breeds
• Some purpose-bred
animals

Draft • Haulage of produce, • Compact bodies • Low reactivity • Heavy horses

wood and water in • Strong, large feet • Compliant including Shires,
developing countries • Strong neck and shoulders • Phlegmatic Clydesdales,
• Boutique tourism in • Powerful hindquarters temperament49 Suffolk Punches and
developed countries Percherons
• Ploughing matches • Donkeys
• Mules

Exhibition and • Showing • Conforming to written • Impressive demeanour • Any registered

production • Breeding breed standard (‘presence’) in the purebreds and
show ring registered partbreds,
• Eye-catching gaits color or types
• Adaptable at stud

Hunting and Cross-country riding • Strong hindquarters • ‘Bravery’ • Thoroughbreds

hunter trials over natural obstacles • Sloping ‘jumper’s’ • Draft/TB crosses
and terrain shoulders • Cleveland Bays
• Agility

Carriage Dressage and • Strong hind quarters • Tough • Welsh ponies and
driving cross-country driving • Relatively short, strong legs • Compliant Welsh cobs
of teams, pairs capable of scrambling, • Tolerant of other horses • Friesians
and singles scurrying and turning in close proximity • Gelderlanders
• Sure footed • Cleveland Bays
• Agile • Dales
• High hock action • Fells
• Fjords
• Shetland ponies
• Standardbreds
FEI, Fédération Equestre Internationale; TB, thoroughbred.
 INTRODUCTION 11

policies that have helped to remedy the shortfall,

many owners find themselves financially embar-
rassed when invoiced for colic surgery. Financial
circumstances have considerable influence on the
way horses are managed, as indeed does the value
of the horse itself. Sometimes the value of a horse
can prove an impediment to optimal welfare.50
Although many owners keep their horses in
the best possible conditions that money allows,39
sometimes it seems that when performance is less
critical, management standards may drop and
Figure 1.6 Lord Rothschild and his team of four zebras
welfare may be affected. Ignorance and economies (E. burchelli ), circa 1900. (Reproduced with permission of the
may combine to jeopardize the welfare of hobby- Natural History Museum.)
horses. This is not to suggest that high-performance
animals always enjoy the best welfare, since, for
example, intensive management of racehorses
Noting the human tendency to forget to appre-
involves some of the greatest alterations in time
ciate horses for what they are, Rollin56 highlights
budgets, some of which can reflect profoundly
our ‘unfortunate skill in putting square pegs into
compromised welfare. It is interesting to contrast
round holes’. Compared with close relatives such
the management of a Thoroughbred stallion kept
as zebras that have only very rarely been put to
in a mahogany trimmed loosebox with brass fit-
work (Fig. 1.6), horses can be manipulated to
tings near Newmarket, on the one hand, with a
behave in many ways and persuaded to cope with
child’s pony tethered on common land in subur-
a tremendous variety of uses and abuses. The
ban Dublin. The relative absence of confinement
behavioral flexibility of horses is fundamental
of the latter may well enhance its welfare.
to their utility in the domestic context. It allows
While private owners report increasingly
them to tolerate negative reinforcement more than
emotional attachments to their horses,51 large
other domestic species but also explains why they
numbers of people work in the equine sector for
are subject to tremendous abuse by clumsy and
little or no financial reward. With the shift of horse
ignorant handlers (see Ch. 13).
use from military and utilitarian services, the
The explosion in the popularity of riding for
demographics of horse ownership changed, with
leisure and first-time horse ownership has led
women forming the majority.52 It has been sug-
some veterinarians to bemoan the welfare of
gested that female horse owners are more affec-
some present-day equids, e.g. inner city ponies.
tionate than males.53 There are interesting reports
Ignorance is a considerable force to be reckoned
of an increasing proportion of male riders and an
with. I have encountered novice owners who
increasing number of older riders.39
believed their horses could thrive on remarkable
Although there are no published data on
diets, including rabbit food and, on one occasion,
the health benefits of horse ownership, there is
cat food.
convincing evidence that riding is a therapeutic
activity.54 Equine practitioners do well to consider
the profundity of many human–horse bonds,
especially at the time of euthanasia.55 However,
THE HORSE’S FUTURE
while some cultures have come to regard horses Information technology should facilitate the edu-
as companion animals, others have persisted in cation of horse owners and, one hopes, liberate
the pragmatism that leads them to consume their thinking. The impact of ethology on horse
young horses surplus to breeding requirements or welfare has already been recognized,57 and there is
those too old to be of use as breeders or as a means a growing demand for enlightened approaches to
of conveyance.36 horse handling as evidenced by the success of the
12 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

modern ‘horse whisperers’.58–61 Unfortunately, for including cardiac output and maximal oxygen
some exponents the emphasis seems to be to consumption.
placed on shows and the introduction of jargon While there may be initiatives to identify the
rather than on education. It is hoped that etholo- genes of horses that cope best with intensive man-
gists will continue to demystify the language of agement and do so without displaying stereo-
showmen and shamans so that communication typies, it is hoped that the technology can be
with horses can be enhanced wholesale. harnessed to improve horse welfare rather than
The practice of identifying and logging the simply to select for tolerance. The worldwide web
performance of non-racing sport horses has the seems an appropriate forum for information on
potential to enhance the quality and, it is hoped, the identification and treatment of common
the depth of the gene pool. For that reason it is ailments and the showcasing of best practice in
particularly sad to note the disappearance of the stable management.
British Horse Database. Although grazing land will become harder to
Similarly the introduction of novel reproduc- come by, stabling is likely to evolve to meet more
tive technologies such as artificial insemination closely the behavioral needs of horses. We may
should allow horse breeders to capitalize on yet identify key elements of established manage-
genetic material from overseas in the same way ment protocols that can have a deleterious effect
that shuttle stallions, flown in from the Northern on our horses.64,65 Although these days it is com-
hemisphere, have liberated Thoroughbred breed- mon for owners and trainers to regard the risk
ers in the Southern hemisphere. of injury in sport horses as being great enough to
Since we know that some unwelcome behav- outweigh the benefits of being turned out,36 new
iors follow a familial pattern of inheritance, it evidence may emerge to fortify the case for
may be that there will emerge a drive to breed increased opportunities for spontaneous exercise
from animals that can cope with the stressors of and social contact.
intensive management. Geneticists may also help The welfare of riding-school horses is likely to
to improve fertility, one of the most pressing improve as technological advances make it easier
problems in Thoroughbred circles. Globally, the to detect those of a novice rider’s signals that are
annual reproduction rate for Thoroughbreds is particularly confusing and unhelpful. In France,
approximately 50%.37 This compares poorly with an electronic riding machine has been developed
other single-offspring species such as cattle, in with all of the paces of a horse (Fig. 1.7). Currently
which 85% is normal.37 This disturbing trend is it has a predictable action that allows the rider
certainly not helped by a rise in the rate of twin- to learn, for instance, how to rise at the trot and
ning, an unfit gene that is passed from one gener- even jump a fence.66 With sensors to detect and
ation to the next almost exclusively by veterinary respond to the rider’s signals, the simulator
intervention. reduces the time required for novices to learn to
It seems unlikely that, since it has been the sin- ride.67 It is not difficult to see how this technology
gle breeding objective for the past two centuries, may advance. It could be programmed to behave
speed on the track can undergo much improve- less predictably, to be more or less responsive
ment. Mirroring the current focus of human exer- or to demonstrate typical equine conflict behav-
cise physiologists, the role of lactic acid clearance iors in response to confusing commands.68 One
as a limiting factor in racehorse performance con- could even speculate that the welfare of those
tinues to attract considerable attention.62 It may dependable riding-school horses that always
be that selection of genotypes capable of acceler- carry novice riders will be of less concern in the
ated lactic acid metabolism may reduce winning future. Currently balance is acquired over weeks
times in the longer classic races such as the of crude education, for example, staying on
St Leger and the Oaks.63,37 Markers of speed may board by pulling on the reins and therefore the
be identified by genome mapping studies but mouth. The numbing effect this has on the horse’s
these are likely to combine a number of features, mouth reflects the discomfort it must endure. This
 INTRODUCTION 13

when animals are removed from pastured (or

feral) environments and placed in a stable.

TRADITIONAL STABLE
MANAGEMENT
The horses sent over to the British Isles by the
Roman conquerors would have included a vari-
ety of heavy, ‘cold-blooded’ and less weather-
tolerant, ‘hot blooded’ animals. Archaeological
evidence69 suggests that they were small by mod-
ern standards. Evidence of how Roman horses
were housed exists but is rather cryptic, with rem-
nants often being limited to urine and manure
staining on chalk beds and teeth in feeding chan-
nels. However, a site at Hod Hill in Dorset70
appears to have been particularly well studied.
Two types of stable division were noted, and the
pattern of chalk-compression and the extent to
Figure 1.7 Persival, the Ecole Nationale d’Equitation’s which hooves had mixed chalk with manure gave
mechanical horse simulator. the investigators an impression of how the ani-
mals were secured within the building. In one
type of compartment, measuring 3.6 m ⫻ 3.3 m,
inelegant and inhumane use of sentient beings in
three horses might have been tethered to the wall,
human education may disappear with the grow-
their dung falling into a 2-meter channel to the
ing use of mechanical alternatives.
rear. This channel also permitted access by
Digitization of the interaction of elite riders with
grooms. The other compartment appeared to have
their mounts may provide for a quantum improve-
accommodated six horses that again were tethered
ment in the teaching of equitation. Measurement
facing the wall. Measuring 3.6 m ⫻ 5.5 m, this
of tensions and pressures applied by the handler’s
house comprised a central dunging passage that
hands, seat and legs can be correlated to observed
was communal to both rows of horses.
behavior of the animal and provide an indication
Information regarding accommodation for
of the magnitude of stimulation required to be
military horses since that time is limited. Smith71
applied by the handler to modify the behavior of
indicates that the British Army billeted horses in
the animal. Logging devices of this sort will also
lines and did not have stables until a program of
provide teachers with some quantitative means of
building barracks and stables began in 1792. Of
assessing the handling of an animal under the
these stables little is known except that they were
control of a student.
not ventilated and therefore precipitated consid-
erable losses from glanders and other respiratory
diseases.71 Coach horses from the same era were
confined to tie-stalls rather than individual boxes
STABLE MANAGEMENT that were the reserve of saddle horses.
Humans can control horses most effectively by
stabling them. This imposes limits on the extent
MODERN STABLE MANAGEMENT
to which horses can meet their behavioral needs
and can have profound effects on welfare. Equine Just as domestic horses are put to a number of
behavior undergoes considerable modification uses, so they are housed for a number of reasons
14 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

and in stables of varying design. The most com- MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

