SOLUTIONS

Concept of Solution

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. In a solution, one

substance (the solute) is dissolved in another (the solvent). Solutions can exist in
various states of matter: solid, liquid, or gas. For instance:

●​ Solid in liquid: Salt in water.

●​ Liquid in liquid: Alcohol in water.
●​ Gas in liquid: Carbon dioxide in water (soda).

Solutions are classified into:

●​ True solutions: Uniform, cannot be separated by filtration (e.g., saltwater).

●​ Colloidal solutions: Particles are intermediate in size, and the solution does not
settle out (e.g., milk).
●​ Suspensions: Particles are large and settle over time (e.g., muddy water).

2. Concentration Units of Solutions

The concentration of a solution refers to the amount of solute dissolved in a given

quantity of solvent or solution. It is measured in several ways:

(a) Molarity (M)

Molarity (M) is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of
solution. It is expressed as:

M=moles of soluteliters of solutionM = \frac{\text{moles of solute}}{\text{liters of

solution}}M=liters of solutionmoles of solute​

Unit: moles per liter (mol/L)

(b) Molality (m)

Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. It is
expressed as:

m=moles of solutekilograms of solventm = \frac{\text{moles of solute}}{\text{kilograms of

solvent}}m=kilograms of solventmoles of solute​

Unit: moles per kilogram (mol/kg)

Molality is temperature-independent because it depends on the mass of the solvent, not
the volume.

(c) Mole Fraction (χ)

Mole fraction represents the ratio of the number of moles of a component to the total
number of moles of all components in the mixture. It is calculated as:

χsolute=moles of solutetotal moles in solution\chi_{\text{solute}} = \frac{\text{moles of

solute}}{\text{total moles in solution}}χsolute​=total moles in solutionmoles of solute​

For solvent:

χsolvent=moles of solventtotal moles in solution\chi_{\text{solvent}} = \frac{\text{moles

of solvent}}{\text{total moles in solution}}χsolvent​=total moles in solutionmoles of solvent​

Unit: It is a dimensionless quantity (no units).

(d) Parts per Million (ppm)

PPM refers to the amount of solute in a solution, typically in terms of milligrams of solute
per liter of solution. It is used for very dilute solutions.

ppm=mass of solutevolume of solution×106\text{ppm} = \frac{\text{mass of

solute}}{\text{volume of solution}} \times 10^6ppm=volume of solutionmass of
solute​×106

Unit: mg/L (for aqueous solutions).

3. Interconversion of Concentration Units of Solution

It is essential to convert between different concentration units depending on the

available data.

(a) Molarity to Molality

The relationship between molarity and molality depends on the density of the solution:

m=Mdensity of solution (g/cm3)×1000m = \frac{M}{\text{density of solution

(g/cm}^3\text{)} \times 1000}m=density of solution (g/cm3)×1000M​

(b) Molarity to Mole Fraction

For molarity to mole fraction, we can use the formula:

χsolute=M×VMolar mass of solute+M×V\chi_{\text{solute}} = \frac{M \times
V}{\text{Molar mass of solute} + M \times V}χsolute​=Molar mass of solute+M×VM×V​

Where VVV is the volume of solution in liters.

(c) Molality to Mole Fraction

The mole fraction from molality is derived as:

χsolute=m×Mass of solvent in kgMolar mass of solute+m×Mass of solvent in

kg\chi_{\text{solute}} = \frac{m \times \text{Mass of solvent in kg}}{\text{Molar mass of
solute} + m \times \text{Mass of solvent in kg}}χsolute​=Molar mass of solute+m×Mass of
solvent in kgm×Mass of solvent in kg​

(d) ppm to Molarity

For conversion from ppm to molarity, we use the following formula:

M=ppm×Density of solution (g/cm3)1000×Molar mass of soluteM = \frac{\text{ppm}

\times \text{Density of solution (g/cm}^3\text{)}}{1000 \times \text{Molar mass of
solute}}M=1000×Molar mass of soluteppm×Density of solution (g/cm3)​

(e) ppm to Molality

For conversion from ppm to molality:

m=ppm×Density of solution (g/cm3)1000×Molar mass of solutem = \frac{\text{ppm}

\times \text{Density of solution (g/cm}^3\text{)}}{1000 \times \text{Molar mass of
solute}}m=1000×Molar mass of soluteppm×Density of solution (g/cm3)​

1. Types of Solutions

Solutions can be categorized based on the physical state of the solute and solvent.
There are four main types of solutions:

(a) Solid in Liquid

This is the most common type of solution, where a solid solute dissolves in a liquid
solvent. Examples include:

●​ Salt dissolved in water

●​ Sugar dissolved in water

(b) Liquid in Liquid

In this solution, one liquid dissolves in another liquid. This can happen in varying
proportions, such as:

●​ Alcohol in water (miscible)

●​ Oil in water (immiscible)

(c) Gas in Liquid

A gas dissolves in a liquid to form a solution. For example:

●​ Carbon dioxide dissolved in water (carbonated drinks)

●​ Oxygen dissolved in water (essential for aquatic life)

(d) Gas in Gas

This type of solution is formed when one gas dissolves in another. The gases are
completely miscible and form a homogeneous mixture. Examples include:

●​ Air (a mixture of gases like oxygen, nitrogen, and other trace gases)

2. Solution of Solids in Liquids

This is the most common and basic form of solution. In a solid-liquid solution, a solid
solute dissolves in a liquid solvent. The process involves the following steps:

●​ Dissolution: When a solid solute is added to a solvent, the solvent molecules

surround and interact with the solute molecules, breaking them apart and
causing them to dissolve.
●​ Solubility: This is the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent
at a given temperature. Solubility varies with temperature and pressure (in most
cases, solubility increases with temperature).

Examples:

●​ Salt in water
●​ Sugar in water

3. Solution of Liquids in Liquids

When two liquids mix to form a solution, the solute (one liquid) dissolves in the solvent
(another liquid). Such solutions can be either miscible or immiscible:

●​ Miscible: Two liquids that mix in any proportion, such as:

○​ Ethanol in water
 ○​ Acetone in water
●​ Immiscible: Two liquids that do not mix, forming separate layers, such as:
○​ Oil in water
○​ Benzene in water

For miscible liquids, the intermolecular forces between the molecules are similar,
allowing them to dissolve into each other. For immiscible liquids, the intermolecular
forces are not strong enough to mix the liquids, so they separate.

