CHAPTER – 3 unstable.

Understand instability caused by

concurrent and parallel force sytems.
Statics of Structures lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 81 23/12/16 3:36
pm 82 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures—
3.1 With few exceptions, structures must be Reactions We begin this chapter with a brief
stable under all conditions of load; that is, they review of statics. In this review we consider the
must be able to support applied loads (their own characteristics of forces, discuss the equations of
weight, anticipated live loads, wind, and so static equilibrium for two-dimensional (planar)
forth) without changing shape, undergoing large structures, and use the equations of static
displacements, or collapsing. Since structures equilibrium to determine the reactions and
that are stable do not move perceptibly when internal forces in a variety of simple determinate
loaded, their analysis—the determination of structures such as beams, trusses, and simple
both internal and external forces (reactions)—is frames. We conclude this chapter with a
based in large part on the principles and discussion of determinacy and stability. By
techniques contained in the branch of determinacy, we mean procedures to establish if
engineering mechanics called statics. The subject the equations of statics alone are sufficient to
of statics, which you have studied previously, permit a complete analysis of a structure. If the
covers force systems acting on rigid bodies at structure cannot be analyzed by the equations of
rest (the most common case) or moving at statics, the structure is termed indeterminate.
constant velocity; that is, in either case the To analyze an indeterminate structure, we must
acceleration of the body is zero. Although the supply additional equations by considering the
structures we will study in this book are not geometry of the deflected shape. Indeterminate
absolutely rigid because they undergo small structures will be discussed in later chapters. By
elastic deformations when loaded, in most stability, we mean the geometric arrangement of
situations the deflections are so small that we members and supports required to produce a
can (1) treat the structure or its components as stable structure, that is, a structure that can
rigid bodies and (2) base the analysis on the resist load from any direction without
initial dimensions of the structure. CHAPTER undergoing either a radical change in shape or
Chapter Objectives ● Review sta cs, prepare large rigid-body displacements. In this chapter,
idealized structures, and identify appropriate we consider the stability and determinacy of
free-body diagrams. Utilize the principle of structures that can be treated as either a single
transmissibility, equations of static equilibrium, rigid body or as several interconnected rigid
and equations of condition in the analysis of bodies. The principles that we establish for these
structures. ● Study support condi ons and their simple structures will be extended to more
restraints, which include the prevention or complex structures in later chapters. Forces 3.2
allowance of translational and rotational To solve typical structural problems, we use
movements. ● Calculate reac ons for beams, equations involving forces or their components.
bent frames, multistory frames, and trusses. ● Forces may consist of either a linear force that
Classify determinate and indeterminate tends to produce translation or a couple that
structures, and determine the degree of tends to produce rotation of the body on which
indeterminacy for the latter. Understand and it acts. Since a force has magnitude and
compare determinate and indeterminate direction, it can be represented by a vector. For
structures in terms of safety through example, Figure 3.1a shows a force F with a
redundancy and proper locations of support magnitude F lying in the xy plane and passing
conditions. ● Determine if a structure is stable or
through point A. A couple consists of a pair of simple relationship between length of sides and
equal and oppositely directed forces lying in the interior angles opposite the respective sides. For
same plane (Figure 3.1b). The moment M the triangle shown in Figure 3.2, we can state the
associated with the couple equals the product of law of sines as ____ a sin A = ____ b sin B = ____
the force F and the perpendicular distance (or c sinC where A is the angle opposite side a, B is
arm) d between forces. Since a moment is a the angle opposite side b, and C is the angle
vector, it has magnitude as well as Figure 3.1: opposite side c. Example 3.1 illustrates the use of
Force and moment vectors: (a) linear force the law of sines to compute the orthogonal
vector resolved into x and y components; (b) components of a vertical force in arbitrary
couple of magnitude Fd; (c) alternative directions. A c B b C a Figure 3.2: Diagram to
representation of moment M, by a vector using illustrate law of sines. lee98004_ch03_080-
the right-hand rule. 0 0 0 Fx Fy A F b c a y x z (a) 129.indd 83 23/12/16 3:36 pm 84 Chapter 3 ■
F F d M = Fd y x z (b) M M y x z (c) Statics of Structures—Reactions Resultant of a
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 82 23/12/16 3:36 Planar Force System In certain structural
pm 3.2 ■ Forces 83 direction. Although we often problems we will need to determine the
represent a moment by a curved arrow to show magnitude and location of the resultant of a
that it acts in the clockwise or counterclockwise force system. Since the resultant is a single force
direction (Figure 3.1c), we can also represent a that produces the same external effect on a body
moment by a vector—usually a double-headed as the original force system, the resultant R must
arrow— using the right-hand rule. In the right- satisfy the following three conditions: 1. The
hand rule we curl the fingers of the right hand in horizontal component of the resultant Rx must
the direction of the moment, and the direction equal the algebraic sum of the horizontal
in which the thumb points indicates the direction components of all forces. Rx = ∑Fx (3.1a) 2. The
of the vector. We must frequently carry out vertical component of the resultant Ry must
computations that require either resolving a equal the algebraic sum of the vertical
force into its components or combining several components of all forces. Ry = ∑Fy (3.1b) 3. The
forces to produce a single resultant force. To moment Mo produced by the resultant about a
facilitate these calculations, it is convenient to reference axis through point o must equal the
select arbitrarily horizontal and vertical axes—an moment about point o produced by all forces
x-y coordinate system—as the basic reference and couples that make up the original force
directions. A force can be resolved into system. Mo = Rd = ∑Fi di + ∑Mi (3.1c) where R =
components by using the geometric resultant force = √ ______ Rx 2 + Ry 2 d =
relationship—similar triangles—that exists perpendicular distance from line of action of
between the vector components and the slope resultant to axis about which moments are
of the vector. For example, to express the computed (3.1d) ∑Fi di= moment of all forces
vertical component Fy of the vector F in Figure about reference axis ∑Mi = moment of all
3.1a in terms of the slope of the vector, we write, couples about reference axis EXAMPLE 3.1 Using
using similar triangles, Fy __ a = __ F c and Fy = _ the law of sines, resolve the 75-lb vertical force
a c F Similarly, if we set up a proportion between FAB in Figure 3.3a into components directed
the horizontal component Fx and F and the sides along lines a and b. Solution Through point B
of the slope triangle noted on the vector, we can draw a line parallel to line b, forming triangle
write Fx = __b c F If a force is to be resolved into ABC. The interior angles of the triangle are easily
components that are not parallel to an x-y computed from the information given. Vectors
coordinate system, the law of sines provides a AC and CB (Figure 3.3b) represent the required
components of force FAB. From the law of sines complex, the designer can often simplify the
we can write _____ sin 80° 75 = _____ sin 40° computation of the magnitude and position of
FAC = _____ sin 60° FCB where sin 80° = 0.985, the resultant by subdividing the area into several
sin 60° = 0.866, and sin 40° = 0.643. Solving for smaller geometric areas whose properties are
FAC and FCB yields FAC = ______ sin 40° sin 80° known. In most cases distributed loads are
(75) = 48.96 lb Ans. FCB = ______ sin 60° sin 80° uniform or vary linearly. For the latter case, you
(75) = 65.94 lb Ans. b a A A C C B B 50° 30° 50° can divide the area into triangular and
FAB = 75 lb FAB = 75 lb (a) (b) FAC FCB 60° 80° rectangular areas (Example 3.7). As an
40° Figure 3.3: Resolution of a vertical force into alternative procedure the designer may replace
components. lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 84 a distributed load that varies in a complex
23/12/16 3:36 pm 3.2 ■ Forces 85 Solution Since manner by a statically equivalent set of
none of the forces act in the horizontal direction concentrated loads using the equations in Figure
or have components in the horizontal direction, 3.5. To use these equations, we divide the
Rx = 0 Using Equation 3.1b gives R = Ry = ∑Fy = distributed loads into an arbitrary number of
20 + 20 + 10 = 50 kN Locate the position of the segments of length h. The ends of the segments
resultant, using Equation 3.1c; that is, equate the are termed the nodes. Figure 3.5 shows two
moment produced by the original force system typical segments. The nodes are labeled 1, 2, and
to the moment produced by the resultant R. 3. The number of segments into which the load
Select a reference axis through point A (choice of is divided depends on the length and shape of
A arbitrary). Rd = ∑Fi di 50d = 20(0) + 20(3) + the distributed load and the quantity we will
10(5) d = 2.2 m Ans. Ans. Determine the compute. If the distributed load varies linearly
magnitude and location of the resultant R of the between nodes, the equivalent concentrated
three wheel loads shown in Figure 3.4. EXAMPLE force at each node is given by the equations in
3.2 Figure 3.4 d A B C 3 m 2 m 20 kN 20 kN R = 50 Figure 3.5a. The equations for forces labeled P1
kN 10 kN Resultant of a Distributed Load In and P3 apply at an exterior node—a segment is
addition to concentrated loads and couples, located on only one side of the node, and P2
many structures carry distributed loads. The applies to an interior node—segments are
external effect of a distributed load (the located on both sides of a node. For a distributed
computation of reactions it produces, for load with a parabolic variation (either concave
example) is most easily handled by replacing the up or concave down), the equations in Figure
distributed loads by an equivalent resultant 3.5b should be used. These equations will also
force. As you have learned previously in statics give good results (within 1 or 2 percent of the
and mechanics of materials courses, the exact values) for distributed loads whose shape
magnitude of the resultant of a distributed load is represented by a higher-order curve. If the
equals the area under the load curve and acts at length of the segments is not too large, the
its centroid (see Appendix Table A.1 for values of simpler equations in Figure 3.5a can also be
area and location of the centroid for several applied to a distributed load whose ordinates lie
common geometric shapes). Example 3.3 on a curve such as that shown in Figure 3.5b.
