UNIVERSITY OF EMBU

TVET
UNIT CODE: TBH 052/THC 052/THT 052/TSW 053
UNIT TITLE: INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

TOPIC 4.0
COMPUTER NETWORKING AND INTERNET
Specific Objectives:
By the end of the sub-module units, the trainee should be able to:
i.) Explain the concept of Computer Networks
i.) Explain the function of Computer Networks
ii.) Explain types of Computer Networks
iii.) Explain types of Computer Networks topologies
iv.) Explain networks configuration
ii.) Explain the internet and its users
iii.) Explain the email concept

Sub-Topics:
1) Concept of Computer Networks
2) Types of Computer Network
3) Functions of Operating System
4) Introduction to Transmission modes
5) Concept of Email

BASIC COMPUTER NETWORKING

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKING
Information becomes more valuable when it is shared. Computer networking is the technology that
enables efficient access and sharing of information and resources. It involves connecting computers
to facilitate communication, data exchange, and resource sharing. Networks can range from simple
setups, like linking two computers in a room, to expansive and complex configurations connecting
smaller networks worldwide. This topic introduces students to the fundamentals of computer
networking and its role in facilitating information sharing.

Information Communication Technology

BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
Fundamentals of Computer Networks
A computer network consists of hardware, software, and communication channels that connect devices
to exchange data, enable communication, and share resources. These networks can vary from simple
configurations connecting two computers to highly complex systems linking servers and networks
globally. Networks are essential for improving efficiency, communication, and resource utilization.
Computer networking is the practice of connecting two or more computers or other devices to share
data, resources, and information. Networks allow organizations, businesses, and individuals to
efficiently communicate, collaborate, and access shared resources like files, printers, and applications.
With the rapid advancement of technology, networks have evolved significantly, making them essential
in nearly every industry and aspect of modern life.
A computer network consists of two or more interconnected devices that communicate and share
resources, whether within a home, office, or across the globe. Networks can be as small as a local area
network (LAN) in a home or as extensive as the global network of networks we know as the internet.
The design of a network is based on its intended purpose, size, and the types of devices it connects.

Reasons for Establishing Computer Networks

1. Sharing Data and Programs
o Provides access to files, applications, and information across connected devices.
2. Sharing Peripheral Devices
o Allows multiple users to share printers, scanners, DVD/CD writers, storage devices, and
backup facilities.
3. Remote Equipment Control
o Enables control of processes such as backups from remote locations.
4. Work Distribution
o Facilitates the division and allocation of tasks among connected systems.
5. Internal and External Communication
o Supports communication within an organization and with external entities via email,
video conferencing, etc.
6. Remote Access to Data
o Provides users with access to online resources, electronic journals, and remote
databases.

INTERNET
The term "Internet" is a shortened version of "internetworking," referring to a global network of
interconnected networks that use standardized communication protocols to link billions of devices
around the world. It is a vast system of interconnected computers and devices that facilitates
communication, data sharing, and access to a wide range of online services. The Internet connects users
across the globe through a network of servers, routers, and cables that transmit data. It enables devices
like computers, smartphones, tablets, and smart devices to exchange information, access resources, and
communicate on a global scale. The Internet supports various services such as the World Wide Web
(WWW), email, file sharing, social media, and streaming.

Information Communication Technology

BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
Evolution of the Internet
The Internet was initially developed by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1969. Its original purpose was
to create a resilient communication network that could continue functioning even if parts were
destroyed in a nuclear attack. This network, designed for military use, soon expanded to include
scientists and researchers, eventually connecting schools, businesses, libraries, and individuals around
the world.