4. Phenol-Water System

The phenol-water system is a specific example of a liquid-liquid solution, with phenol

being the solute and water the solvent. It is an interesting system because phenol is
only partially soluble in water, and the solubility depends on temperature:

●​ At low temperatures: Phenol has limited solubility in water. A part of the phenol
may crystallize out.
●​ At high temperatures: Phenol becomes more soluble in water, forming a
homogeneous solution.

Phenol and water form an ideal solution when the solution behaves ideally, meaning
that the vapor pressure, boiling point, and freezing point follow Raoult’s Law (discussed
below). However, at certain concentrations, the system might exhibit non-ideal
behavior.

5. Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions

Solutions can either be ideal or non-ideal, depending on how they behave when mixed.

(a) Ideal Solutions

An ideal solution is one where the intermolecular forces between the solute molecules
are similar to those between the solvent molecules. This means that the enthalpy of
mixing (ΔH) is zero, and the solution follows Raoult's Law. In an ideal solution:

●​ The vapor pressure of the solution is the sum of the partial vapor pressures of
the components, as per Raoult's Law:​
Psolution=Psolute+Psolvent=Xsolute⋅Psolute∘+Xsolvent⋅Psolvent∘P_{\text{solut
ion}} = P_{\text{solute}} + P_{\text{solvent}} = X_{\text{solute}} \cdot
P_{\text{solute}}^{\circ} + X_{\text{solvent}} \cdot
P_{\text{solvent}}^{\circ}Psolution​=Psolute​+Psolvent​=Xsolute​⋅Psolute∘​+Xsolvent​
⋅Psolvent∘​​
where Psolute∘P_{\text{solute}}^{\circ}Psolute∘​and
 Psolvent∘P_{\text{solvent}}^{\circ}Psolvent∘​are the vapor pressures of the pure
solute and solvent, respectively, and XsoluteX_{\text{solute}}Xsolute​and
XsolventX_{\text{solvent}}Xsolvent​are their mole fractions.
●​ Characteristics of Ideal Solutions:
○​ No heat is absorbed or released when mixing (ΔH = 0).
○​ The solution obeys Raoult's Law throughout the range of concentrations.
●​ Example: A solution of two similar liquids, such as ethanol and water in a certain
range of concentrations.

(b) Non-Ideal Solutions

A non-ideal solution is one where the intermolecular forces between solute and solvent
differ significantly from those in the pure substances. In these solutions:

●​ The enthalpy of mixing is not zero, leading to heat absorption or release (ΔH ≠
0).
●​ The vapor pressure of the solution does not follow Raoult's Law.

Non-ideal solutions are further categorized based on their deviations from Raoult's Law:

●​ Positive Deviation: The vapor pressure of the solution is higher than predicted
by Raoult's Law, indicating weaker intermolecular forces between solute and
solvent. Example: Nitric acid and water.
●​ Negative Deviation: The vapor pressure of the solution is lower than predicted,
indicating stronger intermolecular forces between solute and solvent. Example:
Hydrochloric acid and water.
●​ Characteristics of Non-Ideal Solutions:
○​ The solution does not obey Raoult's Law over the entire concentration
range.
○​ Heat may be absorbed or released when mixing.

Summary

●​ Types of Solutions: Solid in liquid, liquid in liquid, gas in liquid, and gas in gas.
●​ Solution of Solids in Liquids: Solubility varies with temperature; common
examples are salt or sugar in water.
●​ Solution of Liquids in Liquids: Can be miscible (like alcohol in water) or
immiscible (like oil in water).
●​ Phenol-Water System: Phenol has partial solubility in water, and its behavior
can be ideal or non-ideal depending on concentration.
●​ Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions:
○​ Ideal solutions obey Raoult’s Law with no heat change during mixing.
 ○​ Non-ideal solutions deviate from Raoult’s Law, and heat may be
released or absorbed.

1. Raoult's Law

Raoult’s Law describes the relationship between the vapor pressure of a solution and
the vapor pressures of its components. It is applicable to ideal solutions, where the
intermolecular interactions between solute and solvent are similar to those between the
solvent molecules themselves.

Raoult’s Law states that:

Psolution=Xsolvent⋅Psolvent∘+Xsolute⋅Psolute∘P_{\text{solution}} = X_{\text{solvent}}
\cdot P_{\text{solvent}}^{\circ} + X_{\text{solute}} \cdot
P_{\text{solute}}^{\circ}Psolution​=Xsolvent​⋅Psolvent∘​+Xsolute​⋅Psolute∘​

where:

●​ PsolutionP_{\text{solution}}Psolution​is the vapor pressure of the solution.

●​ Psolvent∘P_{\text{solvent}}^{\circ}Psolvent∘​and
Psolute∘P_{\text{solute}}^{\circ}Psolute∘​are the vapor pressures of the pure
solvent and solute, respectively.
●​ XsolventX_{\text{solvent}}Xsolvent​and XsoluteX_{\text{solute}}Xsolute​are the
mole fractions of the solvent and solute, respectively, in the solution.

Raoult’s Law implies that the vapor pressure of each component in a solution is
proportional to its mole fraction in the mixture.

2. Raoult's Law When Both Components Are Volatile

When both components of the solution are volatile, meaning both the solute and
solvent can evaporate, Raoult’s Law still applies, but we must consider the vapor
pressures of both components. The total vapor pressure of the solution is the sum of the
vapor pressures of the individual components:

Ptotal=PA+PB=XA⋅PA∘+XB⋅PB∘P_{\text{total}} = P_{\text{A}} + P_{\text{B}} =

X_{\text{A}} \cdot P_{\text{A}}^{\circ} + X_{\text{B}} \cdot
P_{\text{B}}^{\circ}Ptotal​=PA​+PB​=XA​⋅PA∘​+XB​⋅PB∘​

Where:

●​ PAP_{\text{A}}PA​and PBP_{\text{B}}PB​are the partial vapor pressures of

components A and B, respectively.
 ●​ XAX_{\text{A}}XA​and XBX_{\text{B}}XB​are the mole fractions of components A
and B, respectively.
●​ PA∘P_{\text{A}}^{\circ}PA∘​and PB∘P_{\text{B}}^{\circ}PB∘​are the vapor
pressures of the pure components A and B, respectively.

