SRM VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(An Autonomous Institution)

SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur – 603 203.

DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL ELECTRONICS

GE3134 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I SEMESTER B.E / B.TECH

(Common to all branches)
2024 -2025 ODD SEMESTER

OBSERVATION NOTEBOOK

Name of the Student :

Register Number :

Semester & Branch :

1
 LABORATORY PRACTICE
SAFETY RULES

1. SAFETY is of paramount importance in the Laboratories.

2. Electricity NEVER EXECUSES careless persons. So, exercise enough care and attention in
handling electrical & electronic equipment and follow safety practices in the laboratory.
(Electricity is a good servant but a bad master).
3. Avoid direct contact with any voltage source and power line voltages. (Otherwise, any such
contact may subject you to electrical shock).
4. Wear rubber-soled shoes. (To insulate you from earth so that even if you accidentally contact a
live point, current will not flow through your body to earth and hence you will be protected from
electrical shock).
5. Wear laboratory-coat and avoid loose clothing. (Loose clothing may get caught on an
equipment/instrument and this may lead to an accident particularly if the equipment happens to
be a rotating machine).
6. Girl students should have their hair tucked under their coat or have it in a knot.
7. Do not wear any metallic rings, bangles, bracelets, wristwatches and neck chains. (When you
move your hand/body, such conducting items may create a short circuit or may touch a live point
and thereby subject you to electrical shock).
8. Be certain that your hands are dry and that you are not standing on wet floor. (Wet parts of the
body reduce the contact resistance thereby increasing the severity of the shock).
9. Ensure that the power is OFF before you start connecting up the circuit. (Otherwise you will be
touching the live parts in the circuit).
10. Get your circuit diagram approved by the staff member and connect up the circuit strictly as per
the approved circuit diagram.
11. Check power chords for any sign of damage and be certain that the chords use safety plugs and
do not defeat the safety feature of these plugs by using ungrounded plugs.
12. When using connection leads, check for any insulation damage in the leads and avoid such
defective leads.
13. Switch on the power to your circuit and equipment, only after getting them checked up and
approved by the staff member.
14. Do not make any change in the connection without the approval of the staff member.
15. In case you notice any abnormal condition in your circuit (like insulation heating up, resistor
heating up etc.), switch off the power to your circuit immediately and inform the staff member.
16. Keep hot soldering iron in the holder when not in use.
17. After completing the experiment show your readings to the staff member and switch off the
power to your circuit after getting approval from the staff member.

2
 List of Experiments

Group B (Electrical & Electronics)

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE

Marks
Exp. Staff
Date Experiments Awarded
No. Signature
(10)

Study of Electronic components and

1(a)
equipments

1(b) Study of Resistor colour coding

Measurement of AC signal parameters

1(c) (peak-peak, rms, Time period, frequency)
using CRO and Multimeter.

Study of logic gates AND, OR, EX -OR

2.
and NOT

Soldering practice – Components

3. Devices and Circuits – Using general
purpose PCB.

4. Generation of Clock Signal.

Measurement of ripple factor of Half Wave

5(a)
Rectifier
Measurement of ripple factor of Full Wave
5(b)
Rectifier

Total Marks
(out of 50)

3
 SYLLABUS

GE 3134 ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY L T P C

(Common to all branches of B.E. / B.Tech. Programmes) 0 0 4 2

COURSE OBJECTIVES:
(i) To provide hands on training for fabrication of components using carpentry, sheet metal and welding
equipment / tools.
(ii) To gain the skills for making fitting joints and assembling air conditioner.
(iii) To develop the skills for making simple electrical wiring connections using suitable tools.
(iv) Develop soldering in simple PCB board.
(v) To gain knowledge about the behavior of electronics components.

GROUP B (ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS)

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE

1. Study of Electronic components and equipments – Resistor, colour coding measurement of AC signal
parameter (peak-peak, RMS period, frequency) using CRO.
2. Study of logic gates AND, OR, EX-OR and NOT.
3. Generation of Clock Signal.
4. Soldering practice – Components, Devices and Circuits – Using general purpose PCB.
5. Measurement of ripple factor of HWR and FWR.