mon issues around the ‘whys’ and ‘hows’ of inten-
sive horse management are considered below. The time of year and the seasonal nature of some
sports such as hunting and eventing influence the
way in which horses are managed. Traditionally
Reasons for stabling horses during the summer, while gymkhana ponies
undergo a peak in their use because children are
Horse owners throughout the world house their on school holidays, hunters are ‘let down’ at grass.
animals for a number of reasons. Among these, the
most important is often the need to spare limited
grazing areas from damage underfoot, especially
Feeding
in regions of and in times of heavy precipitation. Horses are notoriously wasteful grazers (see
The danger of disease associated with exposure, Ch. 8). Many farmers remark that, in wet weather,
such as ‘rain-scald’ and ‘mud-fever’, in these when one considers the damage done by its unfor-
regions can be reduced by providing shelter and giving hooves, a horse is equivalent to the activity
appropriate prophylaxis. Therefore, the econom- of five bovine mouths. The reluctance of owners
ics of pasture management can prevail over horse to allow this damage means that time spent by
welfare when owners consider stabling their horses at pasture in temperate climates is often
horses for the winter. limited during the winter months. While sparing
By stabling their horses, owners eliminate the horses the pain of disorders such as mud fever
food-stealing by dominant conspecifics and can and dermatophilosis, this intervention often
have more control over food quality and intake. has a deleterious impact on their behavior and
Food and water intakes are easier to monitor, nutrition.
with an eye toward early detection of disease, in Traditionally, horses are fed long fiber from a
the stable rather than the field. During the winter, haynet or hayrack. This is intended to reduce
time spent mucking-out and bedding a horse can wastage from contamination with urine or feces
be offset by the time saved by not having to and possibly to decrease the likelihood of endo-
groom a thick layer of mud off the horse prior to parasite transmission. However, there is growing
exercise. Clipping, made more feasible by the fact evidence that this unnatural foraging position
that the horse is sheltered, adds to this advantage can have a deleterious effect on the efficacy of the
since clipped horses sweat less in response to mucociliatory escalator in clearing the upper air-
heavy work than their counterparts in a full ways of inhaled particles (Fig. 1.8), especially
winter coat and are therefore easier to clean. those inhaled from dried foodstuffs (which are to
Stabling may be favored by the owners of some extent unnatural in themselves).72 Similarly,
horses that are difficult to catch when at pasture. haynets reduce the space available in the stable,
The limit on kinetic activity that is imposed by may increase the risk of the horse becoming
stabling is considered advantageous by trainers snared (e.g. by trapping its hoof), and elevate the
of performance horses since they can more easily forage so increasing its potential as a source of
control the amount of daily exercise taken by ocular foreign bodies. It is also argued that feed-
their charges. ing from a net or rack may adversely affect mus-
Health advantages may accrue from stabling cles and nerves in the neck.73 Perhaps this is why,
since injuries can be more effectively rested, when financial considerations are almost insignif-
worms can be better controlled and flies are less icant relative to the value and maintenance of per-
numerous than at pasture. Apparent advantages formance – for example, in the majority of racing
for the horses of being stabled include shelter yards74 – horses are fed roughage, whether it be
(from sun, wind, rain and flies), freedom from hay, haylage or silage, from the stable floor.
bullying and a reduced physical requirement to There are marked seasonal variations in feed-
work (e.g. forage) for food. ing practices according to the weather and the
 INTRODUCTION 15

Depth of various bedding types that is needed

to maximize their use has not been studied.
However, it has been noted that horses lie down
on deep litter bedding rather more than do
horses at grass or on daily mucked-out beds.78
The common practice of providing limited bed-
ding to save money can affect choice by reducing
the extent to which the horse can comfortably lie
down. Houpt79 notes that if bedding is present
but inadequate, horses tend to lie down as soon
as more bedding is supplied.
Whereas horses have evolved to be very socia-
ble animals, many owners feel that their charges
Figure 1.8 Dust plumes from a haynet as a horse forages. should be given solitary quarters to make bullying
The position of the food and its contamination with fungal
spores are unnatural. The harmful effects on respiratory health
less likely. At pasture, horses choose their affiliates
are well recognized. (Reproduced by permission of the and will spend time interacting with them, for
University of Bristol, Department of Clinical Veterinary example, while playing, mutually grooming,58 or
Science.) settling reasonably minor disputes. On a stable
yard, managers tend to dictate the distribution of
availability of pasture. We do well to remember horses with efficiency of service in mind rather
that the incidence of colic follows a similar pattern, than the associations established between pairs of
with changes from fresh grass to a dried diet being horses at pasture. It is a shame that there are so few
associated with rises in various enteropathies, data on the effects of separating horses from pre-
especially impactions. The use of concentrated ferred companions, or exposing them to agonistic
feeds and the periods of fasting with which they approaches from neighbors whom they would
are associated have been linked to unwelcome con- normally avoid.
sequences, including increases in gastric acidity
that can result in rapid ulceration.75 Compared
Watering
with those who ride mainly for competitive rea-
sons, those who ride mainly for pleasure are less While some military horses are still communally
likely to feed cereal-based foods according to the watered on a three-times-daily basis, modern
manufacturer’s recommendations during summer, textbooks of stable management rarely commend
when grass is available.76 the limited availability of water. However, the
maxim that food should not be given before work
and that water should not be offered after food
probably represents a considerable limitation on
Bedding the choice that stabled horses can exercise in
For a variety of reasons, including availability, terms of drinking behavior.80
ease of disposal and tradition, straw remains
the favored bedding for horses,76 with 65% of
Stable design
yards in a recent Irish study using straw only.74
Although it raises concerns for some about the risk There are few publications on the design of
of impaction and chronic obstructive pulmonary stables, and these have been based largely on
disease (COPD), straw seems to have the added extrapolations of recommendations for shelter and
advantage of being the bedding preferred by ventilation of agricultural species. The Universities
horses themselves.77 It may be worth noting that Federation for Animal Welfare (UFAW)81 states
straw is regularly used as horse food in develop- that for a horse of average size – 500–600 kg body
ing countries. weight and 1.5–1.6 m (15–16 hands) – the loosebox
 16 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

should be at least 4 m ⫻ 4 m and preferably which horses are housed individually, under one
4 m ⫻ 5 m. Ensminger82 states that except for foal- roof, in pens made largely from bars and grilles),
ing mares and for stallions, there is no advantage which facilitates communication between neigh-
in having box stalls larger than 3.6 m square. Evans boring horses, is increasing in popularity. Studies
et al83 note that the popular size is 3.6 m ⫻ 3.6 m on the effect of increasing visual contact with
and that 3 m ⫻ 3 m is adequate for young horses conspecifics on weaving86,87 (see Ch. 5) suggest
but suggests that the more time the horse spends that whether a stable, rather than a tie-stall, is
in the stall, the larger the stall should be. There are acceptable depends on its walls more than its
several differences between the housing of horses size in that isolation is more of a problem than
compared with that of other farm animals. Horses confinement.79
usually have individual living areas, and a much Modern stable management brings with it a
greater labor input per animal is present in stables number of disadvantages for both owners and
than in farm-animal housing. A survey of racing horses. For the owner, the disadvantages of keep-
stables in the Southwest of England found that ing their animals in stables rather than at grass
floor space varied between 8.76 sq m and 21.8 sq m revolve around time and money. Time commit-
with a median of 12.1 sq m per horse.84 This com- ments in stable management include bedding
pares favorably with the floor space provided for and feeding as well as having to exercise the con-
other agricultural species per unit of body size.85 fined horse on a more regular basis than its graz-
While box designs have been suggested by ing equivalent in order to maintain a given level
agricultural engineers and by horse-lore, there of fitness. The disadvantages of stabling from the
appear to be no recommendations in management horse’s perspective are considered later.
texts about the amount of time that the occupants
of these quarters should spend within them on
a daily basis. There are a number of reasons for
protracted confinement, including inclement
weather, locomotory illness and isolation of
BEHAVIOR
contagious pathogens. Episodes of enforced con-
When practitioners are asked to comment on
finement are popularly noted as being contempo-
abnormal or unwelcome behaviors, they must first
raneous with the onset of stereotypies. Given that
of all appreciate the range of normal behaviors.
Evans83 advocates the provision of more space for
animals that are turned out less regularly, it could
be argued that the design of all stables should
meet the needs of the worst-case scenario that
NORMAL BEHAVIOR IN STABLED
precipitates withdrawal of the daily turn-out
HORSES
period. Domestication affects behavior,88 not least because
The traditional layout of a stable-yard it limits the amount of space in which stock is able
includes the quadrangular enclosure of a central to range. This limitation can be effective from day
lawned area by boxes whose doors and windows one of life, since many foals, especially valued
face inwards. Walkways in many yards pass close Thoroughbreds, are born indoors.89 Interestingly it
to these portals and expose stabled horses to the has been suggested that myopia may be a conse-
unpredictable and arousing movement of humans, quence for horses that spend too much time in
feed-buckets and conspecifics. Therefore, it has stables90 (this is discussed further in Ch. 2).
been suggested that regimented geometrical The changes in equine behavior associated
accommodation of this sort makes relaxation with confinement and limited choice merit par-
difficult for the occupants.58 ticular consideration. From the horse’s perspec-
Despite similar problems with the distracting tive, the ways in which stabling can compromise
effects of activity in the passageways and others feeding, social and kinetic behavior and indeed
to do with air hygiene, barn-style housing (in health are considered below.
 INTRODUCTION 17