Important Points:

●​ If both components are volatile, each component contributes to the total vapor
pressure according to its mole fraction and the vapor pressure of the pure
component.
●​ The sum of the partial pressures gives the total vapor pressure of the solution.

3. Vapor Pressures of Liquid-Liquid Solution

(a) Ideal Solution

An ideal solution is one where the intermolecular forces between solute and solvent
molecules are similar to those between the solvent molecules themselves. In such
solutions:

●​ The solution behaves according to Raoult’s Law.

●​ The total vapor pressure is the sum of the partial vapor pressures of the
individual components, as described above.
●​ The enthalpy of mixing is zero (ΔH = 0), meaning no heat is absorbed or
released when the components are mixed.

In an ideal solution, the vapor pressure of each component is directly proportional to its
mole fraction in the mixture.

Example of an Ideal Solution:

●​ A mixture of two miscible liquids, such as ethanol and water, within certain
concentration limits.

Fractional Distillation of Ideal Mixture of Two Liquids

Fractional distillation is a technique used to separate components of a mixture based on

differences in their boiling points. For an ideal mixture of two liquids, fractional
distillation works because the vapor phase composition changes as the liquid phase
composition changes. The key steps involved are:

1.​ Heating the mixture: The liquid mixture is heated to a temperature where the
more volatile component (with the lower boiling point) starts to vaporize.
 2.​ Vaporization and Condensation: The vapor is condensed and collected, and
the distillation is repeated, leading to the separation of the components based on
their vapor pressures (which are governed by Raoult’s Law).

In the case of an ideal solution, the relative amounts of the components in the vapor
phase and liquid phase follow a predictable pattern based on Raoult’s Law.

(b) Non-Ideal Solution

A non-ideal solution is one where the intermolecular forces between the solute and
solvent differ significantly from those between the solvent molecules themselves. As a
result, the solution exhibits deviations from Raoult's Law. These deviations can be
classified into two categories:

(i) Positive Deviation

In a positive deviation solution, the vapor pressure of the solution is higher than
predicted by Raoult’s Law. This happens when the interactions between solute and
solvent molecules are weaker than those between the molecules of the pure
substances. As a result, the tendency of the molecules to escape into the vapor phase
increases, leading to a higher vapor pressure.

●​ Characteristics of Positive Deviation:

○​ The vapor pressure of the solution is higher than the sum of the partial
vapor pressures (Raoult’s Law prediction).
○​ The solution shows weaker attractive forces between solute and solvent.
○​ The heat of mixing is positive (endothermic reaction).
●​ Example: A mixture of ethanol and acetone shows positive deviation because
the intermolecular hydrogen bonding in ethanol is disrupted by acetone, leading
to weaker interactions and a higher vapor pressure than expected.

(ii) Negative Deviation

In a negative deviation solution, the vapor pressure of the solution is lower than
predicted by Raoult’s Law. This occurs when the interactions between solute and
solvent molecules are stronger than the interactions in the pure substances. As a result,
the molecules are less likely to escape into the vapor phase, leading to a lower vapor
pressure.

●​ Characteristics of Negative Deviation:

○​ The vapor pressure of the solution is lower than the sum of the partial
vapor pressures (Raoult’s Law prediction).
 ○​ The solution shows stronger attractive forces between solute and
solvent.
○​ The heat of mixing is negative (exothermic reaction).
●​ Example: A mixture of hydrochloric acid and water shows negative deviation.
The hydrogen bonding between HCl and water molecules is stronger than
between the pure components, leading to a decrease in vapor pressure.

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You said:
MAKE NOTES ON THESE TOPICS IN DETAIL FOR CLASS 1ST YEAR concept of
solution concentration units of solutions molarity molality mole fraction ppm
interconversion of various concentration units of solution
ChatGPT said:
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Here are detailed notes for the requested topics for Class 1st Year:

1. Concept of Solution

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. In a solution, one

substance (the solute) is dissolved in another (the solvent). Solutions can exist in
various states of matter: solid, liquid, or gas. For instance:

●​ Solid in liquid: Salt in water.

●​ Liquid in liquid: Alcohol in water.
●​ Gas in liquid: Carbon dioxide in water (soda).

Solutions are classified into:

●​ True solutions: Uniform, cannot be separated by filtration (e.g., saltwater).

●​ Colloidal solutions: Particles are intermediate in size, and the solution does not
settle out (e.g., milk).
●​ Suspensions: Particles are large and settle over time (e.g., muddy water).

2. Concentration Units of Solutions

The concentration of a solution refers to the amount of solute dissolved in a given

quantity of solvent or solution. It is measured in several ways:
(a) Molarity (M)

Molarity (M) is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of
solution. It is expressed as:

M=moles of soluteliters of solutionM = \frac{\text{moles of solute}}{\text{liters of

solution}}M=liters of solutionmoles of solute​

Unit: moles per liter (mol/L)

(b) Molality (m)

Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. It is
expressed as:

m=moles of solutekilograms of solventm = \frac{\text{moles of solute}}{\text{kilograms of

solvent}}m=kilograms of solventmoles of solute​

Unit: moles per kilogram (mol/kg)

Molality is temperature-independent because it depends on the mass of the solvent, not

the volume.

(c) Mole Fraction (χ)

Mole fraction represents the ratio of the number of moles of a component to the total
number of moles of all components in the mixture. It is calculated as:

χsolute=moles of solutetotal moles in solution\chi_{\text{solute}} = \frac{\text{moles of

solute}}{\text{total moles in solution}}χsolute​=total moles in solutionmoles of solute​

For solvent:

χsolvent=moles of solventtotal moles in solution\chi_{\text{solvent}} = \frac{\text{moles

of solvent}}{\text{total moles in solution}}χsolvent​=total moles in solutionmoles of solvent​

Unit: It is a dimensionless quantity (no units).