illustrates the use of integration to compute the When they are applied in this fashion, we are in
magnitude and location of the resultant of a effect replacing the actual loading curve by a
distributed load with a parabolic variation. series of trapezoidal elements, as shown by the
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 85 23/12/16 3:36 dashed line in Figure 3.5b. As we reduce the
pm 86 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures— distance h between nodes (or equivalently
Reactions If the shape of a distributed load is increase the number of segments), the
trapezoidal approximation approaches the equivalent set of concentrated loads. Solution
actual curve. Example 3.4 illustrates the use of Divide the load into three segments where h = 5
the equations of Figure 3.5. 1 2 (a) 3 h h P1 P1= ft. Evaluate the equivalent loads, using the
h 6 (2w1 + w2) P2= h 6 (w1 + 4w2 + w3) P3= h 6 equations in Figure 3.5b. P1 = __h 24 (7w1 + 6w2
(2w3 + w2) P2 w2 w1 w3 P3 1 2 (b) 3 h h P1 P1= − w3) = __5 24[7(4) + 6(6.25) − 9] = 11.77 kips P2
h 24 (7w1 + 6w2 – w3) P2= h 12 (w1 + 10w2 + = ___h 12 (w1 + 10w2 + w3) = __5 12 [4 +
w3) P3= h 24 (7w3 + 6w2 – w1) P2 w2 w1 w3 P3 10(6.25) + 9] = 31.46 kips P3 = ___h 12 (w2 +
Figure 3.5: (a) Expressions to convert a 10w3 + w4) = __5 12 [6.25 + 10(9) + 12.25] =
trapezoidal variation of load to a set of statically 45.21 kips P4 = __h 24 (7w4 + 6w3 − w2) = __5
equivalent, equally spaced, concentrated loads; 24 [7(12.25) + 6(9) − 6.25] = 27.81 kips Also
(b) equations to convert a parabolic variation of compute the approximate values of loads P1 and
load to a statically equivalent set of P2, using the equations in Figure 3.5a for a
concentrated loads. Equations are valid for trapezoidal distribution of load. P1 = __h 6 (2w1
concave downward parabolas also, and will give + w2) = __5 6 [2(4) + 6.25] = 11.88 kips P2 = __h
a close approximation for higher-order curves. 6 (w1 + 4w2 + w3) = __5 6 [4 + 4(6.25) + 9] = 31.67
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 86 23/12/16 3:36 kips The analysis above indicates that for this
pm 3.2 ■ Forces 87 Although the resultant of a case the approximate values of P1 and P2
distributed load produces the same external deviate less than 1 percent from the exact
effect on a body as the original loading, the values. 5 4 6.25 w1 w2 w3 w4 9 12.25 5 5 10
internal stresses produced by the resultant are 15 (a) P1 P2 P3 P4 10 5 5 5 (b) Figure 3.7: (a)
not the same as those produced by the Beam with a distributed load (units of load in kips
distributed load. For example, the resultant per foot); (b) beam with equivalent concentrated
force can be used to compute the reactions of a loads. lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 88
beam, but the computations for internal 23/12/16 3:36 pm 3.3 ■ Supports 89 Principle of
forces—for example, shear and moment— must Transmissibility The principle of transmissibility
be based on the actual loading. Compute the states that a force may be moved along its line of
magnitude and location of the resultant of the action without changing the external effect that
parabolic loading shown in Figure 3.6. The slope it produces on a body. For example, in Figure
of the parabola is zero at the origin. EXAMPLE 3.3 3.8a we can see from a consideration of
x L 0 3 4 x = L w L2 y = x2 y R w y dx x Figure 3.6 equilibrium in the x direction that the horizontal
Solution Compute R by integrating the area force P applied to the beam at point A creates a
under the parabola y = (w/L2 )x 2 . R = ∫0 L y dx = horizontal reaction at support C equal to P. If the
∫0 L wx2 ____ L2 dx = [ wx3 ____ 3L2 ] = ___ wL force at point A is moved along its line of action
3 Locate the position of the centroid. Using to point D at the right end of the beam (Figure
Equation 3.1c and summing moments about the 3.8b), the same horizontal reaction P develops at
origin gives Rx¯ = ∫0 L y dx(x) = ∫0 L __ w L2 x 3 dx C. Although the effect of moving the force along
= [ wx4 ____ 4L2 ] = wL2 ____ 4 Substituting R = its line of action produces no change in the
wL/3 and solving the equation above for x¯ yield reactions, we can see that the internal force in
x¯ = __3 4 L L 0 Ans. L 0 Ans. lee98004_ch03_080- the member is affected by the position of the
129.indd 87 23/12/16 3:36 pm 88 Chapter 3 ■ load. For example, in Figure 3.8a compression
Statics of Structures—Reactions EXAMPLE 3.4 stresses develop between points A and C. On the
The beam in Figure 3.7a supports a distributed other hand, if the load acts at D, the stress
load whose ordinates lie on a parabolic curve. between points A and C is zero and tensile
Replace the distributed load by a statically stresses are created between C and D (Figure
3.8b). The ability of the engineer to move vectors displacements to occur while preventing others
along their line of action is used frequently in must be designed to transmit large loads.
structural analysis to simplify computations, to Although the devices used as supports can vary
solve problems involving vectors graphically, and widely in shape and form, we can classify most
to develop a better understanding of behavior. supports in one of four major categories based
For example, in Figure 3.9 the forces acting on a on the restraints or reactions the supports exert
retaining wall consist of the weight W of the wall on the structure. The most common
and the thrust of the soil pressure T on the back lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 89 23/12/16 3:36
of the wall. These force vectors can be added on pm 90 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures—
the figure by sliding T and W along their lines of Reactions supports, whose characteristics are
actions until they intersect at point A. At that summarized in Table 3.1, include the pin, the
point the vectors can be combined to produce roller, the fixed support, and the link. The pin
the resultant force R acting on the wall. The support shown in Table 3.1, case (a), represents
magnitude and direction of R are evaluated a device that connects a member to a fixed point
graphically in Figure 3.9b. Now—in accordance by a frictionless pin. Although this support
with the principle of transmissibility—the prevents displacement in any direction, it allows
resultant can be moved along its line of action the end of the member to rotate freely. Fixed
until it intersects the base at point x. If the supports [see Table 3.1 case ( f )], although not
resultant intersects the base within the middle common, occasionally exist when the end of a
third, it can be shown that compressive stresses member is deeply embedded in a massive block
exist over the entire base—a desirable state of of concrete or grouted into solid rock (Figure
stress because soil cannot transmit tension. On 3.11). The system of supports a designer selects
the other hand, if the resultant falls outside the will influence both the forces that develop in a
middle third of the base, compression will exist structure and the forces resisted by the
under only a portion of the base, and the stability supports. For example, in Figure 3.10a the left
of the wall—the possibility the wall will overturn end of a beam is connected to a wall by a bolt
or overstress the soil—must be investigated. that prevents relative displacement between the
Figure 3.8: Principle of transmissibility. P B C A D beam and the wall while the right end is
(b) P P B C A D (a) P B 3 B B 3 B 3 W R A T x (a) supported on a neoprene pad that allows the
Figure 3.9: Forces acting on a wall: (a) addition of end of the beam to move laterally without
weight W and soil pressure (thrust) T; (b) vector developing any significant restraining force. If
addition of W and T to produce R. R W T (b) the temperature of the beam increases, the
Supports 3.3 To ensure that a structure or a beam will expand. Since no longitudinal restraint
structural element remains in its required develops at the right end to resist the expansion,
position under all loading conditions, it is no stresses are created in either the beam or the
attached to a foundation or connected to other walls. On the other hand, if both ends of the
structural members by supports. In certain cases same beam are bolted to masonry walls (Figure
of light construction, supports are provided by 3.10b), an expansion of the beam produced by
nailing or bolting members to supporting walls, an increase in temperature will push the walls
beams, or columns. Such supports are simple to outward and possibly crack them. If the walls are
construct, and little attention is given to design stiff, they will exert a restraining force on the
details. In other cases where large, heavily beam that will create compressive stresses (and
loaded structures must be supported, large possibly bending stresses if the supports are
complex mechanical devices that allow certain eccentric to the centroid of the member) in the
beam. Although these effects typically have little single vertical linear force; moment *Although
effect on structures when spans are short or the symbol for a roller support, for the sake of
temperature changes are moderate, they can simplicity, shows no restraint against upward
produce undesirable effects (buckle or movement, it is intended that a roller can
overstress members) when spans are long or provide a downward reaction force if necessary.
