CHAPTER 107

COMPLEX NUMBERS
WHY DO YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT COMPLEX
NUMBERS?
Surely you came across quadratic equations such as in the past. You then
used the so-called quadratic formula to solve this equation:

At that stage you were quite happy to say the roots were non-real and then went on to the next
sum. Numbers such as are, however, so important that they have special names! They
are called complex numbers and plays a major role in several fields of engineering. We mention
but a few of these fields.
• One of the main applications is to the analysis of alternating current (ac) circuits. The
mains supply itself is ac, and electricity generation and transportation are dominated by ac
currents and voltages.
• A great deal of signal analysis use mathematical models based on complex numbers
because they allow the manipulation of sinusoidal quantities to be undertaken more easily.
• The design of filters used in communication relies heavily on complex numbers.
• Control engineers often prefer to think of control systems in terms of a “complex plane”
rather than a “time domain” representation.

But this is not a course in electronics; we will supply you with the mathematics behind the so-
called phasors (or complex numbers) as a tool to solve such problems.

158
OUTCOME
Use complex numbers to solve engineering problems

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
By the end of this chapter you must be able to
1. Explain the meaning of j (or i)
2. Find the real and imaginary parts of a complex number
3. Find the conjugate of a complex number
4. Add, subtract, multiply and divide complex numbers in rectangular form
5. Use the concept of equality of complex numbers to solve equations
6. Plot complex numbers in the Argand plane
7. Explain the geometric effect of the product of j with any complex number
8. Convert a complex number from rectangular form to polar form and vice versa using
definitions and a calculator
9. Multiply, divide and find powers of complex numbers in polar form
10. Find roots of complex numbers
11. Determine all the roots (complex and real) of given polynomials
12. Convert a complex number from polar form to exponential form and vice versa
13. Determine the principal value of the natural logarithm of a complex number
14. Apply the knowledge of complex numbers in appropriate situations

TERMINOLOGY
At the end of this chapter you must be able to explain and use the following terminology.
Argand plane Auxiliary angle
Cartesian coordinate Cartesian form Complex number
Complex log function Complex exponential form Conjugate
Exponential form Imaginary part Imaginary axis
Imaginary number j Modulus-argument form
Polar coordinate Polar form Polar axis
Principal value of Pure imaginary rcis2
Real axis Real part Rectangular form
Rectangular coordinate Standard form

TIME ALLOCATED
Approximately five hours

IN THE TEXTBOOK
pp. 464 - 506

159
EXERCISES
Exercise 10(a), p. 473 - 474, Exercise 10(b), p. 481, Exercise 10(c), p. 487, Exercise 10(d), p.
496 - 497, Exercise 10(e), p. 5-1 - 502, Miscellaneous Exercise 10, p. 503 - 506

1.1 A FEW DEFINITIONS

Let’s have another look at the solution obtained in the introduction:
.
We may write

.
Since appears so often in applications, mathematicians gave it a special name, the
imaginary unit, and defined . Thus, we may write

K In mathematics text books the authors define . This definition, however, may lead
to confusion in engineering since i is the symbol used for alternating current. That is why
we, in the engineering fields, prefer to use a j in our definition.

K Don’t confuse the imaginary unit i and j in complex numbers with the unit vectors i and j in
vectors!

But what is a complex number?

Imaginary number: Any number of the form n j where n is a real number

Complex number: The sum of a real number and an imaginary number

EXAMPLE 1.1
a) and are imaginary numbers

b) and are complex numbers U

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ACTIVITY 1.1 NN
1. Keeping the definition of j in mind, complete the following. Then memorise it!

1.1 1.2

1.3 1.4

1.5 1.6

1.7 1.8

1.9 1.10

2. Write the following in the form , x and y real.

2.1 2.2

3. Is ? Motivate your answer.

QQQQ

The law is true for positive values of a and b only. If a and b are negative, first
write it as imaginary numbers and then multiply.