(d) Parts per Million (ppm)

PPM refers to the amount of solute in a solution, typically in terms of milligrams of solute
per liter of solution. It is used for very dilute solutions.
ppm=mass of solutevolume of solution×106\text{ppm} = \frac{\text{mass of
solute}}{\text{volume of solution}} \times 10^6ppm=volume of solutionmass of
solute​×106

Unit: mg/L (for aqueous solutions).

3. Interconversion of Concentration Units of Solution

It is essential to convert between different concentration units depending on the

available data.

(a) Molarity to Molality

The relationship between molarity and molality depends on the density of the solution:

m=Mdensity of solution (g/cm3)×1000m = \frac{M}{\text{density of solution

(g/cm}^3\text{)} \times 1000}m=density of solution (g/cm3)×1000M​

(b) Molarity to Mole Fraction

For molarity to mole fraction, we can use the formula:

χsolute=M×VMolar mass of solute+M×V\chi_{\text{solute}} = \frac{M \times

V}{\text{Molar mass of solute} + M \times V}χsolute​=Molar mass of solute+M×VM×V​

Where VVV is the volume of solution in liters.

(c) Molality to Mole Fraction

The mole fraction from molality is derived as:

χsolute=m×Mass of solvent in kgMolar mass of solute+m×Mass of solvent in

kg\chi_{\text{solute}} = \frac{m \times \text{Mass of solvent in kg}}{\text{Molar mass of
solute} + m \times \text{Mass of solvent in kg}}χsolute​=Molar mass of solute+m×Mass of
solvent in kgm×Mass of solvent in kg​

(d) ppm to Molarity

For conversion from ppm to molarity, we use the following formula:

M=ppm×Density of solution (g/cm3)1000×Molar mass of soluteM = \frac{\text{ppm}

\times \text{Density of solution (g/cm}^3\text{)}}{1000 \times \text{Molar mass of
solute}}M=1000×Molar mass of soluteppm×Density of solution (g/cm3)​
(e) ppm to Molality

For conversion from ppm to molality:

m=ppm×Density of solution (g/cm3)1000×Molar mass of solutem = \frac{\text{ppm}

\times \text{Density of solution (g/cm}^3\text{)}}{1000 \times \text{Molar mass of
solute}}m=1000×Molar mass of soluteppm×Density of solution (g/cm3)​

4. Summary of Concentration Units

●​ Molarity (M): Moles of solute per liter of solution.

●​ Molality (m): Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
●​ Mole Fraction (χ): Ratio of moles of solute to total moles in solution.
●​ PPM: Milligrams of solute per liter of solution.

Each unit is useful depending on the experiment or problem, and interconversion allows
flexibility in solving problems.

These notes should help clarify the concepts related to solutions and their concentration
units. Let me know if you need further details or examples!

4o mini

You said:
types of solutions,solution of solids in liquids,solutions of liquids in liquids,phenol water
system,ideal and non-ideal solutions
ChatGPT said:
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Here are detailed notes on the requested topics related to solutions:

1. Types of Solutions

Solutions can be categorized based on the physical state of the solute and solvent.
There are four main types of solutions:

(a) Solid in Liquid

This is the most common type of solution, where a solid solute dissolves in a liquid
solvent. Examples include:

●​ Salt dissolved in water

●​ Sugar dissolved in water

(b) Liquid in Liquid

In this solution, one liquid dissolves in another liquid. This can happen in varying
proportions, such as:

●​ Alcohol in water (miscible)

●​ Oil in water (immiscible)

(c) Gas in Liquid

A gas dissolves in a liquid to form a solution. For example:

●​ Carbon dioxide dissolved in water (carbonated drinks)

●​ Oxygen dissolved in water (essential for aquatic life)

(d) Gas in Gas

This type of solution is formed when one gas dissolves in another. The gases are
completely miscible and form a homogeneous mixture. Examples include:

●​ Air (a mixture of gases like oxygen, nitrogen, and other trace gases)

2. Solution of Solids in Liquids

This is the most common and basic form of solution. In a solid-liquid solution, a solid
solute dissolves in a liquid solvent. The process involves the following steps:

●​ Dissolution: When a solid solute is added to a solvent, the solvent molecules

surround and interact with the solute molecules, breaking them apart and
causing them to dissolve.
●​ Solubility: This is the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a solvent
at a given temperature. Solubility varies with temperature and pressure (in most
cases, solubility increases with temperature).

Examples:

●​ Salt in water
●​ Sugar in water
3. Solution of Liquids in Liquids

When two liquids mix to form a solution, the solute (one liquid) dissolves in the solvent
(another liquid). Such solutions can be either miscible or immiscible:

●​ Miscible: Two liquids that mix in any proportion, such as:

○​ Ethanol in water
○​ Acetone in water
●​ Immiscible: Two liquids that do not mix, forming separate layers, such as:
○​ Oil in water
○​ Benzene in water

For miscible liquids, the intermolecular forces between the molecules are similar,
allowing them to dissolve into each other. For immiscible liquids, the intermolecular
forces are not strong enough to mix the liquids, so they separate.

4. Phenol-Water System

The phenol-water system is a specific example of a liquid-liquid solution, with phenol

being the solute and water the solvent. It is an interesting system because phenol is
only partially soluble in water, and the solubility depends on temperature:

●​ At low temperatures: Phenol has limited solubility in water. A part of the phenol
may crystallize out.
●​ At high temperatures: Phenol becomes more soluble in water, forming a
homogeneous solution.

Phenol and water form an ideal solution when the solution behaves ideally, meaning
that the vapor pressure, boiling point, and freezing point follow Raoult’s Law (discussed
below). However, at certain concentrations, the system might exhibit non-ideal
behavior.

5. Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions

Solutions can either be ideal or non-ideal, depending on how they behave when mixed.