little has been done to determine the relative

Feeding behavior importance of factors such as energy, protein and
Because behavior is a response to an organism’s fiber levels. (The relationship between diet and
environment, the more restrictive an environ- behavior is discussed in more detail in Ch. 8.)
ment is, the more limited are the choices available It has been argued that the sleep pattern of a
to the organism. It is possible that where choice is species can be used as an index of adaptation.98 It
limited or eliminated, welfare may be compro- is therefore interesting that, while drowsing
mised.91 Choice allows animals to perform the accounts for 8% of the resting time of stabled
behaviors that are important to them,92 although horses, this figure has been shown to rise
the choices they make are not exclusively in the to 14% at pasture.99 The concomitant dietary dif-
direction of their own welfare.93 While the debate ferences between intake at grass and in the stable
about the importance of environmental choice in may play a role in this phenomenon since a
the welfare of animals continues, there appears to preliminary study in ponies has shown that,
be a number of ways in which modern stable when oats replaced hay in the diet, total rest time
management limits choice. increased.100 This merits further scrutiny (see
Choice is certainly reduced in feeding behav- Ch. 10). Although the number of feeds per day can
ior when horses are stabled. Feeding behavior in affect behavior via factors such as disturbances
stables seems to show the most marked difference and arousal,101 it could be that restlessness in
from that at pasture since concentrated rations horses peaks when stabled animals are fed small
may be consumed more rapidly than a pure for- amounts of forage and after consuming them are
age diet (Fig. 1.9a–e). While the feral or pastured left little to do in so-called vacuum periods.
horse may spend 70% of its day foraging, stabled
horses on ‘complete diets’ may spend only 10% of
their time feeding.94 These diets for competition
Social behavior
or maintenance can be eaten in less than 2 hours
and have removed the feeding behavior of The importance of social behavior to stabled horses
stabled horses even further from its evolutionary has yet to be fully quantified with consumer
origins. demand studies. However, anecdotes that describe
The time at which food is made available often horses performing operant responses, such as
adheres to a strict regime, which may have vari- undoing bolts with their lips to escape from the
able implications for gastrointestinal function. stable (Fig. 1.10) may indicate that housed individ-
The designation of such feeding times may uals will perform work in order to return to their
address the convenience of the operator rather conspecifics.
than the needs of the horse. Horses have not been It is known that frightened riding horses may
observed to fast voluntarily for more than 3–4 bolt in a bid to return to their fieldmates, appar-
hours95 but spells of this sort are imposed on ently because of an innate preference for the pres-
many stabled animals. ence rather than the absence of equine company.102
It has been shown that after 2–3 weeks of con- There are considerable data to suggest that isola-
tinuous access to a single feed, ponies stabilize tion can be aversive.103–106 When the choice of
their bodyweights, consuming 2–3% of their equine neighbors in a stable yard is dictated by the
bodyweight in dry matter in a 24-hour period.96 manager, bonded affiliates may be separated
Despite this finding in support of ad libitum while individuals with mutually low tolerance
feeding of housed equids, stable managers prefer may be housed next to one another. Disruption of
to control intake, since it is known that to do oth- an established social structure in this way may be
erwise is to risk temperamental volatility and associated with heightened aggression, especially
metabolic disorders, e.g. laminitis. at times of concentrated food delivery.107
There is considerable anecdotal evidence for Generally, the opportunities for social inter-
the effects of diet on behavior in the horse,1,97 but action with conspecifics, favored or otherwise, are
18 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

20% 10% 23% 10%

10% 10%

60% 57%

Eat Stand Lie Other Eat Stand Lie Other

(a) (b)

40%
15%
10%
3% 5%
65%

15%
47%

Eat Stand Lie Other Eat Stand Lie Other

(c) (d)

5%
30%

25%
Figure 1.9 Time budgets for horses in a variety of environments: (a) free-
ranging Camargue horses, averaged over a year; (b) eight horses housed as
40% a group with ad libitum hay and straw; (c) three horses in individual stables
given ad libitum hay and straw and able to see and touch each other;
(d) horses fed restricted fiber in stables where they cannot touch each
other and only see each other over stable doors; (e) six crib-biters fed ad
libitum hay and able to see and touch each other. NB: Crib-biting accounts
Eat Stand Lie Other for 20% of these horses’ ‘other’ behaviors. (Charts (a)–(d) reproduced
with permission of M Kiley-Worthington from The Behaviour of Horses in
(e) Relation to Management and Training.)

minimized by the individual housing of horses. importance in groups of horses,108,109 is rarely

While olfactory, auditory and visual communica- possible in most stable designs.84,101 Similarly,
tion can often occur between stabled neighbors, interactions such as mutual fly-swatting cannot
tactile communication, which is of considerable be performed by isolated horses. These concerns
 INTRODUCTION 19

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

Figure 1.10 a–d Irish Draft Horse undoing the bolt of his stable door. (e) After a chain was secured across the threshold to
prevent his escape, he moved his hay so that he could watch activities on the yard while eating.

are of particular importance when tie-stalls are escape. Until we have costed out the value of
considered, with recent evidence to suggest that resources or the absence of threats to safety and
they do not sufficiently cater for horses’ needs to comfort, it behoves us to consider these imposi-
perform social, recumbent resting and allogroom- tions from the horses’ perspective. For example,
ing behaviors.110 while stallions and occasionally geldings create
Stables of all sizes when designed for individual stud-piles of feces in the stable, eliminative behav-
horses have the potential to conflict with many of ior in the stable differs markedly from that in the
their occupants’ survival instincts.10 While impos- paddock, since the occupants cannot easily avoid
ing the vulnerability of isolation and an unhelpful contact with their urinary and fecal waste. Since
concentration of excretory products that may attract fresh layers of bedding regularly prompt urination
predation, they prevent detection of predators and in male equids, some consider this a form of
20 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

marking.58 So, the extent to which bedding is man- Space is certainly restricted when horses are
aged to meet human rather than equine needs housed, particularly in the case of tie-stalls. The
bears considerable merit but it is but one feature of extent to which stabled horses can see con-
the stabled horse’s world that represents a removal specifics is restricted. In a traditional loosebox,
of choice. In many ways horses attempt to meet this can often be achieved only by looking over
their behavioral needs despite the shortcomings the stable door, while many tie-stalls restrict visi-
of intensive environments but may fail to do so bility further by having tall dividers between
because of management routines. neighboring pens. This view is a contentious one.
Marsden114 maintains that the behavior of horses
kept in tie-stalls is similar to that when they are
kept at pasture. This was based on the fact that, in
Kinetic behavior tie-stalls, horses showed no significant increase
Among the prevailing features that arise in inten- in the time they spent performing abnormal
sively managed horses is restricted space. The behavior. The proximity of neighboring horses
physical limitations imposed on a horse by sta- was thought to facilitate social behavior more
bling mean that kinetic behavior is more difficult than is the case in individual looseboxes. It may
to perform than it is at pasture. For example, it has be that the small sample size (n ⫽ 4) could have
been estimated that an average sized horse needs resulted in the inadvertent selection of horses
a 6 m span to roll from one side to another, so that were especially unreactive and not predis-
many stabled horses are unable to perform this posed to perform stereotypies. This work did,
most basic of maintenance behaviors. The relative however, indicate that stalled horses spent signif-
lack of space may either prevent the stabled horse icantly less time lying down and moving, with
from choosing to roll or precipitate casting. significantly more time standing in stalls than at
Confinement within looseboxes is common and is pasture. Subsequent studies of pregnant mares in
an important limitation on the amount of exercise tie-stalls have shown their time budgets to be
that a horse can take through choice. After peri- similar to those of free-range horses.115 It would
ods of confinement, horses show post-inhibitory be interesting to see whether the mares’ gravid
rebound111 that may explain why unwanted state influenced this outcome.
behaviors during training occur more frequently
among stabled horses than those at pasture.112
Health
It has been suggested49 that voluntary kinesis
indicates that, rather than being simply a substra- The continual proximity to feces and urine may
tum for most behavior, locomotory activity has a be aversive to a stable’s occupant and may also
motivation of its own. However, the possibility of have an impact on health since humidity and air-
motivation for spontaneous locomotion is a con- borne pathogen viability may rise, especially if
tentious area because there is often difficulty in air-changes per hour are insufficient.84 An unnat-
eliminating motivation to perform other behav- ural foraging posture, e.g. eating from a haynet
iors for which locomotion is a prerequisite, e.g. for extended periods rather than from the
intrinsic exploration.113 ground, may compromise the function of the cil-
Although unacquainted horses from different iary escalator in the respiratory tract116 and pre-
yards may be mixed on a national and interna- cipitate pulmonary disease. Rhabdomyolysis117
tional scale for equestrian competition, isolation and chronic degenerative joint disease118 are
is often practiced when new horses arrive on a often exacerbated by the physical restriction that
yard, in a bid to control the spread of pathogens. accompanies extended periods of stabling. A sta-
Should such animals perform an unwelcome ble with insufficient or uncomfortable bedding
behavior pattern, they will often remain in isola- may limit the willingness of its occupant to lie
tion, since stereotypies are traditionally regarded down.119 This is thought to be associated with a
as contagious. foreshortening of the horse’s working life.120
 INTRODUCTION 21

the stable or the wellbeing, usefulness and value

Box 1.1 The Five Freedoms
of its occupant are regarded as abnormal.
To analyze all the factors likely to influence the welfare of
Tradition maintained that it was a form of dis-
farm animals, consider whether the animal has: obedience when stabled horses did not behave
1. freedom from thirst, hunger and malnutrition – by
as their owners required. Such miscreants were
providing access to fresh water and a diet to maintain said to have ‘vices’ whether they ate their feces,
full health and vigor bit their grooms or refused to lie down.120 Far
2. freedom from physical and thermal discomfort – by
providing a suitable environment including shelter and a
from elucidating the reasons for these unwel-
comfortable resting area come behaviors, this umbrella term tended to put
3. freedom from pain, injury and disease – by prevention the blame for them on the horses themselves, as if
or rapid diagnosis and treatment
4. freedom to express most patterns of normal behavior –
they had malicious intent.
by providing sufficient space, proper facilities and In 1912, a Captain Moseley, writing in the
company of the animal’s own kind Veterinary Record, described one such ‘vice’,
5. freedom from fear and distress – by ensuring
conditions which avoid mental suffering
crib-biting, as ‘a form of mental masturbation’.
However, while still saddled with a label that
implied viciousness, the same behavior in 1959
Stabling has also been implicated as a predis- was recognized by Summerhays124 as being
posing cause of one of the most dreaded and fre- induced by confinement. Applied ethology has
quently fatal equine disorders, colic.121 developed since then and serves to examine short-
falls in management that may have prompted the
behaviors. Behaviors that have been described as
Conclusion vices125 are now better categorized as either redi-
The five freedoms (Box 1.1) have been estab- rected behaviors, learned behaviors, physical
lished as a means of judging the extent to which problems, stereotypies or the consequence of inap-
the needs of domestic and captive animals are propriate amounts of stimulation.126
met by human carers.122,123
If we apply this model of good animal welfare
to horses, we can highlight areas in which well-
Displacement and redirected
being may be compromised. For example, we see
behaviors
many ways in which they are denied the freedom
to express their normal behavior in a stable. When Displacement behaviors are regarded as
one considers the social nature of equids, one responses that are inappropriate for the current
quickly appreciates the impediment that the isola- situation. They are recognized in situations that
tion of single-horse housing represents to normal involve behavioral conflict (see Ch. 13). For exam-
equine behavior. Therefore, while it has many ple, when a ridden horse is prevented from mov-
advantages for the horse owner, the stable should ing forward for longer than it can readily tolerate,
be viewed not simply as a source of physical con- it may start bending its neck laterally in an appar-
finement but also as a limitation on behavioral ent attempt to groom its flank even though self-
choice. grooming is not the most appropriate response to
restraint mediated through the bit. In the stabled
horse, a similar self-grooming response as a result
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR IN of frustration may be the kernel of stereotypic
STABLED HORSES self-mutilation.
Most changes in ingestive, eliminative and social When a behavior (e.g. an act of aggression) is
behaviors that follow a horse’s move from an directed away from the primary target and
extensive to an intensive management system are toward another, less appropriate object, it is said
of little concern to the animal’s owner. However, to be redirected.126 The term must be used with
behavioral changes that are directly deleterious to caution since it requires that the observer has
22 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