K The correct way to do this last question is

Figure 1.1 shows a diagram of the numbers system as we know it today.

161
 Figure 1.1 The number system

Do you remember the definitions of the different subsystems? Complete the next activity before you
proceed!

ACTIVITY 1.2 NN
Designate each of the given numbers as being an integer, rational, irrational, imaginary or complex
number by completing the following table. More than one designation may be correct as seen in the
example in the first row.

Number Natural Integer Rational Irrational Real Imaginary Complex

3 U U U U U

-4

162
 QQQQ

1.2 COMPLEX NUMBERS IN RECTANGULAR FORM

We usually use the symbol z to represent a complex number and define the rectangular form of z as
follows.

1.2.1 THE RECTANGULAR FORM

Rectangular form of a complex number: where x and y are real numbers

K Note the following possibilities for :

• Real number :
• Imaginary number :
• Complex number :

K In , we say
• x is the real part of z, written as
• y is the imaginary part of z, written as

K y is a real number and yj is an imaginary number!

For the complex number we define the complex conjugate, denoted by z* or , as

, that is, we change the sign of the imaginary part.

EXAMPLE 1.2
If , then , and . U

ACTIVITY 1.3 NN
Complete the following table.

163
 Number Real part Imaginary part Conjugate

QQQQ

1.2.2 OPERATIONS WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS IN

RECTANGULAR FORM
We can add, subtract, multiply and divide complex numbers in rectangular form.

Addition and subtraction

Add/subtract the real parts and imaginary parts of the numbers separately.

EXAMPLE 1.3
a)

b)

c)
U

K Note the use of brackets - be careful!

ACTIVITY 1.4 NN
1. Simplify the following without using a calculator.
1.1 1.2

164
1.3 1.4

2. If and , find
2.1 2.2
QQQQ

Multiplication
Recall, when we “remove the brackets” or simplify, that using
“FOIL”? We use the same technique when we multiply complex numbers in rectangular form.

Simplify as if j is a variable, then substitute and simplify.

EXAMPLE 1.4
a)

b)

ACTIVITY 1.5 NN
1. Simplify each of the following without using a calculator.
1.1 1.2
1.3 1.4
1.5 1.6

2. If and , find
2.1 2.2

3. Use to derive expressions for the following.

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3.1 3.2
3.3
QQQQ

Division
In the previous activity we noticed that the product of a complex number and its conjugate is a
real number. For example, . Let’s use this fact to find ,

where z1 and z2 are complex numbers.

Multiply by , that is , and simplify

EXAMPLE 1.5
a) b)

ACTIVITY 1.6 NN
1. Simplify the following expressions without using a calculator.
1.1 1.2

1.3 1.4

1.5 1.6

2. Repeat Question 1 using the calculator.

166
3. If and , find

3.1 3.2

QQQQ

1.2.3 SOLVING EQUATIONS WITH COMPLEX COEFFICIENTS

If , what are the values of a and b? That’s right, and ! We
define the equality of complex numbers in a similar way.

Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts and their imaginary parts are
equal. That is,

K a ] b means if a is true, then b is also true, and if b is true, then a is true.

Now, to solve equations involving complex coefficients, we equate the real parts and the
imaginary parts separately and then find the unknowns.

EXAMPLE 1.6
Solve for x and y.
a) b)
SOLUTION
a) Real parts:
Imaginary parts:

b) We first multiply out on the right hand side:

We know that . Furthermore, the real parts are those terms without a j in
the term, and the imaginary parts are the coefficients of j. So,
Real parts:

Imaginary parts:
Ï

Substitute Î in Ï:

167
 Multiply both sides with 3, then

and
Ð
Substitute Ð in Î, then
U

K When equating the real and the imaginary parts, we often end up with two equations in two
unknowns. We can then use either the method of elimination or substitution or any other
valid method to solve them.

K We will return to solving more equations in a later section.

ACTIVITY 1.7 NN
Find all the roots of the following equations, that is, solve for x and y.
1. 2.

3. 4.