TOTAL: 15 PERIODS
(For Electronics)
COURSE OUTCOMES:
On successful completion of this course, the student will be able to
(i) Fabricate carpentry components and pipe connections including plumbing works.
(ii) Illustrate on centrifugal pump, Air conditioner, operations of smithy, foundary and fittings
(iii) Carry out basic home electrical works and appliances
(iv) Elaborate on the components, gates, soldering practices.
(v) Measure the electrical quantities

4
Exp No: 1(a)
Date :
STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS
AIM:
To study about the Electronic Components and Equipments.

THEORY:
There are numerous basic electronic components that are used for building electronic circuits. Without these
components, circuit designs are never complete or didn’t function well. These components include resistors,
diodes, capacitors, integrated circuits, and so on. Some of these components consist of two or more terminals
that are soldered to circuit boards. Some may be packaged types like integrated circuits in which different
semiconductor devices are integrated.

Basic Electronics Components:

Electronic components are basic discrete devices in any electronic system to use in electronics otherwise
different associated fields. These components are basic elements that are used to design electrical and
electronic circuits. These components have a minimum of two terminals which are used to connect to
the circuit. The classification of electronic components can be done based on applications like active,
passive, and electromechanical.

5
Major Electronic Components:
In designing an electronic circuit following are taken into consideration:
• Basic electronic components: capacitors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc.
• Power sources: Signal generators and DC power supplies.
• Measurement and analysis instruments: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), multimeters, etc.

Active Components:
These components are used to amplify electrical signals to generate electric power. The functioning of
these components can be done like an AC circuit within electronic devices to protect from voltage and
enhanced power. An active component executes its functions because it is power driven through an
electricity source. All these components require some energy source that is normally removed from a DC
circuit. Any quality type of active component will include an oscillator, IC (integrated circuit) &
transistor.

Passive Components:
These types of components cannot use mesh energy into the electronic circuit because they don’t rely on
a power source, excluding what is accessible from the AC circuit they are allied to. As a result, they
cannot amplify, although they can increase a current otherwise voltage or current. These components
mainly include two-terminals like resistors, inductors, transformers & capacitors.

Passive Electronic Components:

These components can store or maintains energy either in the form of current or voltage. Some of these
components are discussed below.

Resistors:
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component, used to oppose or limit the current. Resistor
works based on the principle of Ohm’s law which states that “voltage applied across the terminals of a
resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it”
V=IR
The units of the resistance are ohms. Where R is the constant called resistance.

6
Resistors are further classified based on the following specifications such as the power rating, type of
material used, and resistance value. These resistor types are used for different applications.

Fixed Resistors
This type of resistor is used to set the right conditions in an electronic circuit. The values of resistance in
fixed resistors are determined during the design phase of the circuit, based on this there is no need to
adjust the circuit.

Variable Resistors
A device that is used to change the resistance according to our requirements in an electronic circuit is
known as a variable resistor. These resistors comprise a fixed resistor element and a slider that taps on to
the resistor element. Variable resistors are commonly used as a three-terminal device for calibration of
the device.

Capacitors:
A capacitor made from two conductive plates with an insulator between them and it stores electrical
energy in the form of an electric field. A capacitor blocks the DC signals and allows the AC signals and
also used with a resistor in a timing circuit.
The stored charge is Q=CV
Where
C is the capacitance of a capacitor and
V is the applied voltage.

These capacitors are of different types like film, ceramic, electrolytic, and variable capacitors. For
finding its value number and color-coding methods are used and it also possible to find the capacitance
value with LCR meters.
7
Inductors:
An inductor is also referred to as an AC resistor which stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic
energy. It resists the changes in the current and the standard unit of inductance is Henry. The capability
of producing magnetic lines is referred to as inductance.
The inductance of the inductor is given as L= (µN2A) / l
Where,
‘L’ is inductance,
‘µ’ is Magnetic permeability,
‘A’ is the cross-section area of the coil,
‘N’ is the number of turns of the coils and
‘l’ is the length of the coil in the axial direction.

Other passive electronic components include different types of sensors, motors, antennas, memristors,
etc. To reducing the complexity of this article few of the passive components are discussed above.

Active Electronic Components:

These components rely on a source of energy and are able to control the electron flow through them.
Some of these components are semiconductors like diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, various
displays like LCD, LED, CRTs, and power sources like batteries, PV cells, and other AC and DC supply
sources.

