BASIC CALCULUS • Moreover,

If 𝑏 > 1 Special Limits

Properties of Limits (Limit Laws): sin 𝑥
a. lim 𝑏 𝑥 = +∞ b. lim 𝑏 𝑥 = 0 1. lim =1
𝑥
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→0
1. Limit of a constant 1−cos 𝑥
2. lim =0
𝑥→0 𝑥
lim 𝑘 = 𝑘 If 0 < 𝑏 < 1 𝑒 𝑥 −1
𝑥→𝑐
a. lim 𝑏 𝑥 = 0 b. lim 𝑏 𝑥 = +∞ 3. lim =1
2. The limit of x as x approaches c is equal o c. 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→0 𝑥
lim 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐 Continuity of Function at Constant c (at a Point)
The Natural Exponential Function
For the remaining theorems/properties/laws, assume:
lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎 , 1. no interruption in the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑐.
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀 𝑥→𝑎
2. no hole, jump or gap at 𝑥 = 𝑐.
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 and
3. The Constant Multiple Theorem: 1 3. No lifting of pen at 𝑥 = 𝑐.
lim 𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑎 =
lim 𝑘 ∙ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 ∙ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 ∙ 𝐿 𝑥→𝑎 𝑒𝑎
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 Moreover, Three Conditions of Continuity
4. The Addition Theorem: 1. lim 𝑒 𝑥 = +∞ 2. lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞
(i) 𝑓(𝑐) exists;
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 3. lim 𝑒 −𝑥 = 0 4. lim 𝑒 −𝑥 = (ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists; and
𝑥→𝑐
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→−∞
=𝐿±𝑀 (iii) 𝑓(𝑐) = lim 𝑓(𝑥).
+∞ 𝑥→𝑐
5. The Multiplication Theorem:
Limit of Logarithmic Function and Natural
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 ∙ 𝑀 Logarithmic Function
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 Continuity of a Function on an Interval
6. The Division Theorem: One-Sided Continuity:
Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be real numbers, where 𝑎 > 0, 𝑏 > 0,
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) • A function 𝑓 is said to be continuous form the
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑥→𝑐 and 𝑏 ≠ 1. Then,
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥) left at x=c if 𝑓(𝑐) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝐿 lim (log 𝑏 𝑥) = log 𝑏 𝑎 • A function 𝑓 is said to be continuous from the
𝑥→𝑎
= , 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑀 ≠ 0
𝑀 right at x=c if 𝑓(𝑐) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)
Moreover, we also have 𝑥→𝑐
7. The Power Theorem:
lim 𝑓(𝑥)𝑝 = (lim 𝑓(𝑥))𝑝 = 𝐿𝑝 1. lim log 𝑏 𝑥 = +∞; 𝑏 > 1 Remarks on Continuous Functions:
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→+∞
8. The Radical/Root Theorem: 2. lim log 𝑏 𝑥 = −∞; 0 < 𝑏 < 1
𝑥→−∞ 1. Polynomial functions are continuous
𝑛
lim √𝑓(𝑥) 3. lim ln(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→+∞ everywhere.
4. 4. lim+ log 𝑏 𝑥 = −∞; 𝑏 > 1 2. The absolute value function 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| is
= 𝑛√lim 𝑓(𝑥) , 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, 𝑥→0
𝑥→𝑐 5. 5. lim+ log 𝑏 𝑥 = +∞; 0 < 𝑏 < 1 continuous everywhere.
𝑥→0
6. 6. lim+ ln(𝑥) = −∞ 3. Rational functions are continuous in their
𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑓(𝑥) > 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑥→0 respective domains.
𝑥→𝑐
4. The square root function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 is
Limits of the Trigonometric Functions. continuous on [0. ∞).