TYPES OF INTERNETWORK
Type of Description Example
Internetwork
Intranet A private network that is restricted to an organization or Corporate intranet used by
institution. It uses Internet technologies (such as web browsers employees for accessing
and protocols) but is accessible only to authorized internal internal resources, HR portals,
users. and databases.
Limited to authorized personnel within the
organization.
Enhances productivity by allowing employees to share
resources and communicate efficiently within a secure
environment.
Extranet An extension of an intranet that provides limited access to A company allowing suppliers
external users, such as partners, vendors, or clients. Extranets to access order tracking
allow secure data sharing and collaboration between an systems or shared documents.
organization and external stakeholders.
Limited to specific external users and employees,
requiring secure login credentials.
Facilitates collaboration and communication with
external stakeholders while maintaining a level of
control and security over the information shared.
Internet A global public network that connects billions of devices The World Wide Web (WWW),
worldwide. The Internet uses standardized protocols (e.g., email services, and social
TCP/IP) to enable data sharing, communication, and access to media platforms like Facebook
online services across networks. and Twitter.
Open to anyone with an Internet connection.
Provides universal access to information,
communication, and various online services, making it a
valuable resource for individuals and organizations
globally.
VPN (Virtual A secure, encrypted connection over a public network (such as Employees using a VPN to
Private Network) the Internet) that allows users to access a private network securely access their
remotely as if they were directly connected to it. VPNs are company’s intranet from
commonly used for secure remote work and privacy. home or remote locations.
Requires specific software or credentials, creating a
secure “tunnel” for data transmission.
Ensures data privacy and security by encrypting the
connection, allowing users to safely access a network
from a remote location or over a public network.

Information Communication Technology

BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER NETWORKING
The components of computer networking are the essential elements that work together to enable the
transmission, processing, and sharing of data between devices. These components can be categorized
into hardware, software, and protocols. Below is a breakdown of the key components:
Here’s a detailed look at each of these components:
1. Hardware Components
 Computers and Connected Devices: These are computers, laptops, smartphones, and other
devices that form the core of the network, enabling users to connect, share information, and
communicate with one another.
 Network Interface Cards (NICs): These are components that allow devices to connect to a
network, either through a wired connection (such as an Ethernet NIC) or wirelessly (using a Wi-Fi
NIC).
 Switches: Switches are networking devices that link multiple computers within a Local Area
Network (LAN), directing data packets between devices within the network efficiently.
 Routers: Routers are devices that link different networks, such as a LAN to the internet, enabling
data to travel between networks by selecting optimal paths for data packets.
 Access Points: These devices extend the range of a Wi-Fi network, enabling more devices to
connect wirelessly within a given area.
 Modems: Modems convert digital signals from a computer into an analog form suitable for
transmission over phone lines, cable, or fiber-optic connections, providing internet access.
 Firewalls: Firewalls can be either physical devices or software applications that protect the
network by monitoring and controlling incoming and outgoing network traffic, guarding against
unauthorized access.
 Transmission Media: The physical or wireless channels that data travels through, such as
Ethernet cables, fiber optic cables, and wireless radio waves.
2. Software Components
 Network Operating System (NOS): The NOS manages network resources and allows for
communication across devices on the network. Examples include Windows Server, UNIX, and
Linux, which support various network operations and protocols.
 Protocols: Protocols define the rules for transmitting data across the network. Common ones
include:
o TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The core suite of protocols
that enable data communication over the internet.
o HTTP/HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol/Secure): Protocols used for web access, with
HTTPS adding a layer of security through encryption.
o FTP (File Transfer Protocol): A protocol for transferring files between devices on a
network.
o SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Manages the transmission of emails.
 Network Management Software: These tools help administrators monitor, diagnose, and
manage the network’s performance, improving reliability and minimizing downtime. Examples
include SolarWinds and Wireshark.
 Security Software: Security software encompasses antivirus programs, antimalware tools, and
encryption software, all of which protect network data and devices from potential threats.
3. Communication Channels (Transmission Media)
 Wired Media: Physical connections for data transfer, including:
o Twisted Pair Cables: Widely used in Ethernet connections, with Cat5 and Cat6 cables
being the most common.
o Coaxial Cables: Frequently used for cable internet and television services.
o Fiber Optic Cables: These use light signals to transmit data at high speeds over long
distances, providing fast and reliable connectivity.
Information Communication Technology
BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
  Wireless Media: Communication channels that rely on radio waves, microwaves, and satellite
signals. Examples include:
o Wi-Fi: Enables wireless connections over short distances, commonly used in homes and
businesses.
o Bluetooth: A short-range wireless technology for personal devices, such as connecting a
smartphone to headphones.
o Cellular Networks (4G/5G): Wide-area wireless networks for mobile device connectivity.
o Satellite: Allows for wireless communication over long distances, especially useful in
remote or inaccessible areas.
4. Data and Resource Sharing
 Servers: Specialized computers or systems dedicated to managing network resources, including:
o File Servers: Store and organize files, making them accessible to users across the
network.
o Print Servers: Enable multiple users to access and share printers on the network.
o Application Servers: Host applications that users across the network can access and use.
o Database Servers: Store and manage large databases, allowing data access to authorized
users on the network.