Diodes:
A diode is a device that allows current to flow in one direction and usually made with the semiconductor
material. It has two terminals, anode and cathode terminals. These are mostly used in converting circuits
like AC to DC circuits. These are of different types like PN diodes, Zener diodes, LEDs, photodiodes,
etc. 8
Transistors:
A transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device. Mostly it is used as a switching device and also
as an amplifier. This switching device can be voltage or current controlled. By controlling the voltage
applied to the one terminal controls the current flow through the other two terminals. Transistors are of
two types, namely bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and field-effect transistors (FET). And further, these
can be PNP and NPN transistors.

Integrated Circuits:
An Integrated circuit is a special component that is fabricated with thousands of transistors, resistors,
diodes, and other electronic components on a tiny silicon chip. These are the building blocks of current
electronic devices like cell phones, computers, etc. These can be analog or digital integrated circuits.
Mostly used ICs in electronic circuits are Op-amps, timers, comparators, switches ICs, and so on. These
can be classified as linear and nonlinear ICs depending on its application.
Display Devices:
LCD:
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat display technology, which is mostly used in applications like
computer monitors, cell phone displays, calculators, etc. This technology uses two polarized filters and
9
electrodes to selectively disable or enable the light to pass from reflective backing to the eyes of the
viewer.
The display like 16X2 LCD is the most frequently used module in electrical as well as electronic circuits.
This kind of display includes 2 rows and 16 columns so it is known as an alphanumeric display. This
kind of display is used to show the highest of 32 characters.

CRT:
Cathode ray tube display technology is mostly used in televisions and computer screens that work on
the movement of an electron beam back and forth on the back of the screen. This tube is an elongated
vacuum tube in which the flattened surface has external components as an electron gun, electron beam,
and a phosphorescent screen.

Power Sources:
The different power sources used in the circuits are DC power supply and batteries.

DC Power Supply
In electronic circuits, the DC power supply is very essential which is used as one kind of power source.
The major electronic components work with DC power supply because it is a consistent power source.
Different power supplies used in the circuit to provide the supply are AC to DC, SMPS, linear regulators,
etc. A wall adapter is used as an alternate to the DC power supply in some projects which require 5V
otherwise 12V. 10
Batteries
The battery is one kind of electrical energy storage device. This device is used to change the energy
from chemical to electrical to supply the power to various electronic devices like mobile phones,
flashlights, laptops, etc. These consist of one or more cells and each cell contains an anode, cathode, and
electrolyte.

Relay:
An electromagnetic switch like the relay is used to operate the circuits electronically otherwise
electromechanically. A relay uses small amount of currents to operate so generally they are used to
change low currents within a control circuit. But relays can also be used for controlling high electric
currents. A relay switch can be operated through a less current to switch ON a different circuit. These
are either solid-state or electromechanical relays.

11
LED:
The term LED stands for light-emitting diode. It is a semiconductor device used to emit light whenever
a current supply flows through it. In the semiconductor material, the charge carriers like electrons and
holes combine then light can be generated. When light generates in the solid semiconductor material
then these LEDs can be known as solid-state devices.
The applications of LEDs includes from cell phones to the large display boards which are used for
advertising purpose and also used in magical light bulbs At present, the usage of these devices is
increasing quickly because of their extraordinary properties. These devices are extremely tiny in size &
use less power.

12
Microcontroller:
A microcontroller is one kind of IC designed to execute a specific task within an embedded system. It
comprises a memory, processor & I/O peripherals on a chip. Sometimes, these are called MCU
(microcontroller unit) otherwise embedded controller. These are mainly used in robots, vehicles,
medical devices, office machines, home appliances, vending machines, mobile radio transceivers, etc.
The elements used in the microcontroller are the CPU, memory, program memory, data memory, I/O
peripherals, etc. It supports other elements like ADC, DAC, serial port, and system bus.

Switches:
A switch is one kind of electrical component, used to connect or disconnect the conducting lane within
the circuit so that electric current can be supplied or interrupted from one conductor to another. An
electromechanical device is the most common kind of switch that comprises one or more electrical
contacts that are movable and connected to other circuits. The different types of switches available in
the market are rotary, toggle, pushbutton, mercury relay, circuit breaker, etc. Switches must have a
particular design while using high-powered circuits to stop critical arcing once they are unlocked.