QQQQ

1.2.4 SOLVING POLYNOMIALS WITH REAL COEFFICIENTS

A polynomial is an expression of the form

where n is a positive integer, that is, in a polynomial the exponents of the unknowns must be
positive integers. And in this section, we also ask for real a’s

You have lots of experience in solving equations of the form ; just think back to the
example in the introduction! In this section we look at these types of equations once more and
pay special attention to the complex roots of these equations.

EXAMPLE 1.7
Solve for x if .
SOLUTION
We change the subject to x and then take cube roots on both sides:

Right? WRONG! X

We first factorise the left hand side:

168
 Then we equate each factor to 0 and solve for x:

and, using the quadratic formula,

.

ACTIVITY 1.8 NN
Find all the roots of the following.
1. 2.
3. 4.
5. 6.
QQQQ

Have another close look at the complex roots in the previous activity. Do you agree with the
following conclusion?

When the polynomial has real coefficients, any complex roots will always occur in
complex conjugate pairs, that is, if is a root, then so is .

1.3 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX

NUMBERS
From past experience
you can represent a
ordered pair in a
Cartesian plane. Figure
1.2 shows the pairs (1;4)
and (3;2) in this plane.

Figure 1.2 A Cartesian plane with two points

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We can represent complex numbers in rectangular form in a similar way. (That is why it is called
the rectangular form.) But:
• The plane is then called a complex plane
• The horizontal axis is called the real axis and represents the real part of the number
• The vertical axis is called the imaginary axis and represents the imaginary part of the
number
• The diagram is called an Argand diagram
• The complex number may be represented by a vector, that is, a line
connecting the origin to the complex number written as (x;y).

Figure 1.3 The Argand diagram for z1 and

z2

For example, Figure 1.3 shows the complex numbers and .

K We sometimes write and . Make sure you don’t confuse it with

ordered pairs or vectors.

K A complex number is not a vector although it may also be represented by an arrow and
written as (x;y).

We know that Have a close look at Figure 1.4. Do you

recognise the parallelogram rule for adding vectors? And now you know why our definition of
addition “works”!

170
 Figure 1.4 The sum of two complex numbers
ACTIVITY 1.9
NN
1. Draw the following complex numbers on the complex plane. Label the numbers clearly.
, , , , ,

2. Consider the complex number .

2.1 Calculate:

2.2 Draw and on the same complex plane.

2.3 What is the geometric effect when a complex number is multiplied by j?

3. Given z = 3 + 2j, represent z and as vectors in an Argand diagram. Discuss the geometric
relationship between z and .
QQQQ

1.4 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

1.4.1 RECTANGULAR COORDINATES

You are familiar with Cartesian planes such as the one shown in Figure 1.2. Two axes usually
divides the plane in four quadrants. These axes are at right angles to each other and intersect at
the origin. One axis is (usually) horizontal and is called the x-axis. The vertical axis is called the
y-axis. Every point in the Cartesian plane can be represented as a coordinate pair (x;y). We call
(x;y) the Cartesian or rectangular coordinates of the point. In (3;2), for example, 3 is called the

171
first coordinate, the x coordinate or abscissa. The 2 is called the second coordinate, the y
coordinate or the ordinate.

1.4.2 POLAR COORDINATES

In real life we often express position in terms of distance and angles relevant to a fixed point. For
example, to travel from TNG’s Great Hall to Johannesburg International by helicopter, we will
get there if we know the distance between the two and the direction in which to take off.

This implies that we use the pair (distance; direction) instead of the more usual (x;y), that is, we
use polar coordinates (r;2) instead of the rectangular coordinates. Here r represents the distance
from the origin to the point and 2 the angle between the postive horizontal line, called the polar
axis, and r. Figure 1.5 shows the point ( ;45°).

Figure 1.5 The point P in

polar coordinates

K In (r;2) we call r the modulus and 2 the argument

K If we rotate OP through 360° (or 2B), it will be in exactly the same position. The argument
can thus have many possible values, but we usually restrict 2 to the interval (-180°;180°] or
(-B;B]. These values of 2 are called the principal values.