(a) Ideal Solutions

An ideal solution is one where the intermolecular forces between the solute molecules
are similar to those between the solvent molecules. This means that the enthalpy of
mixing (ΔH) is zero, and the solution follows Raoult's Law. In an ideal solution:
 ●​ The vapor pressure of the solution is the sum of the partial vapor pressures of
the components, as per Raoult's Law:​
Psolution=Psolute+Psolvent=Xsolute⋅Psolute∘+Xsolvent⋅Psolvent∘P_{\text{solut
ion}} = P_{\text{solute}} + P_{\text{solvent}} = X_{\text{solute}} \cdot
P_{\text{solute}}^{\circ} + X_{\text{solvent}} \cdot
P_{\text{solvent}}^{\circ}Psolution​=Psolute​+Psolvent​=Xsolute​⋅Psolute∘​+Xsolvent​
⋅Psolvent∘​​
where Psolute∘P_{\text{solute}}^{\circ}Psolute∘​and
Psolvent∘P_{\text{solvent}}^{\circ}Psolvent∘​are the vapor pressures of the pure
solute and solvent, respectively, and XsoluteX_{\text{solute}}Xsolute​and
XsolventX_{\text{solvent}}Xsolvent​are their mole fractions.
●​ Characteristics of Ideal Solutions:
○​ No heat is absorbed or released when mixing (ΔH = 0).
○​ The solution obeys Raoult's Law throughout the range of concentrations.
●​ Example: A solution of two similar liquids, such as ethanol and water in a certain
range of concentrations.

(b) Non-Ideal Solutions

A non-ideal solution is one where the intermolecular forces between solute and solvent
differ significantly from those in the pure substances. In these solutions:

●​ The enthalpy of mixing is not zero, leading to heat absorption or release (ΔH ≠
0).
●​ The vapor pressure of the solution does not follow Raoult's Law.

Non-ideal solutions are further categorized based on their deviations from Raoult's Law:

●​ Positive Deviation: The vapor pressure of the solution is higher than predicted
by Raoult's Law, indicating weaker intermolecular forces between solute and
solvent. Example: Nitric acid and water.
●​ Negative Deviation: The vapor pressure of the solution is lower than predicted,
indicating stronger intermolecular forces between solute and solvent. Example:
Hydrochloric acid and water.
●​ Characteristics of Non-Ideal Solutions:
○​ The solution does not obey Raoult's Law over the entire concentration
range.
○​ Heat may be absorbed or released when mixing.
●​ Types of Solutions: Solid in liquid, liquid in liquid, gas in liquid, and gas in gas.
●​ Solution of Solids in Liquids: Solubility varies with temperature; common
examples are salt or sugar in water.
 ●​ Solution of Liquids in Liquids: Can be miscible (like alcohol in water) or
immiscible (like oil in water).
●​ Phenol-Water System: Phenol has partial solubility in water, and its behavior
can be ideal or non-ideal depending on concentration.
●​ Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions:
○​ Ideal solutions obey Raoult’s Law with no heat change during mixing.
○​ Non-ideal solutions deviate from Raoult’s Law, and heat may be
released or absorbed.

1. Raoult's Law

Raoult’s Law describes the relationship between the vapor pressure of a solution and
the vapor pressures of its components. It is applicable to ideal solutions, where the
intermolecular interactions between solute and solvent are similar to those between the
solvent molecules themselves.

Raoult’s Law states that:

Psolution=Xsolvent⋅Psolvent∘+Xsolute⋅Psolute∘P_{\text{solution}} = X_{\text{solvent}}
\cdot P_{\text{solvent}}^{\circ} + X_{\text{solute}} \cdot
P_{\text{solute}}^{\circ}Psolution​=Xsolvent​⋅Psolvent∘​+Xsolute​⋅Psolute∘​

where:

●​ PsolutionP_{\text{solution}}Psolution​is the vapor pressure of the solution.

●​ Psolvent∘P_{\text{solvent}}^{\circ}Psolvent∘​and
Psolute∘P_{\text{solute}}^{\circ}Psolute∘​are the vapor pressures of the pure
solvent and solute, respectively.
●​ XsolventX_{\text{solvent}}Xsolvent​and XsoluteX_{\text{solute}}Xsolute​are the
mole fractions of the solvent and solute, respectively, in the solution.

Raoult’s Law implies that the vapor pressure of each component in a solution is
proportional to its mole fraction in the mixture.

2. Raoult's Law When Both Components Are Volatile

When both components of the solution are volatile, meaning both the solute and
solvent can evaporate, Raoult’s Law still applies, but we must consider the vapor
pressures of both components. The total vapor pressure of the solution is the sum of the
vapor pressures of the individual components:
Ptotal=PA+PB=XA⋅PA∘+XB⋅PB∘P_{\text{total}} = P_{\text{A}} + P_{\text{B}} =
X_{\text{A}} \cdot P_{\text{A}}^{\circ} + X_{\text{B}} \cdot
P_{\text{B}}^{\circ}Ptotal​=PA​+PB​=XA​⋅PA∘​+XB​⋅PB∘​

Where:

●​ PAP_{\text{A}}PA​and PBP_{\text{B}}PB​are the partial vapor pressures of

components A and B, respectively.
●​ XAX_{\text{A}}XA​and XBX_{\text{B}}XB​are the mole fractions of components A
and B, respectively.
●​ PA∘P_{\text{A}}^{\circ}PA∘​and PB∘P_{\text{B}}^{\circ}PB∘​are the vapor
pressures of the pure components A and B, respectively.

Important Points:

●​ If both components are volatile, each component contributes to the total vapor
pressure according to its mole fraction and the vapor pressure of the pure
component.
●​ The sum of the partial pressures gives the total vapor pressure of the solution.

3. Vapor Pressures of Liquid-Liquid Solution

(a) Ideal Solution

An ideal solution is one where the intermolecular forces between solute and solvent
molecules are similar to those between the solvent molecules themselves. In such
solutions:

●​ The solution behaves according to Raoult’s Law.

●​ The total vapor pressure is the sum of the partial vapor pressures of the
individual components, as described above.
●​ The enthalpy of mixing is zero (ΔH = 0), meaning no heat is absorbed or
released when the components are mixed.

In an ideal solution, the vapor pressure of each component is directly proportional to its
mole fraction in the mixture.

Example of an Ideal Solution:

●​ A mixture of two miscible liquids, such as ethanol and water, within certain
concentration limits.