temperature changes are large. (b) F F cracking OR R θ θ θ θ lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 91
Figure 3.10: Influence of supports: Idealized 23/12/16 3:36 pm 92 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of
representation shown below actual construction Structures—Reactions To produce a fixed-end
condition: (a) right end is free to expand condition for a steel beam or column is
laterally, no stresses created by temperature expensive and rarely done. For a steel beam a
change; (b) both ends are restrained, fixed-end condition can be created by
compressive and bending stresses develop in embedding one end of the beam in a massive
beam. Walls crack. ΔL (a) neoprene pad DL Photo block of reinforced concrete (Figure 3.11). To
3.1: Pin support for the 2.1-mile long steel box produce a fixed-end condition at the base of a
girder San Diego-Coronado Bridge. © Chia-Ming steel column, the designer must specify a thick
Uang Photo 3.2: Roller support for the San steel baseplate, reinforced by vertical steel
DiegoCoronado Bridge. © Chia-Ming Uang stiffener plates connected to the column and the
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 90 23/12/16 3:36 baseplate (Figure 3.12). In addition, the
pm 3.3 ■ Supports 91 Sketch Symbol Movements baseplate must be anchored to the support by
Allowed or Prevented Reaction Forces heavily tensioned anchor bolts. On the other
Unknowns Type Created TABLE 3.1 hand, when structural members are constructed
Characteristics of Supports (a) Pin OR OR Rx Ry of reinforced concrete, a fixed end or a pin end
Ry Ry Rx Rx R R MR R2 R1 MR R (b) Hinge (c) can be produced more easily. In the case of a
Roller (d) Rocker (e) Elastomeric pad (g) Link ( f ) beam, a fixed end is produced by extending
Fixed end (h) Guide Prevented: horizontal reinforcing bars to a specified distance into a
translation, vertical translation Allowed: rotation supporting element (Figure 3.13a). For a
Prevented: relative displacement of member reinforced concrete column, the designer can
ends Allowed: both rotation and horizontal and create a hinge at its base by (1) notching the
vertical displacement Prevented: vertical bottom of the column just above the supporting
translation Allowed: horizontal translation, wall or footing and (2) crossing the reinforcing
rotation Prevented: translation in the direction bars as shown in Figure 3.13b. If the axial force
of link Allowed: translation perpendicular to link, in the column is large, to ensure that the
rotation Prevented: vertical translation, rotation concrete in the region of the notch does not fail
Allowed: horizontal translation A single linear by crushing, additional vertical reinforcing bars
force of unknown direction or, equivalently, a must be added at the centerline of the column to
horizontal force and a vertical force which are transfer the axial force. P reinforced concrete
the components of the single force of unknown wall (primary wall reinforcing not shown) steel
direction Equal and oppositely directed beam ties Figure 3.11: Fixed-end beam produced
horizontal and vertical forces A single linear by embedding its left end in a reinforced
force (either upward or downward*) Prevented: concrete wall. elevation plan stiffener plates
horizontal translation, vertical translation, each side anchor bolt steel column base plate P
rotation Allowed: none Horizontal and vertical M base plate anchor bolt, typical stiffener plate,
components of a linear resultant; moment A typical steel column foundation Figure 3.12: A
single linear force in the direction of the link A steel column supported on a stiffened baseplate,
which is bolted to a concrete foundation, restraint obviously develops at the base of the
producing a fixed-end condition at its base. P columns, designers typically neglect it and
reinforced concrete wall reinforced concrete assume that the actual supports can be
beam only beam reinforcement shown section represented by frictionless pins. This assumption
(a) Figure 3.13: (a) A reinforced concrete beam is made for the following reasons: 1. The
with a fixed end; (b) a reinforced concrete designer has no simple procedure to evaluate
column whose lower end is detailed to act as a rotational restraint. 2. The rotational restraint is
pin. P (b) foundation section detail only column modest because of the flexural deformation of
reinforcement shown reinforcing bars column the plate, the elongation of the bolts, and small
notch lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 92 lateral movements of the wall. 3. Finally, the
23/12/16 3:36 pm 3.4 ■ Idealizing Structures 93 assumption of a pin support at the base is
Idealizing Structures 3.4 Before a structure can conservative (restraints of any type stiffen the
be analyzed, the designer must develop a structure). L L h A B D C A wL B D C h R R w snow
simplified physical model of the structure and its load tie rod girder baseplate grout wall (a) (b) 2
supports as well as the applied loads. This model wL 2 Figure 3.14: (a) Welded rigid frame with
is typically represented by a simple line drawing. snow load; (b) idealized frame on which analysis
To illustrate this procedure, we will consider the is based. lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 93
structural steel rigid frame in Figure 3.14a. For 23/12/16 3:36 pm 94 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of
purposes of analysis, the designer would Structures—Reactions As an example, we will
probably represent the rigid frame by the consider the behavior of the standard web
simplified sketch in Figure 3.14b. In this sketch connection between the two steel beams in
the columns and girders are represented by the Figure 3.15a. As shown in Figure 3.15b, the
centerlines of the actual members. Although the upper flange of beam 1 is cut back so that the top
maximum load applied to the girder of the frame flanges are at the same elevation. The
may be created by a deep uneven pile of heavy, connection between the two beams is made by
wet snow, the designer, following code means of a pair of angles that are bolted (or
specifications, will design the frame for an welded) to the webs of both beams. The forces
equivalent uniform load w. As long as the applied to the members by the bolts are shown
equivalent load produces, in the members, in Figure 3.15c. Since the web of beam 2 is
forces of the same magnitude as the real load, relatively flexible, the connection is typically
the designer will be able to size the members designed to transfer only vertical load between
with the strength required to support the real the two members. Although the connection has
load. In the actual structure, plates welded to the a limited capacity for horizontal load, this
base of the columns are bolted to foundation capacity is not utilized because beam 1 carries
walls to support the frame. Sometimes a tension primarily gravity load and little or no axial load.
rod is also run between the bases of the columns Designers typically model this type of connection
to carry the lateral thrust that is produced by the as a pin or roller (Figure 3.15d). beam 2 beam 1
vertical load on the girder. By using the tension R (a) (b) (c) (d) connection angles beam 1 beam
rod to carry the horizontal forces tending to 2 beam 1 beam 1 R 2 R 2 Figure 3.15: Bolted web
move the bases of the columns, supported on connection idealized as a pin support: (a)
foundation walls, outward, the designers can perspective of joint; (b) details of connection
size the walls and foundations for vertical load shown to an exaggerated scale: slope of beam 1
only, a condition that reduces the cost of the bends the flexible web of beam 2. The flexible
walls significantly. Although some rotational joint is assumed to supply no rotational restraint;
(c) vertical restraint provided by the bolted structures. At the section to be studied, we
connection; (d) bolted web connection modeled imagine the structure is cut apart by passing an
as a pin or roller support a pin or roller support imaginary plane through the element. If the
as shown in (d). Free-Body Diagrams 3.5 As a first plane is oriented perpendicular to the
step in the analysis of a structure, the designer longitudinal axis of the member and if the
will typically draw a simplified sketch of the internal force on the cross section is resolved
structure or the portion of the structure under into components parallel and perpendicular to
consideration. This sketch, which shows the the cut, in the most general case the forces
required dimensions together with all the acting on the cut surface will consist of an axial
external and internal forces acting on the force F, a shear V, and a moment M (in this book
structure, is called a free-body diagram. For we will not consider members that carry
example, Figure 3.16a shows a free-body torsion). Once F, V, and M are evaluated, we can
diagram of a three-hinged arch that carries two use standard equations (developed in a basic
concentrated loads. Since the reactions at strength of materials course) to compute the
supports A and C are unknown, their directions axial, shear, and bending stresses on the cross
must be assumed. The designer could also section. For example, if we wished to determine
represent the arch by the sketch in Figure 3.16b. the internal forces at section 1-1 in the left arch
Although the supports are not shown (as they segment (Figure 3.16c), we would use the free
are in Figure 3.16a) and the arch is represented bodies shown in Figure 3.16d. Following
by a single line, the free-body diagram contains Newton’s third law, “for each action there exists
all the information required to analyze the arch. L L B A C h P1 P2 Ay Cy Ax Cx (a) ba L L P1 P2 Ay
However, since the pin supports at A and C are By By Cy Ax Bx Bx Cx (c) 1 a b h L L h P1 P2 Ay Cy
not shown, it is not obvious to someone Ax Cx (b) ba 1 1 1 1 1 V V F F M M P1 Ay By Ax Bx
unfamiliar with the problem (and seeing the B (d) a Figure 3.16: Free-body diagrams: (a)
sketch for the first time) that points A and B are freebody diagram of three-hinged arch; (b)
not free to displace because of the pins at those simplified free body of arch in (a); (c) free-body
locations. In each case, designers must use their diagrams of arch segments; (d) free-body
judgment to decide what details are required for diagrams to analyze internal forces at section 1-
clarity. If the internal forces at the center hinge 1. lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 95 23/12/16
at B are to be computed, either of the free 3:36 pm 96 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures—
bodies shown in Figure 3.16c could be used. Reactions an equal and opposite reaction,” we
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 94 27/12/16 recognize that the internal forces on each side of
11:21 am 3.5 ■ Free-Body Diagrams 95 When the the cut are equal in magnitude and oppositely
direction of a force acting on a free body is directed. Assuming that the reactions at the base
unknown, the designer is free to assume its of the arch and the hinge forces at B have been
direction. If the direction of the force is assumed computed, the shear, moment, and axial forces
correctly, the analysis, using the equations of can be determined by applying the three
equilibrium, will produce a positive value of the equations of statics to either of the free bodies
force. On the other hand, if the analysis produces in Figure 3.16d. Equations of Static Equilibrium
a negative value of an unknown force, the initial 3.6 As you learned in dynamics, a system of
direction was assumed incorrectly, and the planar forces acting on a rigid structure (Figure
designer must reverse the direction of the force 3.17) can always be reduced to two resultant
(see Example 3.5). Free-body diagrams can also forces: 1. A linear force R passing through the
be used to determine the internal forces in center of gravity of the structure where R equals
the vector sum of the linear forces. 2. A moment 23/12/16 3:36 pm 3.6 ■ Equations of Static
M about the center of gravity. The moment M is Equilibrium 97 rotating. Although Equation 3.4c
evaluated by summing the moments of all forces was based on a summation of moments about
and couples acting on the structure with respect the center of gravity of the structure because we
to an axis through the center of gravity and were considering the angular acceleration of the
perpendicular to the plane of the structure. The body, this restriction can be removed for
linear acceleration a of the center of gravity and structures in static equilibrium. Obviously, if a
the angular accelerations α of the body about structure is at rest, the resultant force is zero.
the center of gravity are related to the resultant Since the actual force system can be replaced by
forces R and M by Newton’s second law, which its resultant, it follows that summing moments
can be stated as follows: R = ma (3.2a) M = Iα about any axis parallel to the z-reference axis
(3.2b) where m is the mass of the body and I is and normal to the plane of the structure must
the mass moment of inertia of the body with equal zero because the resultant is zero. As you
respect to its center of gravity. If the body is at may remember from your course in statics,
rest—termed a state of static equilibrium—both either or both of Equations 3.4a and 3.4b can
the linear acceleration a and the angular also be replaced by moment equations. Several
acceleration α equal zero. For this condition, equally valid sets of equilibrium equations are
Equations 3.2a and 3.2b become R = 0 (3.3a) M = ∑Fx = 0 (3.5a) ∑MA = 0 (3.5b) ∑Mz = 0 (3.5c) or
0 (3.3b) If R is replaced by its components Rx and ∑MA = 0 (3.6a) ∑MB = 0 (3.6b) ∑Mz = 0 (3.6c)
Ry, which can be expressed in terms of the where points A, B, and z do not lie on the same
components of the actual force system by straight line. Since the deformations that occur
Equations 3.1a and 3.1b, we can write the in real structures are generally very small, we
equations of static equilibrium for a planar force typically write the equations of equilibrium in
system as ∑Fx = 0 (3.4a) ∑Fy = 0 (3.4b) ∑Mz = 0 terms of the initial dimensions of the structure.