13
Test & Measurement Devices:
While connecting or designing electrical or electronic circuits, different parameter testing, as well as
measuring, is very essential like the voltage, frequency, current, resistance, capacitance, etc. Therefore,
the test, as well as measurement devices, are used such as Multimeters, Oscilloscopes, Signal or Function
Generators, Logic Analyzers.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope – CRO

CRO which stands for Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is an electronic instrument used to visualize
waveforms. In the early days, it is also called an oscillograph. The instrument has four sections namely
display, x-axis controls, y-axis controls and triggers.
CRO is mainly used to analyse the properties of the waveforms.

Multimeter:
A multimeter is an electronic instrument and it is a combination of Ammeter, Ohmmeter & Voltmeter.
These devices are mainly used to calculate various parameters within the circuits in AC & DC like the
voltage, current, etc. Previous meters are the analog type that includes a pointing needle whereas the
present meters are digital type, so these are known as DMs or Digital Multimeters. These instruments
are obtainable like handheld & bench devices.

14
Signal or Function Generator:
As the name suggests, a signal generator is used to generate different kinds of signals troubleshoot, and
test different circuits. The signals which are most frequently generated by the signal generator are sine,
triangle, square, & saw tooth. A function generator is an essential device while designing electronic
circuits along with an oscilloscope and bench power supply.

Result:
Thus, the electronic components and equipments was studied clearly.

15
16
Exp No : 1(b)
Date :
STUDY OF RESISTOR COLOUR CODING
Aim:
To find the value of given resistors using colour coding chart.

Apparatus Required:
1. Resistors-various ranges
Theory:
Resistors have three principal ratings: resistance in ohms, tolerance in percent, and power
dissipation in watts. Most of the resistors we have in the lab can dissipate ¼ watt and have tolerances of
+or - 5 %.Resistance values are coded on the resistors with color bands. The first two bands give two
significant digits of the value, the third band is a multiplier expressed as a power of 10, and the fourth
band is the tolerance. The table below shows the color code. For example, red-red orange-gold is 22 KΩ
+ or - 5 %. Sometimes ¼ watt is not enough for a circuit application and then a physically larger resistor
is required.
PROCEDURE:
1. Find the nominal value and the tolerance of each resistance using the color codes
2. Calculate the resistor values and using the digital Multimeter as an ohmmeter, we can cross check
and record the resistance of each.

17
Tabulation:

Measured Actual
Resistor Value Resistor Value
1st 2nd
by using
Resistor significant significant Multiplier Tolerance
Colour Coding Multimeter
figure figure
(in Ohms) (in Ohms)

R1

R2

R3

18
Result:
Thus the value of the resistors is obtained by using the colour coding technique.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is a resistor?
2. What is the function of a resistor?
3. How will you find out the resistor value?
4. What is tolerance?

19
20
Exp No: 1(c)
Date :

MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETER (PEAK-PEAK, RMS

TIME PERIOD AND FREQUENCY) USING CRO
Aim:

To study the electronic components and equipments including the resistor and color
coding and to measure the various AC signal parameters (Peak-peak, RMS, Time Period and
frequency) using CRO
Apparatus Required:
1. CRO
2. Function generator
Formula used:

21
22
23
PIN DIAGRAM of IC`s

Picture Representation of an IC

24
Exp No : 2
Date :
STUDY OF LOGIC GATES

AIM
The purpose of this experiment is to get familiar with the elementary Logic gates and
to know the use of them for implementing logic circuits.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

S. No. COMPONENTS SPECIFICATION QTY

1. AND GATE IC 7408 1
2. OR GATE IC 7432 1
3. NOT GATE IC 7404 1
4. XOR GATE IC 7402 1
5. IC TRAINER KIT - 1
6. PATCH CORD - 14

THEORY

Digital electronics is found in everything from computers to CD players and watches. It is

based on the binary number system. Instead of voltages which vary continuously, as in analog
electronics, digital circuits involve voltages which take one of only two possible values. In our
case these are 0 and 5 volts (TTL logic), but they are often referred to as LOW and HIGH, or
FALSE and TRUE, or as the binary digits 0 and 1.The basic building blocks of digital electronics
are logic gates which perform simple binary logic functions (AND, OR, NOT, etc.). From these
devices, one can construct more complex circuits to do arithmetic, act as memory elements, and
so on. In this lab, you will look at a few basic devices to see what they can do. Logic gates and
other digital components come in the form of integrated circuits (ICs) which consist of small
semiconductor \chips packaged in a ceramic or plastic case with many pins. The ICs are labeled
by numbers like 74LSxx, where xx is a number identifying the type of device.