Fractional Distillation of Ideal Mixture of Two Liquids

Fractional distillation is a technique used to separate components of a mixture based on
differences in their boiling points. For an ideal mixture of two liquids, fractional
distillation works because the vapor phase composition changes as the liquid phase
composition changes. The key steps involved are:

1.​ Heating the mixture: The liquid mixture is heated to a temperature where the
more volatile component (with the lower boiling point) starts to vaporize.
2.​ Vaporization and Condensation: The vapor is condensed and collected, and
the distillation is repeated, leading to the separation of the components based on
their vapor pressures (which are governed by Raoult’s Law).

In the case of an ideal solution, the relative amounts of the components in the vapor
phase and liquid phase follow a predictable pattern based on Raoult’s Law.

(b) Non-Ideal Solution

A non-ideal solution is one where the intermolecular forces between the solute and
solvent differ significantly from those between the solvent molecules themselves. As a
result, the solution exhibits deviations from Raoult's Law. These deviations can be
classified into two categories:

(i) Positive Deviation

In a positive deviation solution, the vapor pressure of the solution is higher than
predicted by Raoult’s Law. This happens when the interactions between solute and
solvent molecules are weaker than those between the molecules of the pure
substances. As a result, the tendency of the molecules to escape into the vapor phase
increases, leading to a higher vapor pressure.

●​ Characteristics of Positive Deviation:

○​ The vapor pressure of the solution is higher than the sum of the partial
vapor pressures (Raoult’s Law prediction).
○​ The solution shows weaker attractive forces between solute and solvent.
○​ The heat of mixing is positive (endothermic reaction).
●​ Example: A mixture of ethanol and acetone shows positive deviation because
the intermolecular hydrogen bonding in ethanol is disrupted by acetone, leading
to weaker interactions and a higher vapor pressure than expected.

(ii) Negative Deviation

In a negative deviation solution, the vapor pressure of the solution is lower than
predicted by Raoult’s Law. This occurs when the interactions between solute and
solvent molecules are stronger than the interactions in the pure substances. As a result,
the molecules are less likely to escape into the vapor phase, leading to a lower vapor
pressure.

●​ Characteristics of Negative Deviation:

○​ The vapor pressure of the solution is lower than the sum of the partial
vapor pressures (Raoult’s Law prediction).
○​ The solution shows stronger attractive forces between solute and
solvent.
○​ The heat of mixing is negative (exothermic reaction).
●​ Example: A mixture of hydrochloric acid and water shows negative deviation.
The hydrogen bonding between HCl and water molecules is stronger than
between the pure components, leading to a decrease in vapor pressure.

Colligative Properties of Solutions

Colligative properties are properties of solutions that depend on the number of

solute particles in the solution, rather than the nature of the solute particles
themselves. These properties are important because they provide insights into the
behavior of solutions based on the concentration of solute particles.

There are four primary colligative properties:

1.​ Vapor Pressure Lowering

2.​ Boiling Point Elevation
3.​ Freezing Point Depression
4.​ Osmotic Pressure

1. Vapor Pressure Lowering

The vapor pressure of a solvent decreases when a non-volatile solute is added to it.
This phenomenon is described by Raoult’s Law. When a solute is added to a solvent,
the solute particles occupy some of the surface area, reducing the number of solvent
molecules that can escape into the vapor phase, thereby lowering the vapor pressure.

●​ Raoult’s Law:​
Psolution=Xsolvent⋅Psolvent∘P_{\text{solution}} = X_{\text{solvent}} \cdot
P_{\text{solvent}}^{\circ}Psolution​=Xsolvent​⋅Psolvent∘​​
where:
○​ PsolutionP_{\text{solution}}Psolution​is the vapor pressure of the solution,
○​ Psolvent∘P_{\text{solvent}}^{\circ}Psolvent∘​is the vapor pressure of the
pure solvent,
 ○​ XsolventX_{\text{solvent}}Xsolvent​is the mole fraction of the solvent.
●​ Key Concept: The more solute particles in the solution, the greater the reduction
in vapor pressure.

2. Boiling Point Elevation

Adding a non-volatile solute to a solvent increases the boiling point of the solution.
This is because the solute particles lower the vapor pressure, and for the solution to
boil, the temperature must be increased to reach the point where the vapor pressure
equals the external pressure.

●​ Boiling Point Elevation Formula:​

ΔTb=Kb⋅m⋅i\Delta T_b = K_b \cdot m \cdot iΔTb​=Kb​⋅m⋅i​
where:
○​ ΔTb\Delta T_bΔTb​is the boiling point elevation,
○​ KbK_bKb​is the ebullioscopic constant (a property of the solvent),
○​ mmm is the molality of the solution,
○​ iii is the van’t Hoff factor, which represents the number of particles the
solute dissociates into in solution (e.g., i=2i = 2i=2 for NaCl, which
dissociates into Na⁺ and Cl⁻).
●​ Key Concept: The more solute particles present, the greater the elevation in the
boiling point.

3. Freezing Point Depression

The freezing point of a solution is lowered when a solute is added. The solute particles
interfere with the formation of the solid lattice structure of the solvent, causing the
solution to freeze at a lower temperature.

●​ Freezing Point Depression Formula:​

ΔTf=Kf⋅m⋅i\Delta T_f = K_f \cdot m \cdot iΔTf​=Kf​⋅m⋅i​
where:
○​ ΔTf\Delta T_fΔTf​is the freezing point depression,
○​ KfK_fKf​is the cryoscopic constant (a property of the solvent),
○​ mmm is the molality of the solution,
○​ iii is the van’t Hoff factor.
●​ Key Concept: The more solute particles present, the greater the depression in
the freezing point.

4. Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to stop the flow of solvent into a solution
through a semipermeable membrane. It occurs because solvent molecules move from a
region of lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration to reach equilibrium.
Osmotic pressure depends on the concentration of solute particles.

●​ Osmotic Pressure Formula:​

Π=i⋅M⋅R⋅T\Pi = i \cdot M \cdot R \cdot TΠ=i⋅M⋅R⋅T​
where:
○​ Π\PiΠ is the osmotic pressure,
○​ iii is the van’t Hoff factor,
○​ MMM is the molarity of the solution,
○​ RRR is the ideal gas constant,
○​ TTT is the temperature in Kelvin.
●​ Key Concept: Osmotic pressure is directly proportional to the concentration of
solute particles in the solution.