COMPARISON BETWEEN INTERNET AND NETWORKING

Parameter Internet Networking
Definition A global system of interconnected The practice of connecting multiple devices to
networks for communication and data share resources within a specific area.
exchange.
Scope Global, connects billions of devices Local, connects devices within a specific area
worldwide. (home, office, etc.).
Purpose To facilitate global communication, To enable communication and resource sharing
information sharing, and access to online within a local environment.
services.
Components Servers, routers, undersea cables, satellites, Computers, routers, switches, hubs, cables, NICs,
ISPs, DNS, websites. wireless access points.
Data Data is transmitted globally through various Data is exchanged within a local area through
Transmission paths (public and private networks). devices like switches, routers, and cables.
Examples Browsing websites, sending emails, video LANs, WLANs, file sharing, printer sharing, internal
streaming, cloud services (e.g., Google messaging.
Drive).
Connectivity Requires Internet Service Providers (ISPs) Can work locally (LAN, PAN) without requiring
for access to global resources. global connectivity.
Access Access is provided globally via the Internet. Access is provided locally, either via wired or
Devices are connected through ISPs. wireless connections.
Security Global network, vulnerable to hacking, Focused on securing devices within the network,
Concerns malware, data breaches, and phishing. including firewalls and access controls.
Dependence Depends on global infrastructure Relies on local infrastructure and devices for
(telecommunication networks, data communication.
centers, etc.).
Function of Computer Networks
The main functions of computer networks include:
1. Resource Sharing
 Computer networks enable users to access shared resources, such as printers, files, applications,
storage devices, and internet connections.
 By sharing resources, networks reduce redundancy, lower costs, and improve efficiency by
allowing multiple users to access the same resources simultaneously.
Information Communication Technology
BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
2. Data Communication
 Networks allow fast and reliable data communication through services like email, instant
messaging, video conferencing, and file sharing.
 This enhances collaboration and information sharing, enabling teams to communicate in real-
time, improving responsiveness and productivity.
3. Centralized Data Management
 Networks support centralized storage and management of data, with secure access control and
backup solutions.
 Centralized data management allows for better data organization, consistency, and security,
making it easier for authorized users to access data when needed. It also simplifies data backup,
reducing the risk of data loss.
4. Remote Access
 Networks provide users with remote access to resources, enabling them to connect from various
locations via Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) or cloud-based services.
 Remote access supports flexible working environments, allowing users to work from home or
other remote locations and access necessary files and applications.
5. Improved Collaboration and Teamwork
 Networks provide collaborative platforms that allow users to work together on projects and
documents in real-time.
 This facilitates teamwork, especially in remote and distributed environments, as users can easily
share and edit documents, brainstorm ideas, and communicate with one another.
6. Enhanced Security and Access Control
 Networks allow for centralized security management, enabling the implementation of firewalls,
encryption, and user authentication.
 This function helps protect data, manage user access, and monitor activity, ensuring that
sensitive information is secure and accessible only to authorized individuals.
7. Scalability and Flexibility
 Computer networks are scalable, meaning new devices and resources can be added with minimal
disruption.
 Scalability allows organizations to grow their networks as needed, easily integrating new
technologies and expanding access to more users.
8. Data Backup and Disaster Recovery
 Networks support automated data backups and disaster recovery processes, ensuring that data
can be restored in case of accidental loss or hardware failure.
 This function minimizes downtime and data loss, safeguarding valuable information and helping
businesses recover quickly after unexpected disruptions.
9. Cost Efficiency
 Networks reduce the need for redundant hardware and software by allowing shared access to
resources.
 By centralizing resources and services, networks help reduce capital expenses and operational
costs, making IT resources more cost-effective.
10. Access to the Internet and Intranet Services
 Networks provide access to the internet for external resources and intranet services for internal
communication and data access within an organization.
 Internet access allows for global communication and access to information, while intranets
provide secure, controlled internal resources, facilitating efficient internal communication.
11. User Authentication and Access Control
 Networks implement authentication protocols to verify user identities and manage access to
resources.