25
26
 NOT GATE (IC 7404)
In digital logic, an inverter or NOT gate is a logic gate which implements logical negation.
The 7404 chip contains six inverters. An inverter simply converts binary 1 to 0 and vice versa.

AND GATE (IC 7408)

The AND gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical conjunction - it behaves
according to the truth table to the right. A HIGH output (1) results only if both the inputs to the
AND gate are HIGH (1). If neither or only one input to the AND gate is HIGH, a LOW output
results. In another sense, the function of AND effectively finds the minimum between two
binary digits, just as the OR function finds the maximum.

OR GATE (IC 7432)

The OR gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical disjunction - it behaves
according to the truth table to the right. A HIGH output (1) results if one or both the inputs to the
gate are HIGH (1). If neither input is HIGH, a LOW output (0) results. In another sense, the
function of OR effectively finds the maximum between two binary digits, just as the
complementary AND function finds the minimum.

Exclusive OR Gate – EXOR Gate (IC 7486)

The EXOR gate is used extensively in digital data processing circuits and is known as
Exclusive-OR-gate. The EXOR gate has a high output only when an odd number of inputs are high. For
the two input EXOR gates, the output will be high when the set of input is either 01 or 10. The XOR gate is
used in the adder, subtractor and controlled inverter circuit. It is also used in the computers for
implementing the binary addition.

Result:
Thus the basic logic gates were studied and its truth table are tabulated.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What are the universal gates
2. Draw the truth table of AND gate.
3. Draw the truth table of NOT gate.

4. Draw the truth table of OR gate.

5. How many gates will be there in a IC 7404 chip?
6. What gate does the IC 7408 consist of?
7. What are the 7th and 14th pin in all the gates?
27
28
Exp No : 3
Date :
GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL
Aim:
To generate a clock signal in Astable Multivibrator using 555 timer.

Apparatus Required:

S.No Equipment Required Quantity Type/Range

1 555 Timer IC 1 555 Timer
2 Resistance 1 6.8KΩ,3.3KΩ
3 Capacitors 1 0.01µF,0.101µF
4 CRO 1 0-30MHz
5 RPS (0-30)V 1 0-30V
6 Bread board 1
7 Connecting wires

Theory:
Timing resistor is split into Ra and Rb. Pin 7 is connected to the junction of Ra and Rb
along with power supply Vcc. External timing capacitor C charges towards Vcc with time
constant (Ra + Rb)C. During this time, the output at the pin 3 is high.
When the capacitor voltage equals to 2/3 Vcc, the upper comparator trigger the control
flip-flop.

Formula used:
1. Ton = 0.69 ((Ra + Rb)C
2. Toff = 0.69 RbC
3. T = Ton + Toff

29
Circuit Diagram

+5 V

6.8 KΩ RA

8 4
7 3
RB IC 555
3.3 KΩ
VO
6 2 1 5 CRO

C = 0.01μf
VC 0.01 μf

Tabulation:
Output ON time OFF time Total time Frequency
Sl.No.
Voltage, Vo Ton Toff Ton + Toff f= 1/T

(Volts) (Sec) (Sec) (Sec) (Hz)

30
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. +5 Volts is given to the Vcc terminal.
3. ton , toff values are calculated from the given formula.
4. The graph is drawn.

Result:
Thus a clock signal was generated using 555 timer IC for different values of resistances.

Viva Questions
1. What is a clock signal?
2. What are the applications of Clock signal?
3. What is the purpose of CRO?
4. Can we generate clock signal without using 555 timer?
5. What is the use of triggering signal , Threshold and control voltage?