ACTIVITY 1.10 NN
Plot the following points.
A(3;60°) B(5;-30°) C(1;210°) D(2;-135°) E(1;B)
QQQQ

1.4.3 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN RECTANGULAR EN POLAR

COORDINATES
How do we convert rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates? And when the polar coordinates
of a point is given, how do we find the rectangular coordinates? To determine the relationship
between (x;y) and (r;2), let’s look at the diagram in Figure 1.6.

172
 Figure 1.6 The relationship
between the coordinate systems
If (x;y) is given
From the sketch we see that we may apply Pythagoras’ theorem to the triangle so that
.
Since x and y are known, we may find 2 using the trigonometric definition:

If (r;2) is given
Using the trigonometric definitions,

and

The next table show a summary of these relationships.

From rectangular (x;y) to polar (r;2) From polar (r;2) to rectangular (x;y)

EXAMPLE 1.8
Convert
a) (-3;4) to polar coordinates
b) (2;120°) to rectangular coordinates.
SOLUTION
a)

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 and

But a quick sketch reveals a contradiction! The given point is in the second quadrant,
but the calculated angle places it in the fourth quadrant! X

To find 2, first draw a sketch to see in which quadrant we are working. Then we
ignore all negative signs, and calculate ", called the auxiliary angle,
. If this angle takes us to the “wrong” quadrant, we calculate

, otherwise 2 = ".
ˆ (-3;4) = (5;126.9°)

b) and
ˆ (2;120°) = (-1;1.73) U

K r represents distance and can therefore never be negative.

ACTIVITY 1.11 NN
1. Convert the following to polar coordinates. Round answers off to 2 decimal places where
necessary and give angles in degrees with .
1.1 (1;1) 1.2 (-2;1)
1.3 (-3;-5) 1.4 (1;-4)

2. Convert the following to rectangular coordinates. Round answers off to 2 decimal places
where necessary.
2.1 (1;45°) 2.2 (3;-B/2)
2.3 (2;-0.39) 2.4 (4;135°)
QQQQ

Conversions using a calculator

• It is your responsibility to find out how to use your calculator
• For practice, repeat the previous activity using your calculator - don’t borrow your friend’s
since you will not be using it in tests and exams!

( In future we will use a calculator to do these conversions

( Calculators are clever - don’t “ignore” the negative signs of rectangular coordinates or of
angles; the angles will be given correctly, that is, in the proper quadrant and in the proper
interval!

174
1.5 COMPLEX NUMBERS IN POLAR FORM
To find we do

This was not too difficult, but what about ? Calculations may become very tiresome
and we look at an alternative form of the complex number .

1.5.1 THE POLAR FORM

Using the conversions in the previous section we may write

which is the polar form of the complex number. However, mathematicians are “lazy” people and
they introduced a shorter notation: take the “c” from the cos, the “i” instead of the j and the “s”
from sin

keeping in mind that j = i = . There is an even shorter notation: .

Polar form of a complex number: where r is always

positive and

K The angle may be in either degrees or radians, but we usually work with degrees in this
form of complex numbers

K Use the calculator to do the conversions from (x;y) to (r;2) and vice versa.

K The polar form is sometimes called the modulus-argument or trigonometric form

K r is the modulus or absolute value or magnitude of z and is denoted by

K 2 the argument or amplitude of z and is denoted by arg z

K In Electronics 2 usually refers to the phase angle between the current and voltage

175
EXAMPLE 1.9
a)

b)

c)

d) U

K Remember, the polar form is has a + between the terms. To write in

rectangular form, we use the fact that and . Then

ACTIVITY 1.12 NN
Complete the following table. Round answers off to two decimal places and give angles in
degrees where necessary.

Rectangular form Polar form arg z *z*

QQQQ

1.5.2 OPERATIONS WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS IN POLAR FORM

Consider two complex numbers and . The following table shows,
without proof, a summary of the operations we can perform with these complex numbers in polar
form.