(3.4c) Equations 3.4a and 3.4b establish that the In the analysis of flexible columns, long-span
structure is not moving in either the x or y arches, or other flexible structures subject to
direction, while Equation 3.4c ensures that the buckling, the deformations of the structural
structure is not Although, the concept of static elements or the structure under certain loading
equilibrium was understood well over 2000 conditions may be large enough to increase the
years ago, as evidenced in Archimedes’ (287–212 internal forces by a significant amount. In these
BC) experiments with equilibrium of the lever, it situations, the equilibrium equations must be
was during the height of scientific revolution that written in terms of the geometry of the
Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727), developed the deformed structure if the analysis is to give
three physical laws of motion in his publication accurate results. Structures experiencing large
“Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica” deflections of this type are not covered in this
(1687), which formed the foundation for text. If the forces acting on a structure—
classical mechanics and paved the way for including both the reactions and the internal
modern structural analysis. Attributable to Isaac forces—can be computed using any of the
Newton, Simon Stevin (1548–1620) and Pierre foregoing sets of equations of static equilibrium,
Varignon (1654–1722) are the synthesis of the structure is said to be statically determinate
statics, equations of static equilibrium, force or, more simply, determinate. Examples 3.5 to
vector analysis, graphic statics, and 3.7 illustrate the use of ≡ M1 M2 P2 P3 P4 P1 C.G.
parallelogram law for the addition of force C.G. R M Figure 3.17: Equivalent planar force
vectors. lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 96 systems acting on a rigid body.
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 97 23/12/16 3:36 equilibrium. ⟳+ ∑MC = 0 8(12) − Ay(14) = 0 (1)
pm 98 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures— →+ ∑Fx = 0 18 − Cx = 0 (2) ↑ + ∑Fy = 0 −Ay + Cy =
Reactions the equations of static equilibrium to 0 (3) Solving Equations 1, 2, and 3 gives Cx = 18
compute the reactions of a determinate kips Ay = 15.43 kips Cy = 15.43 kips Ans. NOTE:
structure that can be treated as a single rigid The reactions were computed using the initial
body. If the structure is stable but the equations dimensions of the unloaded structure. Since
of equilibrium do not provide sufficient displacements in well-designed structures are
equations to analyze the structure, the structure small, no significant change in the magnitude of
is termed indeterminate. To analyze the reactions would result if we had used the
indeterminate structures, we must derive dimensions of the deformed structure. For
additional equations from the geometry of the example, suppose support A moves 0.5 in. to the
deformed structure to supplement the right and joint B moves upward 0.25 in. when the
equations of equilibrium. These topics are 18-kip load is applied. The moment arms for Ay
covered in Chapters 9, 10, and 11. EXAMPLE 3.5 and the 18-kip load in Equation 1 would equal
Compute the reactions for the beam in Figure 13.96 ft and 12.02 ft, respectively. Substituting
3.18a. Solution Resolve the force at C into these dimensions into Equation 1, we would
components and assume directions for the compute Ay = 15.47 kips. As you can see, the
reactions at A and B (Figure 3.18b). Ignore the value of Ay does not change enough (0.3 percent
depth of the beam. Method 1. Solve for in this problem) to justify using the dimensions
reactions using Equations 3.4a to 3.4c. Assume a of the deformed structure, which are time-
positive direction for forces as indicated by consuming to compute. lee98004_ch03_080-
arrows. →+ ∑Fx = 0 −Ax + 6 = 0 (1) ↑ + ∑Fy = 0 Ay 129.indd 99 23/12/16 3:36 pm 100 Chapter 3 ■
+ By − 8 = 0 (2) ⟳+ ∑MA = 0 −10By + 8(15) = 0 (3) Statics of Structures—Reactions EXAMPLE 3.7
Solving Equations 1, 2, and 3 gives Ax = 6 kips By The frame in Figure 3.20 carries a distributed
= 12 kips Ay = −4 kips Ans. where a plus sign load that varies from 4 to 10 kN/m. Compute the
indicates that the assumed direction is correct reactions. 8 m 6 m 4 m C B A 4 kN/m R1 x1 = 5 m
and a minus sign establishes that the assumed R2 Cy Cx Ay 20 3 x2 = m 10 kN/m Figure 3.20
direction is incorrect and the reaction must be Solution Divide the distributed load into a
reversed. See Figure 3.18c for final results. triangular and a rectangular distributed load
Method 2. Recompute reactions, using (see the dashed line). Replace the distributed
equilibrium equations that contain only one loads by their resultant. R1 = 10(4) = 40 kN R2 =
unknown reaction. One possibility is ⟳+ ∑MA = __1 2 (10)(6) = 30 kN Compute Ay. ⟳+ ∑MC = 0
0 −By(10) + 8(15) = 0 ⟳+ ∑MB = 0 Ay(10) + 8(5) = Ay (4) − R1(5) − R2( __20 3 ) = 0 Ay = 100 kN
0 →+ ∑Fx = 0 −Ax + 6 = 0 Solving again gives Ax = Compute Cy. ↑ + ∑Fy = 0 100 − R1 − R2 + Cy = 0
6 kips, By = 12 kips, Ay = −4 kips. Figure 3.18 6 Cy = −30 kN ↓ (minus sign indicates ini al
kips 10 kips 4 kips 12 kips (c) 10 5 Ax Ay By 6 kips direction incorrectly assumed) Compute Cx. →+
8 kips (b) 10 5 A B C (a) 10 kips 3 4 ∑Fx = 0 Cx = 0 Ans. Ans. lee98004_ch03_080-
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 98 23/12/16 3:36 129.indd 100 23/12/16 3:36 pm 3.6 ■ Equations
pm 3.6 ■ Equations of Static Equilibrium 99 of Static Equilibrium 101 Compute the reactions
Compute the reactions for the truss in Figure for the beam in Figure 3.21a, treating member
3.19. EXAMPLE 3.6 6 8 6 6 Cy Ay Cx C B D A P = AB as a link. EXAMPLE 3.8 Solution First compute
18 kips Figure 3.19 Solution Treat the truss as a the forces in the link. Since link AB is pinned at A
rigid body. Assume directions for reactions and B, no moments exist at these points. Assume
(Figure 3.19). Use equations of static initially that both shear V and axial force F are
transmitted through the pins (Figure 3.21b). support (Figure 3.16c). Since the hinge at B can
Using a coordinate system with an x axis along transfer a force with horizontal and vertical
the longitudinal axis of the member, we write components, but has no capacity to transfer
the following equilibrium equations: →+ ∑Fx = 0 moment (that is, MB = 0), we can sum moments
0 = FA − FB (1) ↑ + ∑Fy = 0 0 = VA − VB (2) ⟳+ about the hinge at B to produce an additional
MA = 0 0 = VB(5) (3) Solving the equations above equation in terms of the support reactions and
gives FA = FB (call FAB) and VA = VB = 0 These applied loads. This additional equation is called
computations show that a member pinned at an equation of condition or an equation of
both ends and not loaded between its ends construction. If the arch were continuous (no
carries only axial load, that is, is a two-force hinge existed at B), an internal moment could
member. Now compute FAB. Consider beam BC develop at B and we could not write an
as a free body (Figure 3.21c). Resolve FAB into additional equation without introducing an
components at B and sum moments about C. ⟳+ additional unknown—MB, the moment at B. As
∑Mc = 0 0 = 0.8FAB(10) + 20 − 36(2) →+ ∑Fx = 0 an alternative approach, we could determine
0 = 0.6FAB − Cx ↑ + ∑Fy = 0 0 = 0.8FAB − 36 + Cy both the reactions at the supports and the forces
Solving gives FAB = 6.5 kips, Cx = 3.9 kips, and Cy at the center hinge by writing and solving three
= 30.8 kips. 3 3 3 5 link 4 pin 9 kips/ 4 3 3 4 equations of equilibrium for each segment of the
A B C R = 36 kips FAB 0.6FAB 0.8FAB Cx Cy VA B arch in Figure 3.16c. Considering both free
A VB FA FB y x (a) (b) 2 3 4 C B (c) 20 kip • 20 bodies, we have six equilibrium equations
kip • ft Figure 3.21: (a) Beam BC supported by available to solve for six unknown forces (Ax, Ay,
link AB; (b) free body of link AB; (c) free body of Bx, By, Cx, and Cy). Examples 3.9 and 3.10
beam BC. lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 101 illustrate the procedure to analyze structures
23/12/16 3:36 pm 102 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of with devices (a hinge in one case and a roller in
Structures—Reactions Equations of Condition the other) that release internal restraints.