correctly identified the primary target. For exam- these horses may make them generally more reac-
ple, horses that eat their bedding material are tive when being handled in the stable.58 Similarly
thought by some to be performing a redirected inappropriate levels of stimulation are thought
behavior that meets their physiological needs for to cause psychopathologies such as hyperphagia
dietary fibre.96 Others regard this as a form of nervosa49 and polydipsia nervosa.134
coprophagia if the bedding is soiled, but since the
remedies advocated involve increasing the provi-
sion of roughage (which redirects the behavior Learned behavior
back to its evolutionary target), the distinction is
Learning in companion animals is often not
descriptive rather than functional. Coprophagia
recognized and is therefore regularly misinter-
is regarded as an adaptive behavior in foals127–129
preted. This often involves so-called superstitious
but as being an ethopathy in older individuals.49
learning whereby a response is acquired as a result
Another common example of redirected behav-
of its accidental link with a reinforcer.135 Misinter-
ior in equine husbandry systems is wood-chewing
pretation arises because the handlers are unaware
which is regarded as an ingestive behavior that
of the cues that their presence or actions represent
would be more readily directed toward grass or
to the animal. Chapter 4 is designed to allow read-
other palatable fiber were it available.96 However,
ers to become conversant with learning theory and
it is known that horses at pasture will chew
to understand why the term superstitious learning
wood,130–132 which implies that our understanding
is virtually redundant, given that animals are
of the causes of this behavior is incomplete. It is
learning all the time. Recognizing ways in which
possible that the ingestion of small quantities of
animals learn associations unanticipated by their
bark may be adaptive as a means of acquiring
handlers is a cornerstone of behavior therapy.
micronutrients.96
A bizarre example is a case of psychogenic colic
Both redirected and displacement behaviors are
that was associated with a demand for human
subject to the rules of operant conditioning (see
company.136
Ch. 4) and may be reinforced to become estab-
Another example is learned aggression to
lished unwelcome responses. For example, many
humans that can evolve as a result of inappropri-
horses paw at the ground or at the stable door prior
ate associations between agonistic posturing and
to being fed. Although this may be a response that
the unwitting delivery of a food reward. Thus,
would be appropriate for a free-ranging horse
arrival of the handler prompts hunger-motivated
that is being kept from its forage by a temporary
head-threatening behavior that is reinforced by
barrier such as snow, some would see the target-
the consequent acquisition of food as the human
ing of the door as a redirection of the behavior.
retreats. This agonistic behavior escalates when
If the horse is fed during or shortly after pawing
punished directly by the handler since his even-
the door it will be more likely to paw the door in
tual retreat becomes a more valued goal.137 Other
future.
learned responses, including conflict behaviors
that arise during horse–human interactions, are
Over-stimulation or under- considered in Chapter 13.
stimulation of behavioral systems
While lack of stimulation is often cited as a cause
Physical problems
of anomalous behavior,46,133 including apathy, the
opposite also merits consideration in the ontogeny Problems that arise as a direct consequence of
of unusual behavioral strategies linked to housing. dimensions of the stable, such as ‘refusal to lie
Kiley-Worthington78 indicates that too much noise, down’ have been blamed on some deficiency on
excitement or exercise can cause over-stimulation, the part of the occupants rather than the design-
as can the presence of too many horses and humans ers of the accommodation. Certainly, the area
to mix with socially. Raised levels of arousal in available influences resting behavior.138 Other
 INTRODUCTION 23

examples of physical problems include habitu- ancient sites of worship in Syria have shown
ally getting cast, catching hips on the doorway signs of wear that have been likened to the ero-
(often exacerbated by learned fear that prompts sion one finds in crib-biters.141 The use of incisor
faster, though not necessarily better judged, exits wear to identify palaeolithic horses as crib-biters
through doorways) and getting feet caught in is not without its critics.142 The current preva-
haynets. lence of crib-biting in donkeys is negligible and,
while it is possible that crib-biting was more
common in the past and has been selected out of
STEREOTYPIC BEHAVIORS the population to some extent, it seems strange
Stereotypic behavior is characterized by being that three of the five donkeys in this site had this
repetitive, relatively invariant and apparently stereotypy. The use of incisor erosion as a means
functionless.139 Stereotypies are heterogeneous in of confirming that the bearer is or was a crib-biter
their causes and their forms. Caged tigers that remains controversial because pre-purchase evi-
repeatedly pace up and down in their enclosures dence of erosion is cited in instances of litigation
raise public concern about welfare in zoos. On a when the vendor fails to declare the behavior.
less exotic scale, similar behaviors are performed This link between crib-biting and domestica-
by horses and ponies. Historically known in tion is made in the belief that stereotyped behav-
horse-lore as ‘stable vices’ and given specific ior occurs only in animals that have experienced
descriptive labels such as box-walking (stall- captivity. Furthermore, the assumption that this
walking in the USA), weaving, wind-sucking and wear is invariably the result of an oral stereotypy
crib-biting, these seemingly irreversible behavior is not without hazards since sandy soils and
changes tended to cause more embarrassment particular species of grass may produce similar
than concern. Despite this, questions regarding erosion of enamel on the labial surface and the
‘stereotypies’ (as these behaviors are more cor- tables of the incisors.
rectly described) have been fielded by behavior- As well as crib-biting and a number of the
ists and vets for decades. other so-called stable vices, weaving is described
Most lay authors on the subject tend to use the in a number of antique texts on equine hus-
blanket term ‘boredom’ to explain how these bandry.143–145
behaviors arise, and the remainder imply that it is
the fault of the horses themselves. However, the
days of dismissive attitudes to behavioral anom-
Characteristics of stereotypic
alies in horses and ponies would appear to be
behaviors
numbered. Therefore, while there are still those Stereotypic behaviors are not recognized in free-
who regard the ‘private life’ of their stabled horses living feral horses and are not purely a product of
as being unimportant as long as it does not cause domestication since they are also reported in cap-
poor performance, others have begun to question tive examples of wild equids such as the onager
the merits of traditional stable management that mountain zebra146 and Przewalski horses.147 In
push the horse beyond its limits of adaptation. the horse, these behaviors have therefore been
linked to a number of management practices.
A number of equine stereotypies have been
Historical accounts of stereotypic identified,78 including:
behavior
Stereotypic behavior is not described in the • chewing
earliest text on horsemanship and stable manage- • lip-licking
ment140 but archaeologists have used erosion on • licking environment
the incisors of equine skulls as an indicator of • wood-chewing
crib-biting and therefore domestication. Donkey • crib-biting
teeth gathered from what are thought to be • wind-sucking
24 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

• box-walking animals. These are dealt with more thoroughly in

• weaving subsequent chapters (see Chs 5 and 8).
• pawing
• tail-swishing
The functional significance of
• door-kicking (front feet)
stereotypies
• box-kicking (hind feet)
• rubbing self There has been much recent debate about the
• self-biting functional significance of stereotypies performed
• head-tossing by captive domestic animals.152–154 One influen-
• head-circling tial theory is that stereotypies enable animals to
• head-shaking cope with stress.155–158 However, experimental
• head-nodding studies to examine the effects of preventing ani-
• head-extending, ears back and nodding mals from performing stereotypies in order to
• kicking stall (hind feet). assess the validity of the stress-coping hypothesis
have produced equivocal results.159–163 However,
This is an exhaustive list and includes a number transient decreases in heart rates have been
of behaviors that are not morphologically invari- demonstrated in association with bouts of crib-
ant and therefore might be regarded as redirected biting (Fig. 1.11).164,165 Furthermore, efforts to pre-
behaviors by other authors. Other behaviors in vent the performance of equine stereotypies are
the above list are difficult to define because linked to some increases in physiological stress
changes in form may accompany aging of the parameters.162,163 It has also been suggested that
stereotypy, e.g. weaving may change from a side- crib-biters may have higher basal sympathetic
to-side pacing to a stationary head-swing.148 More activity because they have been found to have
than one stereotypy may be performed by an higher overall mean heart rate.165
individual horse, e.g. a box-walker may well be Stereotypies could help a horse cope with sub-
seen weaving on occasions.149 Indeed if a horse optimal environments or bring direct and immedi-
has one stereotypy, it has a greater chance of hav- ate rewards that make the behaviors intrinsically
ing a second stereotypy than do normal horses.150 gratifying. Endorphins have been implicated as a
The results of 13 studies into the prevalence of possible source of reinforcement for crib-biting166
stereotypies and 6 into that of wood-chewing because opioid antagonists can reduce crib-biting
appear in Table 1.3.151 by 84%, suggesting that at least one of the per-
Since many stereotypies are popularly ceived benefits of crib-biting (from the horse’s
regarded as being transmissible by mimicry119 perspective) is mediated by opioid receptors at
and some are associated with health and per- some point. However, because resting behavior
formance problems, horses exhibiting them are in crib-biters was also significantly increased by
often isolated. Some (such as box-walking, weav- opioid antagonists, it may be that the reduction in
ing and wind-sucking) must be declared at auc- crib-biting was linked to a generalized sedative
tion and tend to lower the value of affected effect. The effects of opioid antagonists on weaving

Table 1.3 Reported prevalence (%) of stereotypies and wood-chewing from studies published
between 1993 and 1998151 (reproduced with permission)

Standard
Mean deviation Median Minimum Maximum

Crib-biting/wind-sucking (13 populations) 4.13 2.57 3.66 0 8.30

Weaving (13 populations) 3.25 3.23 1.98 0 9.5
Box-walking (13 populations) 2.20 2.33 3.50 0 7.32
Wood-chewing (6 populations) 11.78 6.12 12.00 5.00 20.00
 INTRODUCTION 25

are extremely variable, with reports of both inability to suppress non-functional behavior
decreases167,168 and increases.163 While it is possi- (Daniel Mills, personal communication 2000).
ble that weaving may also be opioid mediated, While this may have repercussions for the train-
further work with larger numbers of weavers ability of stereotypic horses, it should be borne in
would be required before there can be a clearer mind when equine scientists select subjects for
understanding of the mechanisms involved.163 studies of learning.
A further suggestion is that a given stereotypy
may retain a function within the motivational
system from which it is derived.78 Thus, an oral Management factors and abnormal
stereotypy such as crib-biting may provide a route behaviors in stabled horses
to normal feeding and digestive activity within
It is clear that the prevalence of crib-biting and
an environment that severely limits normal for-
weaving is greater in Thoroughbreds than in
age intake (e.g. an intensive training program
other breeds.171,172 The prevalence of box-
characterized by the provision of high concen-
walking, wind-sucking/crib-biting and weaving
trate : minimal roughage diets).
in UK Thoroughbred populations has been esti-
Persevering with non-functional behaviors or
mated at 1.1%, 4.2% and 2.8%, respectively
previously trained but currently unrewarded
(n ⫽ 1033)173 and in Italy at 2.5%, 2.4% and 2.5%
responses is a characteristic of stereotypic ani-
(n ⫽ 1035).174 Data from 4468 UK Thoroughbred
mals.169,170 Preliminary reports from a pilot study
horses in training showed the total prevalence of
involving two stereotypic and two normal horses
all three of these stereotypies to be 10.8%, similar
suggest that they may have developed a general
to the prevalence of lameness.175 Estimates of the
combined prevalence of all stereotypies are more
difficult; for example, when lip-licking, pawing,
tail-swishing, head-tossing, head-nodding and
box-kicking were included, the prevalence on
some yards reached 26%.78 However, it remains
difficult to dissect the effects of management and
breed because Thoroughbreds are generally
raced and therefore managed intensively.
In other species, cage-design,176 isolation-
rearing177 and food-deprivation178 have been impli-
cated as proximate causes of stereotypic behavior.
Arousal, generated by frustrated motivation, is a
possible shared underlying cause,179 although oth-
ers emphasize the possible heterogeneity of the
cause and effect of different stereotypies.139 Despite
much work on farm and laboratory species, the
proximate causes of stereotypic and redirected
behavior in the horse have yet to be verified. How-
ever, the possible causal factors associated with
oral and locomotory stereotypies are discussed in
Chapters 8 and 5, respectively.
Figure 1.11 Horse crib-biting on metal substrate. Although
horses prefer to grasp wood rather than metal (perhaps
because it cushions their teeth), they will crib-bite on metal if
no other substrate is available. This helps to demonstrate a The role of genes and environment
considerable behavioral need to perform the stereotypy.
(Reproduced by permission of the University of Bristol, Although they have failed to control for variabil-
Department of Clinical Veterinary Science.) ity in management factors, studies into the role
 26 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