176
 Operation Mathematics Description
Add/subtract Cannot do in polar form Convert to rectangular form and compute
Multiplication Multiply the r’s and add the 2’s

Division Divide the r’s and subtract the 2’s

Powers , n an Raise r to the power and multiply 2 with n

positive integer
nth roots or • The modulus of each nth root is
• The argument of the first root is
,
• Add (or ) to get the
k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ÿ, n - 1 argument of zk

K The formula for the roots results from the so-called De Moivre’s theorem written in the
shortened polar form

De Moivre’s theorem

If , then for any integer n,

EXAMPLE 1.10
If and , then

EXAMPLE 1.11
Find the cube roots of .
SOLUTION
We must first write the number in polar form. So let . Since we
must find the cube roots, n = 3 and we will substitute k with 0, 1 and 2, that is, we will get

177
 three roots and . Thus,

,
the first argument is

and we must add

to get the successive arguments.

ˆ

In the next example we used De Moivre’s theorem instead of factorization to solve the equation.

EXAMPLE 1.12
Solve for x if .
SOLUTION
We must first convert the rectangular form to polar form, that is,

Now,

so that and . Furthermore,

and we must add

.
Thus,

K Did you notice that the angles are not always in the interval ? As mentioned
before, we usually give angles in this interval but in these examples we concentrated on de
Moivre’s theorem. However, when you use your calculator to convert complex numbers to
polar form you must give angles in the correct interval .

ACTIVITY 1.13 NN
1. Carry out the indicated operations and give your answer in simplified polar form.
1.1 1.2

178
1.3 1.4

1.5 1.6

1.7 1.8

1.9 1.10

1.11 1.12

2. Find all the cube roots, in polar form, of

2.1 -512 2.2

3. Draw one Argand diagram for the roots obtained in 2.2 and write down your observation(s)
about the distribution of the roots in the complex plane.

4. Find all the fourth roots of 1.

5. Find all the roots of

5.1 5.2
5.3
QQQQ

1.6 COMPLEX NUMBERS IN EXPONENTIAL FORM

We are now able to add, subtract, multiply and divide complex numbers, as well as raise complex
numbers to a rational exponent. But how do we determine the logarithm of a complex number?
We write the complex number in exponential form.

1.6.1 THE EXPONENTIAL FORM

Many functions may be expanded as a power series. We give the three power series needed for
this section without proof. For any real value of x,
(1.1)

(1.2)

(1.3)

Now, we know that any complex number z is, in polar form,

(1.4)

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If 2 is in radians, then we may substitute (1.2) and (1.3) in (1.4) so that

Using (1.1) we may write

so that, when we compare,

which is the so-called exponential form of the complex number.

Exponential form of a complex number: where 2 is in radians.

K 2 must be in radians

K If , then

K The relations and are known as Euler’s

relations

K Two useful relationships that can be derived from this form of the complex number are

and

which may remind you of the definitions of the hyperbolic functions you will find in the
chapter on differentiation

EXAMPLE 1.13
a)
b)
c)

180
d)
e) U

K We use the same keys to convert from one form to another, that is, on a Sharp we use xy

to convert a complex number from exponential to rectangular form and r2 to convert

from rectangular to exponential form

K The angle must be in radians, so make sure that your calculator is in the proper mode!

ACTIVITY 1.14 NN
Complete the following table. Use your calculator for the conversions, round off to two decimal
places where necessary and give angles in degrees for the polar form.

Rectangular form Polar form Exponential form

QQQQ

1.6.2 OPERATIONS WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS IN EXPONENTIAL

FORM
Let’s first recall two log laws:

and

For the complex number , introduce natural logs both sides and apply these two laws:

181
The angle 2 is conventionally in the range -B < 2 #B, but, since rotation by 2 is the same as
rotation by , where k is any integer,
.
Thus, strictly speaking,
,
k any integer. However, to obtain an unique answer, we restrict 2 to the interval (-B;B] and call
the result

the principal value of .