3.7 The reactions of many structures can be lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 102 23/12/16
determined by treating the structure as a single 3:36 pm 3.7 ■ Equations of Condition 103
rigid body. Other stable determinate structures, Compute the reactions for the beam in Figure
which consist of several rigid elements 3.22a. A load of 12 kips is applied directly to the
connected by a hinge or which contain other hinge at C. EXAMPLE 3.9 Solution The supports
devices or construction conditions that release provide four reactions. Since three equations of
certain internal restraints, require that the equilibrium are available for the entire structure
structure be divided into several rigid bodies in in Figure 3.22a and the hinge at C provides one
order to evaluate the reactions. Consider, for condition equation, the structure is determinate.
example, the three-hinged arch shown in Figure Compute Ex by using the free body in Figure
3.16a. If we write the equations of equilibrium 3.22a. →+ ∑Fx = 0 0 + Ex = 0 Ex = 0 Use the free
for the entire structure, we will find that only body in Figure 3.22c to compute Ey by summing
three equations are available to solve for the moments about C. ⟳+ ∑Mc = 0 0 = 24(5) − Ey(10)
four unknown reaction components Ax, Ay, Cx, and Ey = 12 kips Consider the free body of Figure
and Cy. To obtain a solution, we must establish 3.22a again. Sum moments about A. ⟳+ ∑MA =
an additional equation of equilibrium without 0 0 = −By(10) + 12(15) + 24(20) −12(25) By = 36
introducing any new variables. We can write a kips ↑ + ∑Fy = 0 0 = Ay + By − 12 − 24 + Ey
fourth independent equilibrium equation by Substituting By = 36 kips and Ey =12 kips, we
considering the equilibrium of either arch compute Ay = −12 kips (down). Ans. Ans. Ans.
segment between the hinge at B and an end Figure 3.22 Ay By Ey Ex (a) A B C D E hinge 24 kips
10 5 5 5 12 kips (b) 5 Ey Cy Cx Ex C E 24 kips 12 and Determinacy of Structures 105 Influence of
kips 10 lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 103 Reactions on Stability and Determinacy of
23/12/16 3:36 pm 104 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures 3.8 To produce a stable structure, the
Structures—Reactions EXAMPLE 3.10 Compute designer must supply a set of supports that
the reactions for the beams in Figure 3.23a. prevents the structure or any of its components
Solution If we treat the entire structure in Figure from moving as a rigid body. The number and
3.23a as a single rigid body, the external types of supports required to stabilize a
supports supply five reactions: Ax, Ay, Cy, Dx, structure depend on the geometric arrangement
and Dy. Since only three equations of of members, on any construction conditions
equilibrium are available, the reactions cannot built into the structure (hinges, for example),
be established. A solution is possible because the and on the position of supports. The equations
roller at B supplies two additional pieces of of equilibrium in Section 3.6 provide the theory
information (that is, MB = 0 and Bx = 0). By required to understand the influence of
separating the structure into two free bodies reactions on (1) stability and (2) determinacy
(Figure 3.23b), we can write a total of six (the ability to compute reactions using the
equilibrium equations (three for each free body) equations of statics). We begin this discussion by
to determine the six unknown forces exerted by considering structures composed of a single rigid
the external reactions and the roller at B. body, and then we extend the results to
Applying the equations of equilibrium to structures composed of several interconnected
member BD in Figure 3.23b, we have →+ ∑Fx = 0 bodies. For a set of supports to prevent motion
0 = 15 − Dx (1) ⟳+ ∑MD = 0 0 = By(10) − 20(5) (2) of a structure under all possible loading
↑ + º∑Fy = 0 0 = By − 20 + Dy (3) Solving conditions, the applied loads and the reactions
Equations 1, 2, and 3, we compute Dx = 15 kips, supplied by the supports must satisfy the three
By = 10 kips, and Dy = 10 kips. With By evaluated, equations of static equilibrium ∑Fx = 0 (3.4a) ∑Fy
we can determine the balance of the reactions = 0 (3.4b) ∑Mz = 0 (3.4c) To develop criteria for
by applying the equations of equilibrium to establishing the stability and the determinacy of
member AC in Figure 3.23b. →+ ∑Fx = 0 0 = Ax (4) a structure, we will divide this discussion into
⟳+ ∑MA = 0 0 = 10(10) −15Cy (5) ↑ + ∑Fy = 0 0 three cases that are a function of the number of
= Ay − 10 + Cy (6) Solving Equa ons 4, 5, and 6, reactions. Case 1. Supports Supply Less Than
we find Ax = 0 kip. Cy = 20/3 kips, and Ay = 10/3 Three Restraints: R < 3 (R = number of restraints
kips. Since the roller at B cannot transfer a or reactions) Since three equations of
horizontal force between beams, we recognize equilibrium must be satisfied for a rigid body
that the 15-kip horizontal component of the load to be in equilibrium, the designer must apply at
applied to BD must be equilibrated by the least three reactions to produce a stable
reaction Dx. Since no horizontal forces act on structure. If the supports supply less than three
member AC, Ax = 0. Static check: To verify the reactions, then one or more of the equations of
accuracy of the computations, we apply ∑Fy = 0 equilibrium cannot be satisfied, and the
to the entire structure in Figure 3.23a. Ay + Cy + structure is not in equilibrium. A structure not in
Dy − 0.8(25) = 0 ___ 10 3 + ___ 20 3 + 10 − 20 = 0 equilibrium is unstable. For example, let us use
0 = 0 OK Figure 3.23 Ay Cy Dy Ax Dx (a) A B C D the equations of equilibrium to determine the
25 kips 3 4 10 5 5 Ay Cy Ax Dx A C B D 10 5 By reactions of the beam in Figure 3.24a. The beam,
By Dy (b) 20 kips 15 kips 5 5 supported on two rollers, carries a vertical load
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 104 23/12/16 P at midspan and a horizontal force Q. ↑ + ∑Fy =
3:36 pm 3.8 ■ Influence of Reactions on Stability 0 0 = R1 + R2 − P (1) ⟳+ ∑MA = 0 0 = ___ PL 2 −
R2L (2) →+ ∑Fx = 0 0 = Q inconsistent; unstable of the column from displacing in any direction, it
(3) lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 105 23/12/16 does not supply any rotational restraint to the
3:36 pm 106 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures— column. Therefore, either the application of a
Reactions Equations 1 and 2 can be satisfied if R1 small lateral force Q (Figure 3.24d) or a small
= R2 = P/2; however, Equation 3 is not satisfied deviation of the top joint from the vertical axis
because Q is a real force and is not equal to zero. passing through the pin at A while the vertical
Since equilibrium is not satisfied, the beam is load P acts (Figure 3.24e) will produce an
unstable and will move to the right under the overturning moment that will cause the column
unbalanced force. Mathematicians would say to collapse by rotating about the hinge at A.
the set of equations above is inconsistent or From this example we see that to be classified as
incompatible. As a second example, we will stable, a structure must have the capacity to
apply the equations of equilibrium to the beam resist load from any direction. To supply restraint
supported by a pin at point A in Figure 3.23b. →+ against rotation, thereby stabilizing the column,
∑Fx = 0 0 = R1 − 3 (4) ↑ + ∑Fy = 0 0 = R2 − 4 (5) the designer could do either of the following. 1.
⟳+ ∑MA = 0 0 = 4(10) − 3(1) = 37 (6) Examina on Replace the pin at A by a fixed support that can
of Equations 4 through 6 shows that Equations 4 supply a restraining moment to the base of the
and 5 can be satisfied if R1 = 3 kips and R2 = 4 column (Figure 3.24f ). 2. As shown in Figure
kips; however, Equation 6 is not satisfied since 3.24g, connect the top of the column to a stable
the right side equals 37 kip⋅ft and the left side support at C with a horizontal member BC (a
equals zero. Because the equation of moment member such as BC, whose primary function is
equilibrium is not satisfied, the structure is to align the column vertically and not to carry
unstable; that is, the beam will rotate about the load, is termed bracing, or a secondary member).
pin at A. As a final example, we apply the In summary, we conclude that a structure is
equations of equilibrium to the column in Figure unstable if the supports supply less than three
3.24c. →+ ∑Fx = 0 0 = Rx (7) ↑ + ∑Fy = 0 0 = Ry − reactions. Case 2. Supports Supply Three
P (8) ⟳+ ∑MA = 0 0 = 0 (9) Examination of the Reactions: R = 3 If supports supply three
equilibrium equations shows that if Rx = 0 and Ry reactions, it will usually be possible to satisfy the
= P, all equations are satisfied and the structure three equations of equilibrium (the number of
is in equilibrium. (Equation 9 is automatically unknowns equals the number of equations).
satisfied because all forces pass through the Obviously, if the three equations of static
moment center.) Even though the equations of equilibrium are satisfied, the structure is in
equilibrium are satisfied when the column equilibrium (i.e., is stable). Further, if the
carries a vertical force, we intuitively recognize equations of equilibrium are satisfied, the values
that the structure is unstable. Although L A P B B of the three reactions are uniquely determined,
B B (c) Rx Ry P P (f ) L A M = QL Q = Rx Ry = P (d) and we say that the structure is externally
Q M = PΔ Δ A A P (e) P P A B C (g) bracing L A B P determinate. Finally, since three equations of
Q R1 = P 2 (a) motion L 2 R2 = P 2 10 1 A B R1 R2 equilibrium must be satisfied, it follows that a
(b) 4 kips 3 kips θ Figure 3.24: (a) Unstable, minimum of three restraints are required to
horizontal restraint missing; (b) unstable, free to produce a stable structure under any loading
rotate about A; (c) unstable, free to rotate about condition. If a system of supports supplies three
A; (d) and (e) unbalanced moments produce reactions that are configured in such a way that
failure; ( f ) and (g) stable structures. the equations of equilibrium cannot be satisfied,
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 106 23/12/16 the structure is called geometrically unstable.
3:36 pm the pin support at A prevents the base For example, in Figure 3.25a, member ABC,
which carries a vertical load P and a horizontal initially. In summary, we conclude that for a
force Q, is supported by a link and two rollers single rigid body a minimum of three restraints is
that apply three restraints to member ABC. Since necessary to produce a stable structure (one that
all restraints act vertically, they offer no is in equilibrium)—subject to the restriction that
resistance to displacement in the horizontal the restraints not be equivalent to either a
direction (i.e., the reactions form a parallel force parallel or a concurrent force system. We have
system). Writing the equation of equilibrium for also demonstrated that the stability of a
beam ABC in the x direction, we find →+ ∑Fx = 0 structure may always be verified by analyzing the
Q = 0 (not consistent) Since Q is a real force and structure with the equations of equilibrium for
is not equal to zero, the equilibrium equation is various arbitrary loading conditions. If the
not satisfied. Therefore, the structure is analysis produces an inconsistent result, that is,
unstable. Under the action of force Q, the the equations of equilibrium are not satisfied for
structure will move to the right until the link any portion of the structure, we can conclude
develops a horizontal component (because of a the structure is unstable. This procedure is
change in geometry) to equilibrate Q (Figure illustrated in Example 3.11. Case 3. Restraints
3.25b). Thus for it to be classified as a stable Greater Than 3: R > 3 If a system of supports,
structure, we require that the applied loads be which is not equivalent to either a parallel or a
3.8 ■ Influence of Reactions on Stability and concurrent force system, supplies more than
Determinacy of Structures 107 three restraints to a single rigid structure, the
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 107 23/12/16 values of the restraints cannot be uniquely
3:36 pm 108 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures— determined because the number of unknowns
Reactions equilibrated by the original direction exceeds the three equilibrium equations
of the reactions in the unloaded structure. A available for their solution. Since one or more of
structure that must undergo a change in the reactions cannot be determined, the Figure
geometry before its reactions are mobilized to 3.25: (a) Geometrically unstable, reactions form
balance applied loads is classified as unstable. As a parallel force system; (b) equilibrium position,
a second example of an unstable structure horizontal reaction develops as link elongates
restrained by three reactions, we consider in and changes slope; (c) geometrically unstable
Figure 3.25c a beam supported by a pin at A and because reactions form a concurrent force
a roller at B whose reaction is directed system passing through the pin at A; (d)
horizontally. Although equilibrium in the x and y indeterminate beam. Ax Ay Bx A B a P (c) Ax Ay
directions can be satisfied by the horizontal and 15 3 6 kips 8 kips 12 12 (d) By Cy Q Q C A B P
vertical restraints supplied by the supports, the (b) Δ Q C A B P (a) lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd
restraints are not positioned to prevent rotation 108 23/12/16 3:36 pm structure is termed
of the structure about point A. Writing the indeterminate, and the degree of indeterminacy
equilibrium equation for moment about point A equals the number of restraints in excess of 3,
gives ⟳+ ∑MA = 0 (3.4c) Pa = 0 (not consistent) that is, Degree of indeterminacy = R − 3 (3.7)
Because neither P nor a is zero, the product Pa where R equals the number of reactions and 3
cannot equal zero. Thus an equation of represents the number of equations of statics. As
equilibrium is not satisfied—a sign that the an example, in Figure 3.25d a beam is supported
structure is unstable. Since the lines of action of by a pin at A and rollers at points B and C.