31
32
 Exp No : 4
Date :
SOLDERING PRACTICE COMPONENTS DEVICES AND CIRCUITS
USING GENERAL PURPOSE PCB
Aim:
To practice soldering and desoldering for the electronic circuit by assembling and

Apparatus Required:

S.No Component Range Quantity

1 PCB board for given circuit 10w(or)35w 1
2 Soldering iron 60/40 grade 1
3 Solder 1
4 Flux 1
5 Electrician’s Knife 1
6 Nose plier 1
7 Resistors 10kΩ 4
8 Capacitor 0.01µF 2

Procedure:
Soldering
1. The given electronic circuit is studied.
2. The PCB board is cleaned.
3. The tip of the soldering iron is cleaned before heating and also the resistors and capacitor
which is to be soldered is cleaned.
4. The soldering iron is heated and the solder is applied to the tip of it.
5. The resistor (R) leads are bent to fit the holes on the board and they are inserted in the holes of
the board as per the circuit diagram.
6. The hot tip is applied to the joints and the solder is applied.
7. The soldering tip is removed and the resistor is hold tightly till the solder is cooled and set.
8. The excess component lead is trimmed with side cutter.
9. The above steps are repeated to fix the other resistor and capacitor in the circuit

33
34
De-Soldering
1. The tip of the soldering iron is placed on the resistor- board joint until the solder is melt.
2. When the solder is melted the resistor is removed with a tweezers and the molten
solder is removed.
3. The above steps are repeated to remove the other resistor and capacitor.
4. The resistors and capacitors are cleaned.

Result:
Thus the soldering and de-soldering practice is done for the given electronic circuit.

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is a Resistor?
2. What is a capacitor?
3. What is Soldering and De-Soldering?
4. What is a PCB? State the use of PCB?
5. What are the uses of soldering and de-soldering?

35
36
Exp No: 5(a)
Date :
MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR FOR HALF WAVE
RECTIFIERS
AIM:

To study the ripple factor of a half wave rectifier.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

SL.NO. NAME OF THE RANGE QUANTITY

EQUIPMENT
1. Transformer 12v-0v-12v 1
2. Capacitor 2
0.1 µF
3. Resistor 470Ω 1
4. PN junction diode 2
IN 4007
5. Bread Board - 1
-
6. CRO 1

FORMULAE USED:

Ripple Factor, =  (Vrms / Vdc)2 - 1

Where, Vrms = The rms value of the a.c component of the output voltage
Vdc = The average or d.c value of the output voltage.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:

Vdc = Vm/π
Vrms = Vm/2
Theory: A rectifier is defined as a electronic device used for converting AC voltage into

unidirectional voltage. A rectifier utilizes unidirectional conduction devices like Vacuum diode
or PN junction diode.
Half wave rectifier:
It converts an ac voltage into a pulsating DC voltage using only one half of the applied
ac voltage. The rectifying diode conducts during one half of the ac cycle. During

37
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Half Wave Rectifier

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULATION:

Peak to Peak Maximum Time Period

voltage Voltage
Voltage Ripple factor
V(p-p) Vm (Volts)
(Volts) (sec)
Input

Outpu

33
38
positive half cycle of the input signal the anode of diode becomes positive with respect to cathode and
hence the diode conducts. For an ideal diode the forward voltage drop is zero so the whole input voltage
appears across the load. During negative half of the input signal the anode of the diode becomes negative
with respect to cathode and hence the diode does not conduct. For an ideal diode the impedance offered
by the diode is unity so the whole input voltage drop across diode. Hence voltage drop across RL is
zero.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the CRO across the load.
3. from the waveform in the CRO screen, note down the amplitude and frequency along with
multiplication factor.
4. Calculate the ripple factor.

RESULT:
Thus the input & output waveforms are drawn for half wave rectifiers and ripple
factor calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
Define Rectifier?
What is Half-Wave Rectifier?
Define Ripple Factor?
What type of output we get from HW Rectifier?
What is the value of Ripple factor for HW Rectifier?
What is the formulae for Vrms for HW Rectifier?
What is the formulae for Vdc for HW Rectifier?

39
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

40
Exp No: 5(b)
Date :

MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS

AIM:
To study the ripple factor and regulation characteristics of a full wave rectifier.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

SL.NO. NAME OF THE RANGE QUANTITY

EQUIPMENT
1. Transformer 12v-0v-12v 1
2. Capacitor 2
0.1 µF
3. Resistor 470Ω 1
4. PN junction diode 2
IN 4007
5. Bread Board - 1
-
6. CRO 1

FORMULA USED:
Ripple Factor, =  (Vrms / Vdc)2 - 1
Where, Vrms = The rms value of the a.c component of the output voltage
Vdc = The average or d.c value of the output voltage.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

Vdc = 2 Vm/π
Vrms = Vm/ 2
Theory:
A rectifier is defined as a electronic device used for converting AC voltage into
unidirectional voltage. A rectifier utilizes unidirectional conduction devices like Vacuum diode
or PN junction diode.