The logarithm of a complex number

If , then the principal value of is given by

where 2 is in radians

EXAMPLE 1.14
Find .
SOLUTION
Let , then write it in exponential form:
.
Then find the log:
U

EXAMPLE 1.15
Find the principal value of if .
SOLUTION
If , then and

ACTIVITY 1.15 NN
Find the principal value of each of the following. Round answers off to three decimal places
where necessary.
1. 2.
3. 4.

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5. if 6.
QQQQ

We may also use the exponential form of a complex number to find the roots of that number.
Since we can once again apply De Moivre’s theorem.

The nth root of a complex number

If , then , k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n - 1

EXAMPLE 1.16
Solve for z if . Give the answer in rectangular form.
SOLUTION
Since this is a fourth order polynomial we expect four roots and n = 4 so that and we will
substitute k up to n - 1 = 3.

We first write an expression for z4 in exponential form:

Then

and

ACTIVITY 1.16 NN
Find the indicated roots by first writing the number in exponential form.
1. 2.

3. 4.
QQQQ

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EXERCISE 1.1 Applications
The questions in this exercise are relatively easy. We don’t explain the origin of values and
formulas; it will be explained in the other subjects when you come across them.

Round answers off in a sensible way.

1. Two ac voltages are give by the expressions

and .

If the voltages are equal, what are the values of x and y?

2. The total impedance ZT of an ac circuit containing two impedances Z1 and Z2 in parallel is

given by
.

Find ZT if and

3. In an ac circuit the relationship between the voltage E volts, current I amps and impedance
Z ohms is given by
.
Find the required quantity for the given values and plot an Argand diagram to show the
relative position of each quantity.
3.1 E if and
3.2 Z if and
3.3 Z if volts and amps
3.4 I if volts and ohms

4. What is the amplitude and direction of a force vector that is represented by

newtons?

5. What is the amplitude and direction of the displacement of a mass at the end of a spring that
can be described by metres?

6. The electric field intensity of a light wave can be described by the complex number
V/m. Write this in rectangular form.

7. The impedance in an antenna circuit is ohms. Find the magnitude of the

impedance.

8. In an electric circuit, the admittance is the reciprocal of the impedance. In a certain circuit,
the impedance is ohms. Find the admittance in exponential form.

184
9. The displacement of a mass suspended on a system of two springs is
cm.
Find the value of d and express the answer in polar form.

EXERCISE 1.2 Review exercise

1. Complete the following table with the different forms of complex numbers. Give all angles
in the polar form in degrees.

Rectangular form Polar form Exponential form

2. Evaluate each of the following. You may do the calculations in any form, but give the
answer in the same form as in the given expression.
2.1 2.2

2.3 2.4
2.5 2.6

2.7

3. Sketch the complex number and its complex conjugate on the same
complex plane.

4. Sketch and on the same complex plane if and .

5. Find all the roots of .

6. Write and in polar form. Hence find , and .

185
7. Find the fourth roots of .

8. Solve . Give the answer in rectangular form.

9. Solve for x and y if .

10. What is the magnitude and direction of a velocity that is expressed by ?

11. Show that .

EXERCISE 1.3 Questions from previous exam papers

1. Solve for x and y if
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

1.5

2. If , find to three decimal places.

3. If , find the principal value of .

4. Solve the following equation accurately to two decimal places.

4.1 4.2

5. Given , calculate
5.1
5.2

6. Find the principal value to three decimal places of if .

7. Simplify the following and give your answer in polar form.

7.1

7.2

186
8. Simplify . Do all calculations in rectangular form.