all reactions pass through the pin at A (i.e., the Applying the three equations of equilibrium
reactions are equivalent to a concurrent force gives →+ ∑Fx = 0 Ax − 6 = 0 ↑ + ∑Fy = 0 −8 + Ay +
system), they are not able to prevent rotation By + Cy = 0 ⟳+ ∑MA = 0 −6(3) + 8(15) − 12By −
24Cy = 0 Since the four unknowns Ax, Ay, By, and the reactions (see Section. 3.7). For structures in
Cy exist and only three equations are available, a this category, the criteria developed for
complete solution (Ax can be determined from establishing the stability and determinacy of a
the first equation) is not possible, and we say single rigid structure must be modified as
that the structure is indeterminate to the first follows: 1. If R < 3 + C, the structure is unstable.
degree. If the roller support at B were removed, 2. If R = 3 + C and if neither the reactions for the
we would have a stable determinate structure entire structure nor those for a component of
since now the number of unknowns would equal the structure are equivalent to a parallel or a
the number of equilibrium equations. This concurrent force system, the structure is stable
observation forms the basis of a common and determinate. 3. If R > 3 + C and the reactions
procedure for establishing the degree of are not equivalent to a parallel or a concurrent
indeterminacy. In this method we establish the force system, the structure is stable and
degree of indeterminacy by removing restraints indeterminate; moreover, the degree of
until a stable determinate structure remains. The indeterminacy for this condition given by
number of restraints removed is equal to the Equation 3.7 must be modified by subtracting
degree of indeterminacy. As an example, we will from the number of reactions the number (3 +
establish the degree of indeterminacy of the C), which represents the number of equilibrium
beam in Figure 3.26a by removing restraints. equations available to solve for the reactions;
Although a variety of choices are available, we that is, Degree of indeterminacy = R − (3 + C) (3.8)
first remove the rotational restraint (MA) at Table 3.2 summarizes the discussion of the
support A A A D x Dx MA MD Ay Dy Ey By B C E influence of reactions on the stability and
(a) link A B (b) Figure 3.26: (a) Indeterminate determinacy of structures. TABLE 3.2a Summary
structure; (b) base (or released) structure of the Criteria for Stability and Determinacy of a
remaining after redundant supports removed. Single Rigid Structure Classification of Structure
3.8 ■ Influence of Reactions on Stability and Stable Condition* Determinate Indeterminate
Determinacy of Structures 109 Unstable R < 3 — — Yes; three equations of
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 109 23/12/16 equilibrium cannot be satisfied for all possible
3:36 pm 110 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures— conditions of load R = 3 Yes, if reactions are
Reactions but retain the horizontal and vertical uniquely determined — Only if reactions form a
restraint. This step is equivalent to replacing the parallel or concurrent force system R > 3 — Yes;
fixed support with a pin. If we now remove the degree of indeterminacy = R − 3 Only if reac ons
link at C and the fixed support at D, we have form a parallel or concurrent force system *R is
removed a total of five restraints, producing the the number of reactions. lee98004_ch03_080-
stable, determinate base or released structure 129.indd 110 23/12/16 3:36 pm TABLE 3.2b
shown in Figure 3.26b (the restraints removed Summary of the Criteria for Stability and
are referred to as redundants). Thus we Determinacy of Several Interconnected Rigid
conclude that the original structure was Structures Classification of Structure Stable
indeterminate to the fifth degree. Determinacy Condition* Determinate Indeterminate Unstable
and Stability of Structures Composed of Several R < 3 + C — — Yes; equations of equilibrium can-
Rigid Bodies If a structure consists of several rigid not be satisfied for all possible loading
bodies interconnected by devices (hinges, for conditions R = 3 + C Yes, if reactions can be
example) that release C internal restraints, C uniquely determined — Only if reactions form a
additional equations of equilibrium (also called parallel or concurrent force system R > 3 + C —
condition equations) can be written to solve for Yes, degree of indeterminacy = R − (3 + C) Only if
reactions form a parallel or concurrent force satisfied for member BD. Therefore, there is still
system *Here R is the number of reactions; C is no evidence of an unstable structure. STEP 3
the number of conditions. Investigate the Check the equilibrium of member AB (Figure
stability of the structure in Figure 3.27a. Hinges 3.27b). ⟳+ ΣMA = 0 0 = −By(6) (inconsistent
at joints B and D. EXAMPLE 3.11 6 4 4 4 4 4 A equation) CONCLUSION. Since previous
C D E B Ax Ay Bx By Bx Dx Dy Dx Ex Ey By Dy Cy 6 computations for member BD established that
A B (a) (b) 4 4 B D C (c) (d) FAB FDE Cy B C D (e) By = 4 kips, the right side of the equilibrium
2 8 kips 2 D E Figure 3.27: (a) Details of equation equals −24 kip⋅ft—not zero. Therefore,
structure; (b) free body of member AB; (c) free the equilibrium equation is not satisfied,
body of member BD; (d) free body of member indicating that the structure is unstable. A closer
DE; (e) unstable structure (if AB and DE treated examination of member BCD (Figure 3.27e)
as links, i.e., reactions form a concurrent force shows that the structure is unstable because it is
system). [continues on next page] Solution A possible for the reactions supplied by members
necessary condition for stability requires R = 3 + AB and DE and the roller C to form a concurrent
C Since R, the number of reactions, equals 5 and force system. The dashed line in Figure 3.27a
C, the number of condition equations, equals 2, shows one possible deflected shape of the
the necessary condition is satisfied. However, structure as an unstable mechanism. Example
because 3.8 ■ Influence of Reactions on Stability 3.11 continues . . . lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd
and Determinacy of Structures 111 112 23/12/16 3:36 pm 3.9 ■ Classifying
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 111 23/12/16 Structures 113 Classifying Structures 3.9 One of
3:36 pm 112 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures— the major goals of this chapter is to establish
Reactions the structure has so many hinges and guidelines for constructing a stable structure. In
pins, the possibility exists that the structure is this process we have seen that the designer must
geometrically unstable. To investigate this consider both the geometry of the structure and
possibility, we will apply an arbitrary load to the the number, position, and type of supports
structure to verify that the equations of supplied. To conclude this section, we will
equilibrium can be satisfied for each segment. examine the structures in Figures 3.28 and 3.29
Imagine that we apply a vertical load of 8 kips to to establish if they are stable or unstable with
the center of member DE (Figure 3.27d). STEP 1 respect to external reactions. For those
Check the equilibrium of DE. →+ ΣFx = 0 Ex − Dx structures that are stable, we will also establish
= 0 Ex = Dx ⟳+ ΣMD = 0 8(2) − 4Ey = 0 Ey = 4 kips if they are determinate or indeterminate. Finally,
↑ + ΣFy = 0 Dy + Ey − 8 = 0 Dy = 4 kips if a structure is indeterminate, we will establish
CONCLUSION. Although we were not able to the degree of indeterminacy. All the structures
determine either Dx or Ex, the equations of in this section will be treated as a single rigid
equilibrium are satisfied. Also, because the body that may or may not contain devices that
forces acting on the free body do not comprise release internal restraints. The effect of internal
either a parallel or a concurrent force system, hinges or rollers will be taken into account by
there is no indication at this stage that the considering the number of associated condition
structure is unstable. STEP 2 Check the equations. In the majority of cases, to establish if
equilibrium of member BD (Figure 3.27c). ⟳+ a structure is determinate or indeterminate, we
ΣMc = 0 4Dy − 4By = 0 By = Dy = 4 kips Ans. →+ simply compare the number of external
ΣFx = 0 Dx − Bx = 0 Dx = Bx ↑ + ΣFy = 0 −By + Cy reactions to the equilibrium equations available
− Dy = 0 Cy = 8 kips Ans. CONCLUSION. All for the solution—that is, three equations of
equations of equilibrium are capable of being statics plus any condition equations. Next, we
check for stability by verifying that the reactions CD by the roller at midspan, we conclude that it
are not equivalent to a parallel or a concurrent is a stable element; that is, it is supported by
force system. If any doubt still exists, as a final three restraints that are equivalent to neither a
test, we apply a load to the structure and carry parallel nor a concurrent force system.
out an analysis using the equations of static Recognizing that the hinge at D is attached to a
equilibrium. If a solution is possible—indicating stable structure, we can see that member DE is
that the equations of equilibrium are satisfied— also supported in a stable manner, that is, two
the structure is stable. Alternatively, if an restraints from the hinge and one from the roller
inconsistency develops, we recognize that the at E. Figure 3.28c shows a rigid frame restrained
structure is unstable. In Figure 3.28a the beam is by a fixed support at A and a pin at D. Since three
restrained by four reactions—three at the fixed equations of equilibrium are available but five
support and one at the roller. Since only three restraints are applied by the supports, the
equations of equilibrium are available, the structure is indeterminate to the second degree.