41
MODELGRAPH

TABULATION:

Peak to Peak Maximum Time Period

voltage Voltage
Voltage Ripple factor
V(p-p) Vm (Volts)
(Volts) (sec)
Input

Output

42
Full wave rectifier:
It converts an AC voltage in to a pulsating DC voltage using both half cycles of the applied AC voltage.
It uses two diodes of which one conducts during positive half cycle while the other conducts during negative
half cycle. During positive half cycle of the input signal anode of the diode D1 becomes positive with
respect to cathode and at the same time anode of the diode becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2
will not conduct during positive half cycle. During negative half of the input anode of the diode D1 becomes
negative and anode of
diode D2 becomes positive. Hence D1 does not conduct and D2 will conduct. The load current flows
through D2 and voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the CRO across the load.
3. from the waveform in the CRO screen, note down the amplitude and frequency along with
multiplication factor.
4. Calculate the ripple factor.

RESULT:
Thus the input & output waveforms are drawn for full wave rectifiers and ripple factor
calculated

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define Full wave rectifier?
2. What is the formulae for Vdc for FW Rectifier?
3. What is the formulae for Vrms for FW Rectifier
4. What type of output we get from FW Rectifier?
5. What is the value of Ripple factor for FW Rectifier?

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44
Experiment beyond the Syllabus

CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

AIM:
To study the PN junction diode characteristics under Forward & Reverse bias
conditions.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name Range Type Qty S.No. Name Range Type Qty

1 R.P.S 1 Diode
2 Resistor
2 Ammeter
3 Bread
Board
3 Voltmeter 4 Wires

THEORY:
A PN junction diode is a two terminal junction device. It conducts only in one direction
(only on forward biasing).

FORWARD BIAS:
On forward biasing, initially no current flows due to barrier potential. As the applied
potential exceeds the barrier potential the charge carriers gain sufficient energy to cross the
potential barrier and hence enter the other region. The holes, which are majority carriers in the P-
region, become minority carriers on entering the N-regions, and electrons, which are the majority
carriers in the N-region, become minority carriers on entering the P-region. This injection of
Minority carriers results in the current flow, opposite to the direction of electron movement.

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TABULAR COLUMN:
FORWARD BIAS: REVERSE BIAS:

S. No. VOLTAGE CURRENT S. No. VOLTAGE CURRENT

(Volts) (mA) (Volts) (A)

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REVERSE BIAS:
On reverse biasing, the majority charge carriers are attracted towards the terminals due to
the applied potential resulting in the widening of the depletion region. Since the charge carriers
are pushed towards the terminals no current flows in the device due to majority charge carriers.
There will be some current in the device due to the thermally generated minority carriers. The
generation of such carriers is independent of the applied potential and hence the current is constant
for all increasing reverse potential. This current is referred to as Reverse Saturation Current (IO)
and it increases with temperature. When the applied reverse voltage is increased beyond the
certain limit, it results in breakdown. During breakdown, the diode current increases
tremendously.

PROCEDURE:
FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.
2. Vary the applied voltage V in steps of 0.1V.
3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings I.
4. Plot a graph between V & I

OBSERVATIONS
1. Find the d.c (static) resistance = V/I.
V2 − V1
2. Find the a.c (dynamic) resistance r = V / I (r = V/I) = .
I 2 − I1
3. Find the forward voltage drop = [Hint: it is equal to 0.7 for Si and 0.3 for Ge]

REVERSE BIAS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.
2. Vary the applied voltage V in steps of 1.0V.
3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings I.
4. Plot a graph between V & I
5. Find the dynamic resistance r = V / I.

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RESULT:
Forward and Reverse bias characteristics of the PN junction diode and the dynamic resistance under
i) Forward bias = ---------------------
ii) Reverse bias = ----------------------.
iii) Reverse Saturation Current = --------.

VIVA – VOCE QUESTION

1. Define knee voltage of a diode.

2. Draw VI characteristics of PN junction diod

3. Although Zener diode is operated in the reverse breakdown region, but it does not burn.
Why?
4. Differentiate between static and dynamic resistance of a diode.
5. Differentiate between avalanche and Zener breakdown.

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