9. Evaluate if . Give your answer in rectangular form.

10. If , determine all the cube roots of z.

187
ANSWERS, CHAPTER 107
Activity 1.1
1.1 1 1.2 j 1.3 -1
1.4 -j 1.5 1 1.6 j
1.7 1 1.8 -1 1.9 -j
1.10 -1 2.1 5 - 5j 2.2 3+j
3. No

Activity 1.2
Number Natural Integer Rational Irrational Real Imaginary Complex
3 U U U U U
U U U

U U U

U U U

-4 U U U U
U
U U

U U U

U U

U U

U
U U

Activity 1.3
Number Real part Imaginary part Conjugate
-2 3 -2 - 3j

4 1 4-j

188
 -3 2 -3 - 2j

9 9 0 9
0 5 -5j

0 8 -8j

Activity 1.4
1.1 11 - 2j 1.2 -5 + 6 j 1.3 -2 + 5 j
1.4 -9 + 6 j 2.1 -3 - 10j 2.2 15 + 10j

Activity 1.5
1.1 45 1.2 27 + 36j 1.3 14 - 18j
1.4 -2j 1.5 7 - 7j 1.6 2
2.1 45 2.2 27 + 36j 2.3 14 - 18j
2.4 -2j 2.5 7 - 7j 2.6 2
3.1 9 - 3j 3.2 5 4.1 2x
4.2 2jy 4.3 x2 + y2

Activity 1.6
1.1 (-1 + 4j)/34 1.2 (4 + j)/34 1.3 -2 - 8j
1.4 (-8 + 49j)/29 1.5 4 + 3j 1.6 (-30 + 12j)/29
2.1 -0.03 + 0.12j 2.2 0.17 + 0.03j 2.3 -2 - 8j
2.4 -0.28 + 1.69j 2.5 4 + 4j 2.6 -1.03 + 0.41j
3.1 (3 + 4j)/5 3.2 (3 + 4j)/5

Activity 1.7
1. 0; ½ 2. (2.5;4.5) 3. (3;-4), (-2;1)
4. (10/19;6/19)

Activity 1.8
1. ±j 2. 3.
4. -1; 5. 6.

Activity 1.9
1. Sketch 2.1 -2 + j, -1 - 2j, -2 - j 2.2 Sketch
2.3 Discussion 3. Sketch and discussion

Activity 1.10
Sketch

189
Activity 1.11
1.1 (1.41;45°) 1.2 (2.24;153.43°) 1.3 (5.83;-120.90°)
1.4 (4.12;-75.96°) 2.1 (0.71;0.71) 2.2 (0;-3)
2.3 (1.85;-0.76) 2.4 (-2.83;2.83)

Activity 1.12
Rectangular form Polar form arg z *z*
135° 2.83

90° 1

-4 180° 4

0.71 + 0.71j 45° 1

-146.31° 3.61

0.87 - 0.5j -30° 1

1 + 1.73j 60° 2

Activity 1.13
1.1 1.2 1.3
1.4 1.5 1.6
1.7 1.8 1.9
1.10 1.11 1.12
2.1 2.2
3. Sketch and discussion 4.
5.1 5.2
5.3

Activity 1.14
Rectangular form Polar form Exponential form
3.61e2.55j

-1.5 + 2.6j 3e2.09j

1 + 1.73j

190
 0.91 - 0.42j e0.44j

2.83e0.66j

-7.32 + 1.04j

Activity 1.15
1. 1.099 + 1.047j 2. 1.099 + 1.571j 3. 1.282 + 0.588j
4. 3.142j 5. 0.347 - 2.356j 6. -2.356j

Exercise 1.1
1. x = -5.5, y = -4 2. S 3.1

3.2 3.3 S 3.4 A

4. 42.7; -53.18° 5. 0.422; 20.54° 6.

7. 391 S 8. 9.

Exercise 1.2
Rectangular form Polar form Exponential form

2.1 2.2 2.3

2.4 16 2.5 2.6
2.7
3. 4.

191
5. 6.
7.
8. 9.
10. 12. Proof

Exercise 1.3
1.1 1.2 1.3
1.4 1.5 2.
3.
4.1 4.2
5.1 5.2
6. 7.1 7.2
8. 9. 10.

192