Information Communication Technology

BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
  User authentication and access control protect sensitive data by ensuring that only authorized
users can access specific resources.

Advantages of Computer Networking

 Central Storage of Data: Files can be stored on a central node (the file server) that can be shared
and made available to every user in an organization.
 Connectivity: There is a negligible range of abilities required to connect to a modern computer
network. The effortlessness of joining makes it workable for even youthful kids to start exploring
the data.
 Faster Problem-solving: Since an extensive procedure is disintegrated into a few littler procedures
and each is taken care of by all the associated gadgets, an explicit issue can be settled in lesser
time.
 Reliability: Reliability implies backing up information. Due to some reason equipment crashes, and
so on, the information gets undermined or inaccessible on one PC, and another duplicate of similar
information is accessible on another workstation for future use, which prompts smooth working
and further handling without interruption.
 Flexible: This innovation is known to be truly adaptable, as it offers clients the chance to
investigate everything about fundamental things, for example, programming without influencing
their usefulness.
 Security through Authorization: Security and protection of information are additionally settled
through the system. As just the system clients are approved to get to specific records or
applications, no other individual can crack the protection or security of information.
 Storage capacity: Since you will share data, records, and assets with other individuals, you need to
guarantee all information and substance are legitimately put away in the framework. With this
systems administration innovation, you can do most of this with no issue, while having all the
space you require for capacity.
Disadvantages of Computer Networking
Some of the main disadvantages of Computer Networking are discussed below:
 Expensive: Execution of the network can be expensive in the case of an initial setup, as the wires
and the cost of the cable are high and sometimes equipment is also costly.
 Virus and Malware: Computer Networking can lead to the spreading of viruses to another
computer through the network.
 Management of the network: Management of the Network is quite difficult as it requires skilled
persons to handle that large network. It requires training of people who are employed in this
work.
 Loss of Information: In case of a crash of the Computer Network, it can lead to the loss of
information or not being able to access information for some time.
 The system can be Hacked: In the case of Wide Area Networks(WAN), there is a threat of Hacking
of the System. Some security features should be added to prevent such things.

Information Communication Technology

BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
Types of Computer Network Types
A computer network is a group of interconnected computers that communicate with each other and
share resources, data, and applications. Networks can be categorized based on their size and
geographical scope. Here are the main types of computer networks:

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices within a limited
geographic area, such as a home, office, or school. LAN is used for connecting two or more personal
computers through a communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc. LANs are
designed to facilitate communication and resource sharing among the connected devices, providing
high-speed and reliable connectivity.
Characteristics of LANs
1. Limited Geographic Area: Typically confined to a single building or a group of closely located
buildings.
2. High Data Transfer Rates: LANs usually offer high bandwidth (maximum rate at which data can
be transmitted over a network connection in a given amount of time. It is typically measured
in bits per second (bps) and its multiples, such as kilobits per second (Kbps), megabits per
second (Mbps), and gigabits per second (Gbps)) allowing for fast data transmission speeds.
3. Low Latency: Due to the proximity of devices (physical distance between them is short), LANs
have minimal delay in communication.
4. Ownership and Management: Usually owned, managed, and maintained by a single organization
or individual.
5. Wired and Wireless Connections: Can include both wired (Ethernet) and wireless (Wi-Fi)
connections.
Examples: Home networks, office networks, school networks.