that heritability plays in stereotypy frequency including factors associated with weaning, social
have added weight to the view that certain fam- contact, crowding, feeding, housing and/or train-
ily groups are more likely than others to demon- ing practices.78,182
strate stereotypic behavior.94,174,180 Meanwhile a Some authors120,149 emphasize the importance
growing branch of the literature identifies the of mimicry rather than environmental deficits,
importance of management factors that might believing that exposure to a stereotypic neighbor
frustrate motivation in the horse.101,151 In horses may increase the likelihood of stereotypy devel-
bred for Flat racing, these include the amount opment or performance. Such social influences,
and type of forage, the bedding type, the number known in voles,183 may also affect stereotypy lev-
of horses on the yard and the amount of commu- els in horses,184 despite no current indication that
nication that is possible between neighboring horses can learn by observation.185–187 Even if
horses.101 A parallel study in dressage and event- observational learning is not involved, we should
ing horses demonstrated that the amount of time not rule out the possibility that having a stereo-
spent in the stable correlated with the likelihood typic neighbor may increase the arousal of
of stereotypies being reported.181 observing horses and therefore predispose them
Although feeding practices tend to have a to developing stereotypic behavior.
greater effect than housing practices on the An exhaustive study of abnormal behavior on
incidence of abnormal behavior,114 a single Thoroughbred studs gathered data on more than
causative factor is rarely to blame. For example, 11 000 horses, which suggested that, as a result of
wood-chewing increased when high-protein emancipation, the prevalence of stereotypies
rations were fed, because of a concomitant reduc- tends to rise with age (Fig. 1.12).175 Therefore, it
tion in the total fiber content,95 and when exercise seems likely that few horses are ever ‘cured’ of
was withdrawn.131 Many authors have suggested these behaviors. This implies that once these
other possible causes of anomalous behaviors, behavioral anomalies are established, they persist
to an extent, despite attempts to improve any
potentially causative deficiencies in the horse’s
8 management (Fig. 1.13). The continual reinforce-
Crib-biting/wind-sucking
ment of stereotypic behaviors contributes to their
Percentage performing abnormal behavior

Box-walking
resistance to therapy. Having said that, in one
Weaving
6 Wood-chewing

0
Foal 1 2 3 Adult
Age (years)
Figure 1.13 Two horses crib-biting at pasture. Since they
Figure 1.12 The percentage of Thoroughbreds reported as have one another’s company and optimal foraging
showing stereotypic and redirected behaviors from a sample opportunities they provide a useful example of emancipation.
population of 1023 foals, 746 yearlings, 1001 2-year-olds, (Reproduced by permission of the University of Bristol,
711 3-year-olds and 6250 adults. Department of Clinical Veterinary Science.)
 INTRODUCTION 27

study effective treatment of crib-biting was offered can become emancipated from their initiating
as a possible reason (along with euthanasia) for causes.195 Therefore, while stereotypies may arise
the largest percentage prevalence in crib-biting in response to adverse management, they may per-
rates being found in foals.188 sist in more enriched environments. Despite this,
Fundamentally the possibility of emancipa- owners of stereotypic horses often feel responsible
tion means that it is better to implement environ- for their charges’ behavioral anomalies. The behav-
mental enrichment prophylactically rather than iors are therefore unwelcome not least because
therapeutically. Notwithstanding its effects in they are a potential source of embarrassment to
maintaining normal behavior in youngstock,189 it owners.
is also likely to increase learning ability190 while at Stereotypic horses are considered undesirable
the same time promoting musculoskeletal health.191 for many reasons. Generally diminished per-
The process of emancipation also means that formance in stereotypers has been identified by
stereotypic foals are better research subjects than some authors,78,196 while health problems associ-
mature stereotypers. Studies on cohorts of foals ated with these behaviors have been highlighted
from neonates to 4-year-olds have yielded fasci- by others.102,119,197–199 Furthermore, it has been
nating results. For example, time-related patterns suggested that stereotypic horses in tie-stalls
for the development of oral behaviors differ from spend less time interacting with neighboring
those of locomotory behaviors.188 The results horses.115 Prevention of crib-biting, involving
of these and other recent studies on oral and physical or surgical approaches, is commonly
locomotory stereotypies are discussed in more attempted,1,119,200–204 with considerable variation
detail in Chapters 8 and 5, respectively. in rates of success. Certainly surgery is falling out
The future holds tremendous promise for of favor as the causes of stereotypies become
sympathetic and productive understanding of better understood.
equine stereotypies and the responsibility we Although there is no empirical evidence that
must take for their emergence and effective observational learning can occur in horses, the
management. belief that behaviors can be learnt or copied affects
the management of stereotypic horses. Physical
prevention of the behaviors is the prevalent
Management of stereotypies response, while isolation of affected horses from
Detailed therapeutic approaches to individual other horses is also common (Table 1.4). If these
stereotypic behaviors will be considered in later behaviors are not as functionless as assumed, e.g.
parts of this book, but it is worth noting some they constitute a coping response to a suboptimal
overarching principles that apply to many of environment, the common practice of preventing
these ethopathies. stereotypic behavior may be of welfare signifi-
Of all of the anomalous behavior patterns in cance. Conversely, managing stereotypic animals
horses, stereotypies seem to have proved most so that they are subjected to minimal frustration,
insoluble to horse owners. Work on other species e.g. by feeding and exercising before other horses
by different groups154,159,192–194 often appears con- on the yard, is very helpful.
tradictory and has highlighted heterogeneity in The need to prevent stereotypies for aesthetic
stereotypies.152 Since the study of equine stereo- and occasional health reasons has prompted
typies is in its infancy and because information searches for permanent cures. A remedy that is
from other species can be applied only with cau- effective for every crib-biter remains elusive (but
tion, it is perhaps not surprising that hippologists readers are directed to Ch. 8 for a discussion of
have found vices so mysterious and frustrating current humane approaches). The resourceful-
and have met with so little success when attempt- ness of horses in satisfying their motivation to
ing to modify these behaviors.120 perform this behavior seems to overwhelm
As the data demonstrating increasing pre- humans’ ability to physically prevent established
valence with age suggest, stereotypic behaviors forms of the behavior.
28 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

Table 1.4 Attitudes among professional horse owners to stereotypic behaviorsa

Racing Riding Competition

stables schools establishments

Source of concern about stereotypic behaviors

They reduce the performance of the animal 31 30 27
They have adverse clinical effects on the horse 52 55 56
They reduce the monetary value of the animal 45 59 31
Responses
Remove causal factors 35 43 36
Physical prevention 77 67 79
Isolation 39 30 48
a
The results of a telephone survey conducted with the owners of 100 racing stables, 100 riding schools
and 100 competition establishments (n ⫽ 8427 horses).205

Environmental enrichment, often mentioned Care should be taken to translate horsey jargon
in the context of captive exotic species, is no less when taking a history. Various terms may be used
important in the horse. Turning stabled horses out to describe the same behavior; for example,
to pasture offers a dramatic illustration of the depending on the observer, a horse may be vari-
effects of enrichment. However, for some owners ously described as sharp, keen, fizzy or flighty.8,207
this is not an option. While many owners reach A survey of horses described by their owners as
for the blanket term ‘boredom’ to describe the ‘head-shakers’ identified some that were simply
problems faced by the stabled horse, some are nodding their heads.208 Having said that, there is
beginning to explore ways to increase complexity evidence that even among a large group of ama-
of stables.206 For example, using a chain in place of teurs the use of a human personality inventory
the stable door is a surprisingly effective means of achieves high inter-correlations in the ranking of
increasing the visual stimuli that enter at stable horses, with especially strong agreement being
(see Fig. 1.10e). The key with any environmental achieved for neuroticism and extraversion.209 The
enrichment is to ensure that the intervention is reliability of these assessments increases the legiti-
relevant and unlikely to provide a focus for sim- macy of everyday use of psychological terms to
ple redirection of abnormal behaviors, an out- describe animal behavior.209 Additionally it is
come that is quite unsatisfactory. By studying encouraging to note that when confined to the use
this book, and most notably Chapters 5 and 8, of objective descriptive definitions, riders score
readers will be well placed to design enrichment horses’ temperaments with significant agreement
strategies that are likely to meet the behavioral and that their scores correlate significantly with
needs of all horses, especially those that exhibit objective measures from temperament tests.210
under-stimulation and frustrated motivation. Although clients tend to be impressed by
shortcuts in history-taking, experience shows
this tempting path to be more hazardous than
INTRODUCTION TO EVALUATING worthwhile. Acquiring only half the salient facts
BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS means one is half as likely to emerge with a cor-
Many behaviors labeled abnormal are simply nor- rect diagnosis and successful therapy.
mal but unwelcome. It is the veterinarian’s job to More than dog and cat owners, horse owners
distinguish normal and learned behaviors from tend to seek advice from each other before calling
those with organic origins. Owners and grooms out the veterinarian, so it is often the case that
generally know their horses better than the con- horse-lore has been applied unsuccessfully in the
sulting clinician and therefore it is important to past. At the end of a complete case history, one
keep one’s counsel until a thorough case history should have all the benefit of hindsight and
has been taken. therefore make intelligent suggestions based on
 INTRODUCTION 29