Van’t Hoff Factor (i)

The van’t Hoff factor (i) is a measure of the number of particles into which a solute
dissociates or associates in solution. For non-electrolytes (substances that do not
dissociate in solution), i=1i = 1i=1. For electrolytes (substances that dissociate), iii is
greater than 1.

●​ Example 1: For NaCl (which dissociates into Na⁺ and Cl⁻ in solution), i=2i = 2i=2.
●​ Example 2: For Na₂SO₄ (which dissociates into 2 Na⁺ ions and 1 SO₄²⁻ ion), i=3i
= 3i=3.

The van’t Hoff factor plays a significant role in the calculation of colligative properties,
especially for electrolyte solutions.

Lowering of Vapor Pressure

Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid or solid
phase at a given temperature. When a non-volatile solute (a substance that does not
easily vaporize) is added to a solvent, the vapor pressure of the solution decreases
compared to that of the pure solvent.

This phenomenon is known as lowering of vapor pressure and is a colligative

property (depends on the number of solute particles rather than their nature). The
solute particles occupy space at the surface of the liquid, reducing the number of
solvent molecules that can escape into the vapor phase, thereby lowering the vapor
pressure.
 ●​ Raoult’s Law states that the vapor pressure of a solvent in a solution is directly
proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent:​
Psolution=Xsolvent⋅Psolvent∘P_{\text{solution}} = X_{\text{solvent}} \cdot
P_{\text{solvent}}^{\circ}Psolution​=Xsolvent​⋅Psolvent∘​​
Where:
○​ PsolutionP_{\text{solution}}Psolution​is the vapor pressure of the solution.
○​ Psolvent∘P_{\text{solvent}}^{\circ}Psolvent∘​is the vapor pressure of the
pure solvent.
○​ XsolventX_{\text{solvent}}Xsolvent​is the mole fraction of the solvent in the
solution.
●​ Key Concept: Adding a non-volatile solute reduces the number of solvent
molecules at the surface, thus lowering the vapor pressure.

2. Elevation of Boiling Point

The boiling point elevation occurs when a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent,
causing the boiling point of the solution to be higher than that of the pure solvent. This
happens because the solute particles lower the vapor pressure, requiring a higher
temperature to reach the point where the vapor pressure equals the external pressure
(the boiling point).

●​ Boiling Point Elevation Formula:​

ΔTb=Kb⋅m⋅i\Delta T_b = K_b \cdot m \cdot iΔTb​=Kb​⋅m⋅i​
Where:
○​ ΔTb\Delta T_bΔTb​is the elevation of the boiling point.
○​ KbK_bKb​is the ebullioscopic constant (a property of the solvent).
○​ mmm is the molality of the solution (moles of solute per kilogram of
solvent).
○​ iii is the van’t Hoff factor, which accounts for the number of particles into
which the solute dissociates (for example, i=2i = 2i=2 for NaCl, which
dissociates into Na⁺ and Cl⁻).
●​ Key Concept: The more solute particles, the greater the elevation of the boiling
point.

3. Landsberger’s Method

Landsberger's method is a technique used to measure the boiling point elevation in

a solution. In this method, the increase in the boiling point is measured by observing the
temperature at which a liquid begins to boil after the addition of a known amount of
solute.
 ●​ The experiment involves a thermometer and a container with the solvent, and a
known mass of solute is added to it.
●​ The boiling point elevation can be used to determine the molality of the solute,
as it is related to the amount of solute present in the solution.

Application: This method is used in experiments where determining the boiling point
elevation is essential, such as in studying colligative properties and determining molar
masses of solutes.

4. Depression of Freezing Point by a Solute

When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, the freezing point of the solution
becomes lower than that of the pure solvent. This is due to the interference of solute
particles with the formation of the solid phase (the lattice structure of the solvent).

●​ Freezing Point Depression Formula:​

ΔTf=Kf⋅m⋅i\Delta T_f = K_f \cdot m \cdot iΔTf​=Kf​⋅m⋅i​
Where:
○​ ΔTf\Delta T_fΔTf​is the depression in freezing point.
○​ KfK_fKf​is the cryoscopic constant (a property of the solvent).
○​ mmm is the molality of the solution.
○​ iii is the van’t Hoff factor.
●​ Key Concept: The more solute particles present, the greater the depression in
the freezing point.

Example: Adding salt to water lowers the freezing point, which is why salt is used to
de-ice roads during winter.

5. Beckmann’s Freezing Point Apparatus

Beckmann’s Freezing Point Apparatus is a laboratory instrument used to determine

the freezing point depression of a solution. This apparatus helps in measuring the
freezing point of a solvent and the depression in freezing point when a solute is added.

●​ Apparatus Components:
1.​ A thermometer (capable of measuring very small temperature changes).
2.​ A container for the solvent.
3.​ A container for the solution with the solute.
4.​ A cooling bath, often containing a liquid such as ice, is used to control the
temperature of the solvent and solution.
●​ Method:
 1.​ The pure solvent is placed in the apparatus and cooled, and its freezing
point is recorded.
2.​ The solute is then added to the solvent, and the solution is cooled again.
The new freezing point is recorded.
3.​ The freezing point depression is the difference between the freezing point
of the pure solvent and the freezing point of the solution.
●​ Application: The depression of freezing point is used to calculate the molality of
the solution, and in cases where the solute is an unknown substance, it can help
determine the molar mass of the solute using the formula:​
ΔTf=Kf⋅m⋅i\Delta T_f = K_f \cdot m \cdot iΔTf​=Kf​⋅m⋅i
●​ Key Concept: Beckmann's apparatus is commonly used in cryoscopy, a
method for determining the molecular mass of solutes by measuring the
depression of freezing point.

Applications of These Concepts

1.​ Boiling Point Elevation: In industrial processes such as antifreeze formulations,

where a solvent's boiling point needs to be raised.
2.​ Freezing Point Depression: Important in applications like cryogenics,
antifreeze, and de-icing roads in winter.
3.​ Landsberger's Method: Useful in determining molar masses of solutes in
solutions by measuring the elevation in boiling point.
4.​ Beckmann’s Apparatus: Used in laboratories for determining molecular weights
and the colligative properties of solutions.