Limits of Exponential Functions:
1. lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 Limit of a slope of a tangent line to a given curve
• 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒃𝒙 2. lim cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑦−𝑦0 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
3. lim sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑎 𝑚 = lim or 𝑚 = lim
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥−𝑥0 ℎ→0 ℎ
Let 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 1. Then: 𝑥→𝑎
4. lim csc 𝑥 = csc 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 Derivative by Definition
lim 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 5. lim tan 𝑥 = tan 𝑎 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑓′(𝑥) = lim
lim 𝑢(𝑥) ℎ→0 ℎ
lim 𝑏 𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑥→𝑎 6. lim cot 𝑥 = cot 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
Relationship Between Continuity and Rule 9: The Derivatives of Exponential Functions Steps in Solving Problems Involving Optimization
Differentiability Natural Exponent: 𝑒 𝑥
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 . 1. Transform mathematical phrases into
Take Note: All differentiable functions are mathematical equation.
continuous. But not all continuous functions are Exponential Function with base a: 2. Write a function for the item to be optimized.
differentiable. 3. Substitute equation 1 to the optimization function
The derivative of an exponential function with
to make this as one variable. Then, determine the
base a is equal to the natural logarithm of the base
DERIVATIVES OF A FUNCTION domain under consideration.
times the exponential function. 4. Find the first derivative of the optimization
Rule 1: The Derivative of a Constant. Example. Differentiate 𝑦 = 105𝑥 . function.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 𝑑 5. Equate the first derivative of the optimization
105𝑥 = ln 10 ∙ 105𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 𝑑𝑥 function to 0, to find the critical number (s).
𝑑 6. Substitute the interval and the critical number (s)
105𝑥 = 5 ln 10 ∙ 105𝑥
Rule 2: The Power Rule. 𝑑𝑥 to the given optimized function.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 7. Select the final answer on step 6 based on what is
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 Rule 10. The Derivative of Logarithmic Functions being asked on the problem. For instance, if the
According to the rule for changing from base e to problem looks for maximum therefore, we need to
Rule 3: The Constant Multiple Rule. a different base a: log 𝑎 𝑥 =
ln 𝑥
. Calculate select the largest value and if the problem looks
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑓(𝑥), where k is a constant, ln 𝑎 for the minimum therefore, we need to select the
𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑏 log 𝑎 𝑥. smallest value.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 ln 𝑥 8. Finalized your answer based on what is being
Rule 4: The Derivative of a Sum or a Difference. log 𝑎 𝑥 = asked in the problem.
𝑑𝑓 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑔
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑎
If 𝑓(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥), then = ± . 𝑑 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 log 𝑎 𝑥 = Implicit Differentiation
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 ln 𝑥 𝒅 𝒅 𝒅𝒚
Rule 5: The Product Rule. (𝒇(𝒚)) = (𝒇(𝒚)) ∙
Rule 11. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙
𝑦 = 𝑢(𝑥)𝑣(𝑥), 𝑑
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
=𝑢 +𝑣 .
𝑑𝑢 (a) (sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 **********NOTHING FOLLOWS************
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑
(b) (cos 𝑥) = −sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Rule 6: The Quotient Rule. 𝑑
(c) (tan 𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥
𝑢(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑑
𝑣(𝑥) (d) (cot 𝑥) = −csc 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑓 𝑣 −𝑢 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= . (e) (sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(f) (csc 𝑥) = −csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Rule 7: The Chain Rule.
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢), and u is a function of x, i.e., 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) Steps in Finding the Absolute Extrema
𝑑𝑦 1. Find the first derivative of the given function.
then the derivative of y with respect to x is =
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 2. Equate the first derivative of the given function to
( ). 0. (To find the critical number (s).)
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
3. Substitute the given interval and the critical
Rule 8: The Derivative of 𝐥𝐧 𝒖. number (s) to the given function.
𝑦 = ln 𝑢(𝑥), then according to Chain Rule: 4. Select the maximum by finding the largest value
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢 in 3rd step and the minimum by finding the
ln 𝑢 = ∙ smallest value in 3rd step.
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