what is known of previous attempts to remedy

Box 1.2 Behavioral profile
the problem.
Name
Family includes
How to take a case history Address
Tel no
Behavioral consultations can be considered Animal’s name
under two main headings: the background and Breed
management details, which constitute a behav- Age
Sex
ioral profile, and the unwanted behavior. If gelded, age at castration
Although entirely a matter for personal prefer- Other surgical and medical history
ence, it seems good practice to establish details
Early history and education
of the horse’s management before exploring Origin?
the details of the unwanted behavior. This is Was dam’s behavior observed?
because, having acquired a picture of the way the Since what age has horse been in present ownership?
Why was the horse obtained?
horse sees its world, one can better understand Is it still used for this purpose?
the motivation it may have to deploy unwelcome If there has been a change, why?
counter strategies. Box 1.2 gives an example of Previous owners and trainers?
Any ‘imprint’ training?
factors constituting a typical behavioral profile. Circumstances at early rearing (numbers, ages
Because such potentially dangerous behaviors and gender of companions, housing, exposure to
as bucking and rearing can be both expressions humans)?
Age at and method of weaning?
of joie de vivre and evasions from pain, veteri- Methods of training? (primarily operant vs classical)a
narians undertaking behavioral consultations Do related horses have similar problems?
should begin by performing physical examina- Do other horses that were raised or trained at the same
yard have similar problems?
tions to eliminate somatic causes before embark-
ing on a program of behavior therapy. This book Environment
explores the normal behavior of horses in consid- Type of housing (loosebox, pasture, run-out shed)?
Exercise?
erable depth so that practitioners are equipped a. Hours per week ridden or driven?
to consider the adaptive significance of many b. Hours per week in pasture or paddock? Size of
signs that present as behavioral problems. Horses enclosure?
c. Hours per week lunged?
that shy provide a useful example in that they d. Other?
should undergo ophthalmological examinations Other horses in environment and its relationship with
that are complemented by information regarding them (any recent changes)?
Other animals in the environment and its relationship
the frequency and variability of shying, and the with them?
spatial relationships of objects at which they tend Persons involved with the horse and its relationship
to shy. with them?
Problem behaviors, especially those under sad- About the horse’s day
dle, can be learned through unfortunate experi- When fed?
ences but may also reflect ongoing pain. To some What fed?
Where fed?
extent it is a shame that the veterinary profession Who feeds?
is called upon only as a last resort when a horse Who feeds titbits?
starts refusing jumps it is capable of clearing. As Who can take food away from the horse?
Does he/she like to be groomed?
a result, lower limb pain is probably under- Is the horse head-shy?
diagnosed as a cause of such problems.211 The Who grooms?
application of various gadgets and escalated coer- Where?
How often is the horse turned out?
cion often come before a full clinical examination. What is the horse’s response to being caught when at
Recognition of pain ranks as an extremely pasture?
important feature of the examination in a clinical a
See Chapter 13.
case with behavioral manifestations. Houpt212
 30 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

suggests that a visual appraisal may help to indi- unwanted behaviors, it pays to clarify the specifics
cate chronic pain, with the affected horse typically of any behavior that seems to have departed from
having a loose lip but clenched masseter muscles. the norm. For example, if the animal is described
Meanwhile, there may be a facial expression sug- as aggressive, considerably more information is
gestive of ‘concern’, with decreased mobility of the necessary before the motivation to demonstrate
eyes, puckering of the eyelids, backward inclina- agonistic behaviors can be understood. One
tion of the ears211 and dilation of the nostrils.49 As should establish whether the horse is aggressive to
social herbivores, horses might not be expected to other horses, other domestic species, humans or
demonstrate signs of pain more overt than teeth- all of the above. Aggression toward specific targets
grinding, since to do so may single them out for merits further questioning. For example, aggres-
predation. However, it is proposed that when sion toward humans can be investigated further
vocalization accompanies pain, it generally takes with questions such as:
the form of a squeal if the pain is of somatic origin
and a grunt if visceral.211 While reduced locomo- • Under what circumstances is the horse
tion and postural attempts to shift weight away aggressive?
from the seat of pain can be spotted from a dis- • Does the horse avoid personnel or is it
tance, guarding of muscle groups may be appreci- actively aggressive?
ated during palpation. • Does the horse target particular individuals
Although the role of neuropathic pain is now or types of people (male, female, large, small)
recognized in the etiology of head-shaking (see or all people?
Ch. 3),213 it remains unclear why some horses
head-shake most when being ridden in certain The unwanted behavior and the way it has
ways, e.g. with a flexed poll. Sometimes the role evolved to its current form need to be clearly
of pain in emergent unwelcome behavior is not defined (Box 1.3). Given the apparent inconsisten-
revealed without analgesics. While one horse cies in the terminology and interpretation of
that is slow to leave from and quick to return to equine behavior,215 practitioners are commended
its yard may have become overly bonded to a to equine ethograms designed to establish stan-
companion, another may refuse to leave the yard dard nomenclature for equid behavior.216 Because
until placed on a course of anti-inflammatory of the possibility of inconsistent labeling of
drugs. The latter would be one of those horses behaviors,175,213 direct observation or video mate-
that have learned that being ridden, especially on rial is certainly preferable to an oral account of the
resilient surfaces, is reliably painful and therefore behavior. Problems in the ridden horse can be
should be avoided. fully appreciated only if the patient is ridden sad-
In behavioral terms, donkeys are not small dled and unsaddled, preferably on more than one
horses. Behavioral peculiarities in the donkey are occasion by different riders.
sometimes of clinical significance. Compared with
horses, donkeys give fewer overt signs of pain, Box 1.3 The unwanted behavior
tending instead to lie down or stand still with their
heads lowered. Sweating and hyperpnoea are • Description of what specifically happens
more common responses to abdominal pain than • Where does the behavior occur?
rolling and flank-kicking (Jane French, personal • When does the behavior occur?
• When was it first detected?
communication). Even during intestinal strangu- • What was the owner’s reaction?
lation or rupture, donkeys rarely lie down and roll • What advice has the owner received to date?
but instead show little more than inappetance, a • What problems has the owner encountered with any
attempts at correction?
mildly elevated heart rate and a vague reluctance • Has there been any change in the frequency or
to move.214 appearance of the problem?
Because behavior modification relies on being • What will be done with the horse if its behavior does not
improve?
able to redirect motivation that has prompted
 INTRODUCTION 31

With a clear picture of the ontogeny and moti- 8. King SRB. Home range and habitat use of free-ranging
Przewalski horses at Hustai National Park, Mongolia.
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ment of an effective, tailored strategy to remove 9. Christensen JW, Zharkikh T, Ladewig J, Yasinetskaya N.
the reinforcement of the behavior and redirect the Social behaviour in stallion groups (Equus przewalskii
and Equus caballus) kept under natural and domestic
horse’s motivation is likely to emerge.217–220 This is conditions. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2002; 76(1):11–20.
behavior modification. Although a number of case 10. Goodwin D. The importance of ethology in under-
studies are presented in this book, readers may standing the behaviour of the horse. The role of the
horse in Europe. Equine Vet J Suppl 1999; 15–19.
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CHAPTER CONTENTS
2
Vision 37
Acuity 38
Depth perception 42
Stimulus visibility 42
Perception
Accommodation 43
Color vision 44
Foal vision 45
Problems with vision 46

Chemoreception 46
Smell 46
Taste 48

Hearing 49

Touch 50

Summary of key points 51

Case study 51 Horses have been described as being among the

most perceptive of animals.1 By studying the
References 53
sensory perception of horses, we gain valuable
insights into their behavior. The differences
between human and equine perceptions of the
external environment can be explained by the
differences in their sensory structures. The horse’s
adept perception has allowed it to be constantly
aware of changes occurring in its surroundings
and has played a pivotal role in the success of this
species. An appreciation and understanding of
the horse’s well-developed sensory system are
valuable tools, particularly when attempting to
understand distinctive aspects of equine behavior.

VISION

The equine eye is among the largest, and held by

some to be the largest, in terms of absolute dimen-
sions, of any terrestrial mammal.2,3 Leaving aside
the aesthetic appeal this gives the horse, it sug-
gests that the horse relies heavily on visual infor-
mation about its environment. With large retinae
and a relative image magnification that is 50%
greater than that of humans,4 the horse’s eyes
allow it to visualize a wide panorama of the hori-
zon and also the area ahead where feet will be
placed and fodder will be selected. As a herbivo-
rous flight animal, the horse has good distance
vision, allowing it to scan widely for danger and,
despite being relatively poor at accommodation,
with a vertical field of 178°,4 is able to visualize
the ground immediately ahead while grazing.
37
 38 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

Figure 2.1 Aerial view of a horse showing the blind spot to

its rear. The width of the blind spot is influenced by the Figure 2.2 Rearing horse showing the white of its eye.
horse’s head carriage. (Adapted, with permission, from (Reproduced with permission of the Captive Animals
photograph 6.1a in Equestrian Technique by Tris Roberts, Protection Society.)
London: JA Allen; 1992.)
directly in front of the horse. When the head is
Horse eyes occupy a lateral position towards down the horse’s binocular field is located down
the back of the head, affording a panoramic view the nose in the direction of grass. Therefore horses
in front and on both sides, with only a narrow can see where they eat especially well. This is why,
blind area to the rear (Fig. 2.1). if they do want to see directly in front rather than
The narrow blind zone at the back of the horse down the nose, horses have to lift up the nose
of approximately 20° for each eye,5 can be unveiled and point it at the object of interest.
by a slight turn of the head. For example, when The exposition of more sclera is often noted in
kicking with its hindlegs, a horse may turn its head anxious animals (Fig. 2.2) because the eyes are
to ensure that its target is no longer in the blind opened wider to take in more visual information
area. The width of the blind zone is determined by that may help them resolve the situation, while
the level at which the head is carried. As most prac- a fixed eye may be associated with reasonably
titioners appreciate, the blind zone can be effect- chronic distress. It is widely believed that the
ively increased by cupping one hand around the extent of oscillation of eye movements and the
lateral canthus, an intervention which pacifies amount of sclera shown can be helpful in assessing
many horses that have learned to anticipate aver- the disposition of horses,6 but, if the horse has
sive stimuli as part of veterinary intervention a relatively small iris, that may detract from the
(see Ch. 14).5 reliability of this effect.
The price horses pay for having laterally placed
eyes is that the muzzle gets in the way of forward
vision. Depending on the carriage of the head,
ACUITY
the particular breed and the setting of the eyes, There are a number of aspects of vision that can
there is a blind zone extending almost 2 meters be measured. Visual acuity describes the ability
 PERCEPTION 39