. Applications of Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression

Boiling Point Elevation:

The phenomenon of boiling point elevation is crucial in various practical applications

where it is necessary to increase the boiling point of a solution.

●​ Antifreeze and Coolants: In automotive cooling systems, antifreeze solutions

(typically ethylene glycol in water) are used to raise the boiling point of the
coolant, preventing it from evaporating and boiling over in hot conditions.
●​ Chemical Processes: In chemical engineering, processes requiring high
temperatures often use solutions with elevated boiling points to prevent solvents
from boiling off prematurely. For example, in high-pressure cooking or distillation
processes.
 ●​ Cooking and Food Processing: When salt is added to water (for example, in
cooking), it increases the boiling point, allowing water to reach higher
temperatures and thus cooking food more efficiently.
●​ Manufacturing of Liquid Crystals: Certain compounds in liquid crystal displays
(LCDs) require precise boiling point control, often using solutions with elevated
boiling points for better performance in display technologies.

Freezing Point Depression:

Freezing point depression is widely utilized in various industries and practical scenarios.

●​ Road Deicing: In colder climates, salts like sodium chloride (NaCl) or calcium
chloride (CaCl₂) are spread on roads to lower the freezing point of water,
preventing the formation of ice and making roads safer.
●​ Antifreeze in Cars: Just as freezing point depression lowers the freezing point of
water to prevent it from freezing in engines, antifreeze solutions help ensure that
the coolant remains liquid even in sub-zero temperatures, protecting the engine
and radiator.
●​ Preservation of Biological Materials: Freezing point depression is applied in
cryopreservation (such as the freezing of sperm, eggs, or embryos), where
solutes (cryoprotectants) are added to lower the freezing point and prevent the
formation of ice crystals that could damage the cells.
●​ Food Processing: In food industry freezing processes, where solutes like salt or
sugar are used to prevent the formation of large ice crystals during freezing, thus
maintaining food texture and quality.

2. Energetics of Solution

The energetics of solution formation refers to the heat changes that occur when a
solute dissolves in a solvent. This can be broken down into three key steps:

1.​ Breaking the Solute–Solute Interactions: In this step, energy is required to

overcome the attractive forces between the solute molecules (e.g., ionic bonds in
salts or covalent bonds in molecular solids). This process is endothermic,
meaning it absorbs energy.
2.​ Breaking the Solvent–Solvent Interactions: Similarly, energy is required to
break the interactions between solvent molecules (such as hydrogen bonds in
water). This is also an endothermic process.
3.​ Formation of Solute–Solvent Interactions: When the solute particles are
surrounded by solvent molecules, new interactions (like solvation or hydration)
are formed. This step is exothermic, meaning it releases energy.
The overall enthalpy change of solution formation, ΔHsolution\Delta
H_{\text{solution}}ΔHsolution​, is the sum of these steps:

ΔHsolution=Energy for solute–solute bond breaking+Energy for solvent–solvent bond

breaking+Energy released by solute–solvent interactions\Delta H_{\text{solution}} =
\text{Energy for solute–solute bond breaking} + \text{Energy for solvent–solvent bond
breaking} + \text{Energy released by solute–solvent interactions}ΔHsolution​=Energy for
solute–solute bond breaking+Energy for solvent–solvent bond breaking+Energy
released by solute–solvent interactions

●​ Exothermic solutions release energy, resulting in a decrease in temperature

(e.g., dissolving calcium chloride in water).
●​ Endothermic solutions absorb energy, leading to an increase in temperature
(e.g., dissolving ammonium nitrate in water).

3. Hydration Energy of Ions

Hydration energy (or hydration enthalpy) refers to the amount of energy released
when one mole of gaseous ions is surrounded by water molecules and forms an
aqueous solution.

When an ionic compound dissolves in water, the individual ions dissociate, and each ion
is surrounded by water molecules. The attractive force between the ion and water
molecules leads to the release of energy, known as hydration energy. This is typically
measured in kJ/mol.

●​ The larger the charge and the smaller the ion: The greater the hydration
energy. This is because smaller ions have a higher charge density (more charge
per unit volume), which leads to stronger interactions with water molecules.
○​ Example: Hydration energy of Li+\text{Li}^+Li+ > Na+\text{Na}^+Na+ >
K+\text{K}^+K+.
●​ Key Concept: Hydration energy is an important factor in the solubility of salts in
water. The more negative (exothermic) the hydration energy, the more likely the
ionic compound is to dissolve in water.

4. Hydration and Hydrolysis

Hydration:

Hydration is the process where water molecules surround and interact with ions or
molecules in a solution. In ionic compounds, hydration involves water molecules
surrounding the ions to stabilize them and reduce their tendency to recombine into the
solid phase.

●​ For example, when NaCl dissolves in water, sodium ions (Na+\text{Na}^+Na+)

and chloride ions (Cl−\text{Cl}^-Cl−) are surrounded by water molecules, forming
hydrated ions (Na+(aq)\text{Na}^+(aq)Na+(aq), Cl−(aq)\text{Cl}^-(aq)Cl−(aq)).
●​ Hydration is essential in many processes such as dissolution, electrolyte
conduction, and ionic reactions.

Hydrolysis:

Hydrolysis refers to the chemical reaction where water is used to break down a
compound. This can happen in the presence of acids, bases, or even salts. Hydrolysis
can be either:

1.​ Acidic Hydrolysis: When a salt of a strong base and a weak acid (e.g., sodium
acetate) dissolves in water, it undergoes hydrolysis and produces acidic
solutions.
2.​ Basic Hydrolysis: When a salt of a weak base and a strong acid (e.g.,
ammonium chloride) dissolves in water, it undergoes hydrolysis and produces
basic solutions.

Hydrolysis reactions are important in buffer solutions, where they play a role in
maintaining a stable pH by reacting with water.

Applications of Hydration and Hydrolysis:

●​ Hydration: In electrolysis, hydration helps in dissociating ions and maintaining

the flow of electricity. It also plays a role in hydration shells around ions that aid in
various chemical reactions.
●​ Hydrolysis: Used in buffer systems to maintain pH, in titrations to determine
acid/base concentrations, and in drug formulation to design compounds that
can be absorbed in the body