structure is indeterminate to the first degree. The structure in Figure 3.28d consists of two
The structure is A B C (c) (d) (b) A B C D E hinge cantilever beams joined by a roller at B. If the
roller A B D C A B (a) hinge fixed end Figure 3.28: system is treated as a single rigid body, the fixed
Examples of stable and unstable structures: (a) supports at A and C supply a total of six
indeterminate to first degree; (b) stable and restraints. Since the roller provides two
determinate; (c) indeterminate second degree; equations of condition (the moment at B is zero
(d) indeterminate to first degree. and no horizontal force can be transmitted
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 113 23/12/16 through joint B) and three equations of statics
3:36 pm 114 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures— are available, the structure is indeterminate to
Reactions obviously stable since the reactions the first degree. As a second approach, we could
are not equivalent to either a parallel or a establish the degree of indeterminacy by
concurrent force system. The structure in Figure removing the roller at B, which supplies a single
3.28b is stable and determinate because the vertical reaction, to produce two stable
number of reactions equals the number of determinate cantilever beams. Since it was
equilibrium equations. Five reactions are necessary to remove only one restraint to
supplied—two from the pin support at A and one produce a determinate base structure (Figure
from each of the three rollers. To solve for the 3.26), we verify that the structure is
reactions, three equations of equilibrium indeterminate to the first degree. A third
are available for the entire structure, and the method for establishing the degree of
hinges at C and D supply two condition indeterminacy would be to separate the
equations. We can also deduce that the structure into two free-body diagrams and to
structure is stable by observing that member count the unknown reactions applied by the
ABC—supported by a pin at A and a roller at B— supports and the internal roller. Each free body
is stable. Therefore, the hinge at C, which is would be acted upon by three reactions from the
attached to member ABC, is a stable point in fixed supports at A or C as well as a single vertical
space and, like a pin support, can apply both a reaction from the roller at B—a total of seven
horizontal and vertical restraint to member CD. reactions for the two free bodies. Since a total of
The fact that the hinge at C may undergo a small six equations of equilibrium are available—three
displacement due to the elastic deformations of for each free body—we again conclude that the
the structure does not affect its ability to restrain structure is indeterminate to the first degree. In
member CD. Since a third restraint is supplied to Figure 3.29a six external reactions are supplied
by the pins at A and C and the rollers at D and E. are equivalent to neither a parallel nor a
Since three equations of equilibrium and two concurrent force system, the structure is
condition equations are available, the structure externally stable and determinate as we will
is indeterminate to the first degree. Beam BC, show in Chapter 4 when we examine trusses in
supported by a pin at C and a roller at B, is a greater detail, the structure is also internally
stable determinate component of the structure; determinate. In Figure 3.29d we consider a truss
therefore, regardless of the load applied to BC, that is composed of two rigid bodies joined by a
the vertical reaction at the roller at B can always hinge at B. Considering the structure as a unit,
be computed. The structure we note that the supports at A and C supply
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 114 23/12/16 three restraints. However, since four equilibrium
3:36 pm 3.9 ■ Classifying Structures 115 is equations must be satisfied (three for the
indeterminate because member ADE is structure plus a condition equation at B), we
restrained by four reactions—two from the pin conclude that the structure is unstable, that is,
at A and one each from the rollers at D and E. The there are more equations of equilibrium than
frame in Figure 3.29b is restrained by four reactions. Treating the truss in Figure 3.29e as a
reactions—three from the fixed support A and single rigid body containing a hinge at B, we find
one from the roller at D. Since three equilibrium that the pins at A and C supply four reactions.
equations and one condition equation (Mc = 0 Since three equations of equilibrium are
from the hinge at C) are available, it appears that available for the entire structure and one
the structure may be stable and determinate. condition equation is supplied by the hinge at B,
However, while member ABC is definitely stable the structure appears to be stable and
because it consists of a single L-shaped member determinate. However, if a vertical load P were
connected to a fixed support at A, member CD is applied to the hinge at B, symmetry of the entire
not supported in a stable manner because the structure requires that vertical reactions of P/2
vertical reaction from the roller at D passes develop at both supports A and C. If we now take
through the hinge at C. Thus the reactions out the truss between A and B as a free body and
applied to member CD make up a concurrent sum moments about the hinge at B, we find ⟳+
force system, indicating that the member is ΣMB = 0 P__ 2 L = 0 (inconsistent) Thus we find
unstable. A D E B C (a) D E B C A (g) hinge Ax Bx that the equilibrium equation ΣMB = 0 is not
By A C B P L L (e) P 2 B P L P 2 P 2 hinge A C B (d) satisfied because each truss forms a concurrent
hinge A C B (f ) A B C (c) D C B A (b) hinge Figure force system, and we now conclude that the
3.29: (a) Indeterminate first degree; structure is unstable. Since the pins at A and C
(b) unstable; (c) stable and determinate; (d) supply four reactions to the pin-connected bars
unstable R < 3 + C; (e) unstable; (f) stable and in Figure 3.29f, and three equations of
indeterminate; (g) unstable. equilibrium and one condition equation (at joint
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 115 23/12/16 B) are available, the structure is stable and
3:36 pm 116 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures— determinate. In Figure 3.29g a rigid frame is
Reactions For example, if we were to apply a supported by a link (member AB) and two rollers.
horizontal force to member CD and then sum Since all reactions applied to member BCDE act
moments about the hinge at C, an inconsistent in the vertical direction (they constitute a
equilibrium equation would result. In Figure parallel force system), member BCDE has no
3.29c a truss, which may be considered a rigid capacity to resist horizontal load, and we
body, is supported by a pin at A and a link BC. conclude that the structure is unstable.
Since the reactions apply three restraints that Comparison between Determinate and
Indeterminate Structures 3.10 Since beams and columns—were heavily damaged or
determinate and indeterminate structures are destroyed. For example, if support C in Figure
used extensively, it is important that designers 3.30a is lost, the stable, A C B (a) A C B (b) A C B
be aware of the difference in their behavior in (c) Figure 3.30: Alternative modes of
order to anticipate problems that might arise transmitting load to supports. Photo 3.3: An
during construction or later when the structure example of the collapse of a bridge composed of
is in service. lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 116 simply supported beams during the 1964 Nigata
23/12/16 3:36 pm 3.10 ■ Comparison between earthquake is shown here. Courtesy of the
Determinate and Indeterminate Structures 117 Godden Collection, NISEE, University of
If a determinate structure loses a support, California, Berkeley lee98004_ch03_080-
immediate failure occurs because the structure 129.indd 117 23/12/16 3:36 pm 118 Chapter 3 ■
is no longer stable. An example of the collapse of Statics of Structures—Reactions determinate
a bridge composed of simply supported beams cantilever beam shown in Figure 3.30b remains.
during the 1964 Nigata earthquake is shown in Alternatively, loss of support B leaves the stable
Photo 3.3. As the earthquake caused the simple beam shown in Figure 3.30c.
structure to sway, in each span the ends of the Indeterminate structures are also stiffer than
beams that were supported on rollers slipped off determinate structures of the same span
the piers and fell into the water. Had the ends of because of the additional support supplied by
girders been continuous or connected, the the extra restraints. For example, if we compare
bridge in all probability would have survived with the magnitude of the deflections of two beams
minimum damage. In response to the collapse of with identical properties in Figure 3.31, we will
similar, simply supported highway bridges in find that the midspan deflection of the simply
California during earthquakes, design codes have supported determinate beam is five times larger
been modified to ensure that bridge girders are than that of the indeterminate fixed-end beam.
connected at supports. On the other hand, in an Although the vertical reactions at the supports
indeterminate structure alternative paths exist are the same for both beams, in the fixed-end
for load to be transmitted to supports. Loss of beam, negative moments at the end supports
one or more supports in an indeterminate resist the vertical displacements produced by
structure can still leave a stable structure as long the applied load. Since indeterminate structures
as the remaining supports supply three or more are more heavily restrained than determinate
restraints properly arranged. Although loss of a structures, support settlements, creep,
support in an indeterminate structure can temperature change, and fabrication errors may
produce in certain members a significant increase the difficulty of erection during
increase in stress that can lead to large construction or may produce undesirable
deflections or even to a partial failure locally, a stresses during the service life of the structure.
carefully detailed structure, which behaves in a For example, if girder AB in Figure 3.32a is
ductile manner, may have sufficient strength fabricated too long or increases in length due to
to resist complete collapse. Even though a a rise in temperature, the bottom end of the
damaged, deformed structure may no longer be structure will extend beyond the support at C. In
functional, its occupants will probably escape order to erect the frame the field crew, using
injury. During World War II, when cities were jacks or other loading devices, must deform the
bombed or shelled, a number of buildings with structure until it can be connected to its supports
highly indeterminate frames remained standing (Figure 3.32b). As a result of the erection
even though primary structural members— procedure, the members will be stressed and
reactions will develop even when no loads are structure or any part of a structure, the structure
applied to the structure. A B C Ax Cx Ay Cy Δ (a) is considered unstable. • Designers use a variety
(b) Figure 3.32: Consequences of fabrication of symbols to represent actual supports as
error: (a) column extends beyond support summarized in Table 3.1. These symbols
because girder is too long; (b) reactions represent the primary action of a particular
produced by forcing the bottom of the column support; but to simplify analysis, neglect small
into the supports. w MA MB (a) (b) Δ= wL 2 wL 2 secondary effects. For example, a pin support is
5wL4 384EI Δ= wL4 384EI w wL 2 wL 2 Figure assumed to apply restraint against displacement
3.31: Comparison of flexibility between a in any direction but to provide no rotational
determinate and indeterminate structure. restraint when, in fact, it may supply a small
Deflection of determinate beam in (a) is five degree of rotational restraint because of friction
times greater than indeterminate beam in (b). (a) in the joint. • Because indeterminate structures
(b) moment curve Δ RB RA M = RAL L L RC Figure have more supports or members than the
3.33: (a) Support B settles, creating reactions; (b) minimum required to produce a stable
moment curve produced by support settlement. determinate structure, they are therefore
Figure 3.33 shows the forces that develop in a generally stiffer than determinate structures and
continuous beam when the center support less likely to collapse if a single support or
settles. Since no load acts on the beam— member fails. • Analysis by computer is equally
neglecting the beam’s own weight—a set of self- simple for both determinate and indeterminate
balancing reactions is created. If this were a structures. However, if a computer analysis
reinforced concrete beam, the moment created produces illogical results, designers should
by the support settlement when added to those consider the strong possibility that they are
produced by the service loads could produce a analyzing an unstable structure.