corpora nigra contain an intricate network of blood

vessels, which suggests that they might also be
used to oxygenate the anterior chamber of the eye
(Alison Harman, personal communication 2002).
For horses to see through their narrow pupils, they
adjust their head position up and down or side to
side. Best frontal vision of the ground in front is
achieved when the horse flexes slightly at the poll.
Horses commonly hold their heads in this position
when they are moving in slower gaits. This was
thought to improve focus and enhance images of
Figure 2.3 A system of vertical lines can be presented the ground ahead.6 However, when over-flexed so
progressively closer to one another to measure visual acuity. that the nose is behind the vertical, the horse can-
(Reproduced with permission of Alison Harman.) not see the space in front of it and so, when being
ridden, may occasionally collide with objects, peo-
to distinguish the fine details of an object. Clearly, ple and other horses if not directed (Fig 2.4a & b).
the nearer an object is to the eye, the finer the detail A functionally important blind spot is created
that can be distinguished. Horses’ eyes are geared when a horse is ridden ‘on the bit’. The blind spot
to be focused largely on more distant features and, is formed to the front of the horse, and is believed
like many mammal species, appear to have limited to be as wide as the body. Thus, when a horse
accommodation, i.e. the ability to focus on very is being ridden in such a fashion it cannot see
close objects less than about 1 meter away. Animals directly in front of itself. Horses on the bit are said
that have been trained to discriminate between to be showing signs of submission and ‘listening
panels painted gray and those bearing black and to their riders’, but it is possible that compromising
white stripes can expose their species’ acuity. As a horse in this way makes it more reliant on the
panels with ever finer stripes are presented to the rider for avoidance of obstacles and so more bid-
observer, the discrimination task becomes more dable. Before using physical constraints such as
difficult (Fig. 2.3). The point at which the lines tie-downs and standing martingales to keep the
blur together and appear to be gray (the limit of head down or overchecks to keep it up, one should
acuity) is marked by a failure to discriminate. consider the effect of these restraints on the horse’s
Most birds that have been tested excel at this task. ability to convey itself safely over rough terrain
They can distinguish extremely narrow stripes and most especially over jumps.
that occupy as little as 1/100th of a degree of their The horse has mostly monocular vision; that is
visual field. Horses can perceive stripes that fill each eye sees a completely different field of view.
about 1/20th of a degree. However, horses have a small binocular field at
An interesting way of expressing the horse’s the front of the monocular fields. Therefore, the
acuity is in comparison with normal human vision, horse can adjust its view to overlap the visual fields
as 20/33. This indicates that a horse can only dis- of both eyes and achieve a binocular view (Fig. 2.5).
cern at 20 meters what a human can at 33 meters,7 This binocular field of view allows the horse to
and this compares favorably with the dog (20/50) observe the ground in front with both eyes.
and the cat (20/100).7 Horses’ eyes are extremely To see objects at a greater distance, the horse
sensitive to movement in all areas of their visual rotates its nose upwards because its binocular
field, but human peripheral vision is considered overlap is oriented down the nose (Fig. 2.6). It is
a good approximation of the visual detail horses believed that when focusing on objects to the
can appreciate.8 fore, horses may momentarily lose the ability to
The visual field is affected by the corpora nigra, observe from the rear and to the sides.7 Having
which are found on the upper margin of the pupil- said that, when taking off for a jump, horses
lary aperture, possibly as an anti-glare device.9 The sometimes tilt their head sideways, using their
 40 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

(a) (b)

Figure 2.4 (a) The visual field in front of a horse when allowed to carry its head naturally. (b) The blind area in front of a horse
when over-bent. ((b) Reproduced with permission of the Captive Animals Protection Society.)

(a) (b) (c)

(d)

Figure 2.5 The visual field of one eye of a horse. Horse and human – (a) rear view, (b) front view – are standing looking out
over Perth from a viewpoint in Kings Park. So in front of them they see Perth and to the back of them is a man taking a photo
of Perth. The human view (c) is of Perth itself and not much more, since our vision is so frontal. Also we see just the very middle in
high acuity. The horse (d) by contrast, sees Perth and everything else simultaneously right back to the man taking the photograph.
(Reproduced with permission of Alison Harman.)
 PERCEPTION 41

Figure 2.6a,b Show jumper approaching a jump with the horse’s

head either (a) up or (b) down. Visual field is indicated.
(Reproduced with permission of Alison Harman.)

(a)

(b) (c)

Figure 2.6c–e A view of what a

horse sees when approaching a
jump with head (d) up or (e) down.
(d) shows that the horse sees the
jump and also a lot of other things
out to the side. (e) shows that if
you hold the head down it sees its
foot and knee and a bit of the
(d) world out to the side. Perhaps this
is why a horse may be more
compliant when its head is held
down, since it is unlikely to make
much sense of the visual world. (c)
Shows what a human sees over
the jump (remember we only really
see the middle of our visual field in
high acuity). (Reproduced with
permission of Alison Harman.)

(e)
 42 EQUINE BEHAVIOR

lateral vision to get a better look at jumps as they horizon, enabling scanning and depth perception.
get up close. Perhaps this is why blinkers have In this position monocular lateral vision is com-
found little favor in show-jumping circles, the promised. However, when the head is lowered
traditional source of a multiplicity of gadgets. and the binocular vision is directed at the area
Blinkers are most effective in preventing shying directly in front of the head, the lateral monocular
and have been favored by carriage drivers because fields afford good lateral horizon vision.
they make the horses less likely to attempt to turn Effective use of the binocular field is required
in the shafts or bolt. It is also suggested that blink- when a horse attempts to discern an object that is
ers can render a horse more responsive to voice close and low. The horse is best able to use its
commands used to increase speed because they binocular field of view by arching the neck and
prevent it from seeing when the driver is not carry- rotating the head. It can focus on the object by
ing or about to use a whip (Les Holmes, personal simultaneous rotation of the eye downward to
communication 2002). Blinkers on racing animals optimize orientation of the visual streak (see p. 43).
bring rather different benefits – especially, it seems,
when used for the first time. It has been suggested
that, if it is a generally low-ranking animal, a race-
horse that sees another horse approaching from
STIMULUS VISIBILITY
behind is more likely to defer to the challenger Factors that affect the visibility of a stimulus for a
if not wearing blinkers. This assumes that more horse include size of the object, contrast and envir-
dominant horses are more motivated to assume onmental illumination. When a moving horse spots
the lead in a galloping herd, a hypothesis that has something underfoot, it not only looks at the stim-
yet to be tested. ulus, but is also likely to change speed.12 The level
of arousal plays a part in the recognition of stimuli,
an outcome that may be influenced by the horse’s
age and training because recognition of distant
DEPTH PERCEPTION stimuli on the ground is facilitated by carrying the
It was long believed that animals with laterally head at a lower angle. Saslow12 found that younger
placed eyes and extensive monocular visual fields animals tend to carry their heads higher and there-
did not have stereopsis – the ability to see in stereo fore may not notice stimuli as readily as older
and perceive depth. However, recent studies10 horses, especially those that have been trained not
have demonstrated that the horse’s binocular field to carry their neck straight and head high.
is an arc of approximately 60° in front of the head, Saslow12 also found that horses were able to
affording good stereopsis and thresholds of depth discern stimuli better in overcast rather than bright
detection comparable to those of cats and pigeons. sunny conditions. This suggests that the equine
These findings indicate that larger interocular dis- rod-dominated eye may not find bright conditions
tances, as found in the horse, may provide useful as favorable as dull conditions. The high propor-
depth judgment. This may have arisen because tion of rods to cones (generally 20:1)13 gives the
the horse has evolved to make judgments over a horse excellent night vision but insufficient to
range of several meters, whereas ground-feeding make horses innately fearless of areas that are
birds such as pigeons, with an extremely small poorly lit. As we will see in Chapter 4, horses will
interocular distance, have to focus at a distance of work to keep a stable illuminated, and this helps
only a few centimeters. Horses also use monocular to explain some of the aversiveness of small dark
depth cues to judge distance.4 This makes sense spaces, including trailers (floats in the USA) (Fig.
because they spend so much of their day with their 2.7). A reflective layer of cells behind the retina, the
heads to the ground, a position that makes tapetum, enhances this. Acting like a mirror, the
stereopsis redundant. tapetum reflects light back on to the retina,
Harman et al11 suggest that when a horse lifts its enabling further light to be gathered. The down-
head the binocular area of vision is directed at the side of this arrangement is that the image is
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 APPENDIX III
REWARDS

All Ranks
(The ranks shown are those held at the time of award)
V.C.
Cotter, W. R., L.-Corpl., 6707.

K.C.B.
Bainbridge, Major-General E. G. T., C.B.
Lynden-Bell, Major-General Sir A. L., K.C.M.G., C.B.

C.B.
Hill, Lt.-Colonel H. C. de la M.
Lynden-Bell, Major-General A. L., C.M.G.
McDouall, Br.-General R., C.M.G., D.S.O.

K.C.M.G.
Lynden-Bell, Major-General A. L., C.B., C.M.G.

C.M.G.
Finch Hatton, Lt.-Colonel E. H., D.S.O.
Hulke, Lt.-Colonel L. I. B.
McDouall, Colonel R., D.S.O.
Porter, Br.-General C. ’L., D.S.O.
Vyvyan, Colonel Sir C. B., Bart., C.B.

C.H.
Perrott, Colonel Sir H. C., Bart., C.B.
 C.B.E.
Findlay, Colonel H.
McDouall, Lt.-Colonel R., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O.

D.S.O.
Barnard, Major W. G. F.
Beevor, Lt.-Colonel M.
Body, Captain J.

Chapman, Major G. A. E.
Crookenden, Major J.

Friend, Lt.-Colonel R. S. I.

Green, Lt.-Colonel H. W.
Groves-Raines, Captain R. G. D.

Hayfield, Captain C. D., M.C.

Kirkpatrick, Lt.-Colonel H. F.

Lee, Major G., M.C.

Lucas, Major L. W., M.C.

Marshall, Captain F. A. J. E., M.C.

Morgan, Major H. de R.

Porter, Br.-General C. ’L.

Potter, Captain H. B.
Power, Lt.-Colonel R. E.

Sebastian, Captain E. G.
Smeltzer, Lt.-Colonel A. S., M.C.
Stronge, Lt.-Colonel H. C. T., M.C.
Studd, Lt.-Colonel F. C. R.

Thewles, Lt.-Colonel H. A.
Trevor, Major W. H.

Whitmarsh, Captain A. J.

CLASP TO D.S.O.
 Body, Lt.-Colonel J., D.S.O.

Kirkpatrick, Lt.-Colonel H. F., D.S.O.

Ransome, Lt.-Colonel A. L., D.S.O. (Dorsetshire Regt.).[37]

Smeltzer, Lt.-Colonel A. S., D.S.O., M.C.

SECOND CLASP TO D.S.O.

Curtis, Lt.-Colonel H. M. C., D.S.O. (6/N. Staffordshire Regt.).

[37]

O.B.E.
Body, Lt.-Colonel J., D.S.O.
Booth, Major W. H., D.S.O.

Dixon, Captain G. S.

Eaton, Lt.-Colonel W. A.

Forwood, Major H., D.C.M.

Gosling, Lt.-Colonel G., T.D.

Messel, Lt.-Colonel L. C. R., T.D.

Raikes, Lieut. W. O.

Ternan, Major H. A. B.
Trueman, Lt.-Colonel A. P. H.

Ward, Captain H. E.

M.B.E.
Barber, Lieut. L. W.
Beale, Captain G. S.