radical change in the design moments at critical lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 119 23/12/16
sections. Depending on how the beam is 3:36 pm 120 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures—
reinforced, the changes in moment could Reactions P3.1 to P3.6. Determine the reactions
overstress the beam or produce extensive of each structure in Figures P3.1 to P3.6.
cracking at certain sections along the axis of the PROBLEMS 4 5 4 A B 10 kips 5 kips/ 3 4 P3.1
beam. lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 118 4 5 5 B F 15 kip • 8 kips A D E C 6 kips 10 5
23/12/16 3:36 pm ■ Summary 119 Summary • P3.2 3 m 3 m 4 m 20 kN 15 kN D B C A 3 4 P3.3 B
Since most loaded structures are at rest and C A 12 6 18k 9 1.2 kips/ D P3.4 9 10 12 B C A
restrained against displacements by their D 8 kips 1 kip/ft P3.6 P3.5 B C A 12 10 1 kip •
supports, their behavior is governed by the laws lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 120 23/12/16
of statics, which for planar structures can be 3:36 pm ■ Problems 121 P3.7. The support at A
stated as follows: ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0 ΣMo = 0 • Planar prevents rotation and horizontal displacement
structures whose reactions and internal forces but permits vertical displacement. The shear
can be determined by applying these three plate at B is assumed to act as a hinge.
equations of statics are called determinate Determine the moment at A and the reactions at
structures. Highly restrained structures that C and D. 3 m A B C D 3 m 4 kN 2 kN·m 4 m 6 m
cannot be analyzed by the three equations of P3.7 60 kN·m 5 m A B C D 40 kN 5 m 5 m 5 m 10
statics are termed indeterminate structures. m P3.8 P3.8. Determine the reactions at all
These structures require additional equations supports and the force transmitted through the
based on the geometry of the deflected shape. If hinge at B. P3.9 to P3.11. Determine the
the equations of statics cannot be satisfied for a reactions for each structure. All dimensions are
measured from the centerlines of members. 40 P3.22 10 kips/ft 55 kips B C A E 6 6 12 15 12 ■
20 10 C A B E D 6 kips 0.4 kip/ P3.9 4 6 9 Problems 123 lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 123
kips/ft 5 kips/ft 20 kips 8 A B C D E hinge 6 P3.10 23/12/16 3:36 pm 124 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of
8 8 4 4 9 kips/ 4 A C E B D P = 15 kips 25 kips Structures—Reactions P3.24. The clip angle
3 4 P3.11 P3.12. Determine all reactions. The pin connecting the beam’s web at A to the column
joint at B can be treated as a hinge. 9 10 12 B C may be assumed equivalent to a pin support.
A D 1 kip/ft P3.12 lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd Assume member BD acts as an axially loaded pin-
121 23/12/16 3:36 pm 122 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of end compression strut. Compute the reactions at
Structures—Reactions P3.13. Determine all points A and D. 3 4 1.6 kips/ft 3 kips/ft A C D B 8
reactions. The pin joint at D acts as a hinge. 2 m 4 P3.24 P3.25. Compute all reac ons. A C D F B
2 m 4 @ 3 m = 12 m hinge 12 kN 18 kN C D E B F E 2 kips/ft 12 5 10 5 P3.25 P3.26. Compute the
A G I H P3.13 P3.14. Determine the reactions at reactions at supports A, E, and F. F B C D E G A w
all supports and the force transmitted through = 10 kips/ft 3 20 kips 4 3 2 4 3 1 6 P3.26 P3.27.
the hinge at C. P3.15. Determine the reactions at The baseplates at the bottoms of the columns
supports A, C, and E. 6 m 4 kN/m 6 m 4 m 4 m A are connected to the foundations at points A and
B C D E 8 kN/m 40 kN P3.15 P3.16. Determine all D by bolts and may be assumed to act as pin
reactions. Joint C can be assumed to act as a supports. Joint B is rigid. At C where the bottom
hinge. 6 kips 6 kips 6 kips 4 @ 8 = 32 6 kips 4 flange of the girder is bolted to a cap plate
kips 6 A B C D E F G H I P3.16 P3.17. Determine welded to the end of the column, the joint can
all reactions. The uniform load on all girders be assumed to act as a hinge (it has no significant
extends to the centerlines of the columns. 12 m capacity to transmit moment). Compute the
(not to scale) 3 m 4 m 6 m A B H C G D F E w = 4 reactions at A and D. bolted joint C A B C D w =
kN/m 15 kN 30 kN 30 kN w = 6 kN/m w = 6 kN/m 2.4 kips/ft 8 kips 62 16 P3.27
P3.17 P3.18. The bent frame BCDE in figure P3.18 lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 124 23/12/16
is laterally braced by member AC, which acts like 3:36 pm P3.28. Draw free-body diagrams of
a link. Determine reactions at A, B, and E. P3.18 column AB and beam BC and joint B by passing
A C D B E 10 kips w = 1 kip/ft 24 12.5 12.5 2 1 cutting planes through the rigid frame an
P3.14 6 m 2 m 4 m hinge 4 m 8 m E D A B F C 40 infinitesimal distance above support A and to
kN 15 kN·m 30 kN·m 2 kN/m the right and immediately below joint B.
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 122 23/12/16 Evaluate the internal forces on each free body. 6
3:36 pm P3.19 to P3.21. Determine all reactions. kips 8 kips A w = 2 kips/ft B C 6 5 4 1 6 12
6 kips/ft hinge A B C 150 150 75 P3.19 6 kN/m P3.28 P3.29. The frame is composed of members
12 kN 20 kN 4 m 4 m A C D 4 m 3 m 3 m P3.20 0.4 connected by frictionless pins. Draw free-body
kip/ft D A B C 10 kips 16 20 10 10 P3.21 P3.22. diagrams of each member and determine the
Determine all reactions. The pin joint at E acts as forces applied by the pins to the members. 4 m
a hinge. P3.23. The roof truss is bolted to a 4 m 20 kN 10 kN 2 m 2 m A B C D E P3.29 P3.30.
reinforced masonry pier at A and connected to The truss in Figure P3.30 is composed of
an elastomeric pad at C. The pad, which can pinjointed members that carry only axial load.
apply vertical restraint in either direction but no Determine the forces in members, a, b, and c by
horizontal restraint, can be treated as a roller. passing vertical section 1-1 through the center of
The support at A can be treated as a pin. the truss. 15 kips 15 kips A B E C D F H G a b c 1 1
Compute the reactions at supports A and C 10 12 10 9 P3.30 P3.31. (a) In Figure P3.31
produced by the wind load. 360 lb/ft 36 30 15 trusses 1 and 2 are stable elements that can be
15 30 240 lb/ A B C elastomeric pad P3.23 treated as rigid bodies. Compute all reactions.
(b) Draw free-body diagrams of each truss and P3.36. The diagonal brace member P3.37. The
evaluate the forces applied to the trusses at multispan girder in Figure P3.37 has two shear
joints C, B, and D. A B C D E 24 kips truss 1 link 60 plate connections that act as hinges at C and D.
kips link 2 1 truss 2 40 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 The midspan girder CD is simply supported on
15 15 P3.31 ■ Problems 125 the cantilevered P3.36 brace pinned at each end
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 125 23/12/16 beam, typical column, typical pinned
3:36 pm 126 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures— connections, typical 4 kips/ft 6 kips E F B C D G H
Reactions P3.32 and P3.33. Classify the A 30 30 30 16 P3.37 A B C D E F G w = 6 kips/
structures in Figures P3.32 and P3.33. Indicate if shear plate connections 40 8 24 8 40
stable or unstable. If unstable, indicate the
reason. If the structure is stable, indicate if
determinate or indeterminate. If indeterminate, Prepared by:
specify the degree. (a) (b) (c) hinge ( f ) (e) (d)
hinge hinge link P3.32 (a) (d) (b) (e) (c) (f ) hinge ENGR. MARK JOJIT M. BALLESTEROS
hinge hinge hinge hinge hinge P3.33
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 126 23/12/16
3:36 pm P3.34. Practical application: A one-lane
bridge consists of a 10-in.-thick, 16-ft-wide
reinforced concrete slab supported on two steel
girders spaced 10 ft apart. The girders are 62-ft
long and weigh 400 lb/ft. The bridge is to be
designed for a uniform live load of 700 lb/ft
acting over the entire length of the bridge.
Determine the maximum reaction applied to an
end support due to dead, live, and impact loads.
The live load may be assumed to act along the
centerline of the deck slab and divide equally
between the two girders. Each concrete curb
weighs 240 lb/ft and each rail 120 lb/ft. Stone
concrete has a unit weight of 150 lb/ft3 . Assume
an impact factor of 1.33. A A girder curb curb CL
CL section A-A 10 60 3 3 P3.34 20 kips w = 3
kips/ft A B D C FE G 2 2 4 4 4 12 22 11 11 1
P3.35 P3.35. A timber member supported by
three steel links to a concrete frame has to carry
the loads shown in Figure P3.35. (a) Calculate the
reactions at support A. (b) Determine the axial
forces in all links. Indicate if each link is in
compression or tension. ■ Problems 127
lee98004_ch03_080-129.indd 127 23/12/16
3:37 pm 128 Chapter 3 ■ Statics of Structures—
Reactions P3.36. The three bay, one-story frame
consists of beams pin connected to columns and
column bases pinned to the foundation in Figure