Corney, Lieut. A.
Cree, Captain H. F.

Filmer, Captain W. G. H.

Hardy, Major H. S., M.C.

Marshall, Lieut. F. A. J. E., D.S.O., M.C.

Mockett, Captain V.
Munday, Lieut. W. T.

Silverwood-Cope, Captain A. L.

Thomson, Captain A. B.

Watson, Captain F. W.
Wilkins, Captain D. A.
Wilson, Lieut. C. E.

M.C.
Allen, Captain J. F. W.
Anderson, Captain D. K.
Anderson, 2nd Lieut. L.
Asprey, 2nd Lieut. P. R.
Aylward, Lieut. J. A. S.

Baldry, No. G/1851 C.S.M. P. W., M.M.

Barber, Lieut. L. W.
Beagley, 2nd Lieut. F. P.
Beswick, Captain A. H.
Birrell, Captain W. R.
Black, Captain C. K.
Bond, 2nd Lieut. H. G.
Bremner, Lieut. C. J.
Brice, Captain M. M.
 , p
Brock, Lieut. A. G.
Brown, 2nd Lieut. G.
Brown, 2nd Lieut. T. A.

Campbell, Captain D. S.
Caney, 2nd Lieut. C.
Carles, Captain C. W.
Carter, Captain E. A.
Cattley, Captain C. F.
Causton, Captain L. P.
Chapman, Lieut. C. M. B.
Chapman, Lieut. E. R.
Chater, 2nd Lieut. E. C.
Chilvers, 2nd Lieut. J. E.
(Christopherson, Rev. N. C.)
Church, 2nd Lieut. G. W.
Clapperton, Captain T.
Clarke, Lieut. A. H.
Clouting, 2nd Lieut. C. E.
Cockeram, 2nd Lieut. P. A.
Connell, Lieut. W. C.
Corrall, Captain W. R.
Cotching, 2nd Lieut. E. G.

Dangerfield, 2nd Lieut. P.

Darling, 2nd Lieut. W. H. J.
Davies, Captain B. E.
Davis, 2nd Lieut. W. C.
D’Elboux, Lieut. R. H.

Emery, Major T. S.

Farmer, 2nd Lieut. T. C.

Ferguson, 2nd Lieut. D. G.
Figgis, Lieut. L. P.
Fine, Captain H.
Fiske, Lieut. C. W.
Fox, 2nd Lieut. P. R. H.
Friend, Captain J. I. H.

Gerard, 2nd Lieut. G. V.

Gold, Lieut. H. A.
Grant, 2nd Lieut. D.
Gray, 2nd Lieut. W. R.
Greig, Lieut. P. H.
Griffiths, 2nd Lieut. F. H.
Gullick, Captain C. D.
Gunther, 2nd Lieut. N. O. F.

Hale, Lieut. F. W.
Hall, 2nd Lieut. E. Foster.
Hamilton, Lieut. G. F.
Hanmer, 2nd Lieut. A. J.
Hardy, Captain H. S.
Harrison, No. 8798 C.S.M. A.
Hatfield, Captain C. E.
Haughton, Lieut. M. G.
Hawkins, No. 2948 R.S.M. A.
Hayfield, 2nd Lieut. C. D.
Hendin, 2nd Lieut. D. W.
Hicks, 2nd Lieut. P.
Holder, Lieut. F. D.
Hollis, 2nd Lieut. C. F. G.
Howcroft, Lieut. G. J.
Howgrave-Graham, Captain A. H.
Hudson, 2nd Lieut. F. N.
Hughes, 2nd Lieut. J. H.
Hunter, Captain H.

Jacobs, Lieut. B.
Jacobs, Lieut. I. A.
Jeffrey, No. S/191 S.-M. W.
Jessel, Lieut. G.
Johnston, Captain W. T.
Jones, 2nd Lieut. G. M.
Jones, 2nd Lieut. H. L.
Kenchington, Captain A. G.
Keown, Lieut. R. W.
Kidd, Lieut. L. G. M.

Laverton, Captain W. R. C.
Lawrence, 2nd Lieut. W. B.
Lee, Captain G.
Liles, 2nd Lieut. R. W.
Lilley, 2nd Lieut. A. A.
Lindley, Lieut. G.
Lister, 2nd Lieut. D. S.
Lucas, Captain L. W.

McCallum, Lieut. A.
Macfadyen, Lieut. W. A.
Marchant, Captain F. O.
Marchant, 2nd Lieut. S. H. S.
Marshall, Lieut. F. A. J. E.
Mason-Springgay, 2nd Lieut. W. H.
Mathias, 2nd Lieut. C. A. S.
Maxted, No. 141 C.S.M. G. W.
Milles, Lieut. H. L.
Mitchell, Lieut. H. V.
Morley, 2nd Lieut. H. L.
Morrell, Captain F. A.
Morse, 2nd Lieut. E. V.
Moss, Lieut. V. Newton.

Nicholas, Captain W. L. J.
Nicholson, 2nd Lieut. A. C. L.

Page, Captain J. C.
Pannell, 2nd Lieut. H.
Parnis, Lieut. W. H.
Peake, Captain W.
Peckham, Lieut. G. H.
Piper, Lieut. J. D.
Pritchard, No. 635 C.S.M. W. J.
Prothero, Captain L. E. A.

Ralph, No. 6170 C.S.M. E. W.

Reader, 2nd Lieut. C. H. A.
Reid, Lieut. T. R.
Routley, 2nd Lieut. E. G.

Sandilands, Captain R. B.
Sankey, 2nd Lieut. C. M.
Scarlett, Captain Hon. P. G.
Shafto, 2nd Lieut. J. S. H.
Shaw-Lawrence, 2nd Lieut. L. E.
Sherwill, 2nd Lieut. A. J.
Smeltzer, 2nd Lieut. A. S.
Spence, Captain F. A.
Stainforth, Captain A. G. C.
Stevens, 2nd Lieut. E. A. M.
Stevens, 2nd Lieut. G. E. W.
Stevens, Lieut. H. F.
Stevens, 2nd Lieut. W. T.
Strauss, Captain B. L.
Stronge, Captain H. C. T.

Tatam, 2nd Lieut. V. G. H.

Temple, 2nd Lieut. W. H.
Thornhill, Lieut. G. R.
Thornley, 2nd Lieut. J. D.
Toynbee, Lieut. J. W. H.
Tupper, 2nd Lieut. H.
Turk, 2nd Lieut. J.
Tyrrell, Captain G. Y.

Vaughan, 2nd Lieut. J.

Vertue, Captain N. G.

Walters, 2nd Lieut. W. M.

Weare, Captain F. G. C.
Wellman Lieut R S
Wellman, Lieut. R. S.
Whitaker, Captain F.
Whitmarsh, Captain A. J., D.S.O.
Wilkinson, 2nd Lieut. F. D.
Williams, 2nd Lieut. W. T.
Willis, Lieut. L. C.
Wood, Captain C. J.
Wood, Captain Ll.
Worster, 2nd Lieut. A. F.
Wort, Captain P. C.
Wray, 2nd Lieut. A. M.
Wyatt, 2nd Lieut. M. J.

CLASP TO M.C.
Black, Captain C. K., M.C.

Gullick, Captain C. D., M.C.

Hamilton, Captain G. F., M.C.

Hayfield, Lieut. C. D., M.C.

Jacobs, Captain B., M.C.

Kidd, Captain L. G. M., M.C.

McCallum, Captain A., M.C.

Morrell, Captain F. A., M.C.
Moss, Captain V. Newton, M.C.

Nicholson, Captain A. C. L., M.C.

Toynbee, Captain J. W. H., M.C.

Tupper, Lieut. H., M.C.

Worster, 2nd Lieut. A. F., M.C.

SECOND CLASP TO M.C.

 Hayfield, Captain C. D., M.C.

Nicholson, Captain A. C. L., M.C.

Warrant and Non-Commissioned Officers and Men

D.C.M.
NAME. RANK. REGTL. NO.
Adams, J. T. L.-Corpl. 135
Amos, E. T. Pte. 9904
Andrews, A. W. R.S.M. L/7051
Ashby, F. C.S.M. G/15767
Atkinson, J. Pte. 240261
Avis, H. J. Corpl. 1519
Ayres, A. J. Sgt. G/6884

Bacon, F. N. Sgt. G/3494

Baker, F. Sgt. 8781
Barrell, G., M.S.M. C.S.M. L/9036
Barton, L. R. W. Pte. 200105
Batchelor, C. C., M.M. Sgt. G/3377
Bigg, W. J. L.-Sergt. L/8893
Bloomfield, F. Pte. 10017
Bridges, F. Pte. 1153
Brooker, J. G. C.S.M. 511
Brown, A. C.S.M. 8021
Bugg, J. W. Pte. 18980
Burt, W. C.Q.M.S. 3635
Butler, W. Sgt. 5148

Carey, F. W., M.M. L.-Corpl. 5800

Carpenter, J. C.S.M. 6541
Caselton, T. G. C.S.M. G/1940
Chapman, A. H. R. L.-Sergt. 2258
Coffin, W. C.S.M. G/1985
Coleman, A. C., M.M., M.S.M. Pte. 1898
Cooper, H. Pte. 7636
Court, E. J. T. Sgt. 8999
Crame, C. J. L.-Corpl. G/3301

Dennis, G. W. Corpl. 9038

Dines, D. W. R.S.M. 5957
Field, W. J. C.S.M. 8213
Forwood, H. Sgt. 8560
France, M., M.M. Sgt. G/12873

Geoghegan, J. L.-Corpl. 4659

Gettins, F. L.-Sergt. 1663
Goldfinch, A. H. Sgt. L/8205
Gurney, A. Pte. 241138

Hall, E. Pte. 9051

Hall, F. L.-Corpl. 242905
Hamer, T. Sgt. 4267
Hickson, H. C. C.S.M. 242779
Hoddinott, H. H. Pte. 243
Hodges, F. Pte. 10464

Jagger, J. J. L.-Corpl. 242907

Joy, H. Sgt. 983

Keal, A. C. Corpl. 3591

Lawrence, H. J. C.S.M. 241496

Lever, H. Sgt. 206086
Luck, G. L.-Corpl. 452
Lucy, S. L.-Corpl. 8077

McDonough, W. H. C.S.M. 9074

McNeir, J. M. Sgt. 8922
MacWalter, C. C. L.-Sergt. 8669
MacWalter, J. R., M.M. Sgt. 9682
Marsh, A. Corpl. 9603
Mason, L., M.M. Pte. G/4269
Mitchell, A. Pte. 206128
Mordey, P. Corpl. 8777

Neve, G. S. L.-Corpl. 8740

Newham, M. H. C.S.M. 241481
Newman, H. J. L.-Corpl. L/8801
Norrington, V. Corpl. G/4202

Ongley, A. V. Corpl. 9905

Page, R. E. C.S.M. 5777

Parsons, J. Pte. G/1295
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