Components of a LAN
1. Computers and Devices
o Workstations: Desktops and laptops used by individuals.
o Servers: Computers that provide shared resources, such as files, printers, and
applications.
2. Network Devices
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BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
 o Switches: Devices that connect multiple computers within a LAN, managing data traffic
efficiently.
o Routers: Devices that connect the LAN to other networks, such as the internet.
o Access Points: Devices that provide wireless connectivity to the network.
3. Transmission Media
o Wired: Ethernet cables (Cat5, Cat6, etc.) that physically connect devices.
o Wireless: Wi-Fi technology that enables wireless communication within the LAN.
4. Network Interface Cards (NICs): hardware components that allow computers and other devices
to connect to a network.
o Ethernet NICs: Allow computers to connect to a wired LAN.
o Wireless NICs: Enable devices to connect to a wireless LAN.
Functions of a LAN
1. Resource Sharing
o File Sharing: Users can access and share files stored on other computers or servers within
the network.
o Printer Sharing: Multiple users can access and use shared printers.
o Application Sharing: Software applications can be installed on a server and accessed by
multiple users.

2. Communication
o Email: Internal email systems for communication within the organization.
o Instant Messaging: Real-time text-based communication among users.
o Voice and Video Conferencing: Enables voice and video calls within the network.
3. Centralized Data Management
o Data Storage: Centralized storage solutions, such as Network Attached Storage (NAS) or
file servers.
o Data Backup: Centralized backup systems to protect data against loss.
4. Network Security
o Access Control: User authentication and authorization to ensure only authorized users
can access the network.
o Firewalls: Protect the network from unauthorized access and cyber threats.
o Antivirus and Antimalware: Protection against malicious software.
5. Network Management
o Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of network performance and health.
o Configuration Management: Managing the settings and configurations of network
devices.
o Troubleshooting: Identifying and resolving network issues to maintain connectivity and
performance.
Benefits of a LAN
1. Improved Communication: Facilitates quick and easy communication among users within the
network.
2. Cost-Effective Resource Sharing: Reduces costs by allowing multiple users to share expensive
resources like printers and storage.
3. Centralized Data Management: Simplifies data management and backup processes.
4. Enhanced Security: Provides robust security measures to protect data and resources.
5. Scalability: Easily expandable to accommodate more users and devices.

Information Communication Technology

BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
 2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a telecommunications network that extends over a large geographical
area, often covering cities, countries, or even continents. WANs connect smaller networks, such as Local
Area Networks (LANs) and Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs), allowing for data and resource sharing
across vast distances.
Characteristics of WANs
1. Extensive Geographical Coverage: WANs span large areas, connecting multiple LANs and other
smaller networks.
2. Lower Data Transfer Rates: Generally, WANs have lower data transfer speeds compared to LANs
due to the long distances involved.
3. Higher Latency: The delay in data transmission is typically higher due to the vast distances.
4. Public and Private Ownership: WANs can be operated by telecommunications companies,
governments, or large organizations.
5. Use of Various Transmission Media: WANs use a combination of wired (fiber optics, copper
cables) and wireless (satellite, microwave) communication methods.
Examples: The internet, corporate networks connecting different office locations.
Components of a WAN
1. Core Network Devices
o Routers: Direct data traffic across networks, ensuring efficient data routing and
connectivity.
o Switches: Connect devices within the WAN, managing data traffic within smaller network
segments.
2. Transmission Media
o Fiber Optic Cables: Used for high-speed data transmission over long distances.
o Copper Cables: Traditional wiring used for shorter distances within the WAN.
o Satellite Links: Provide connectivity in remote or difficult-to-reach areas.
o Microwave Links: Used for point-to-point communication over moderate distances.
3. Network Interface Devices
o Modems: Convert digital data from computers into signals suitable for transmission over
various media and vice versa.
o WAN Interface Cards (WICs): Installed in routers and switches to enable WAN
connectivity.
4. Service Providers
o Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Offer internet connectivity and related services.
o Telecommunications Companies: Provide the infrastructure and services needed for
WAN connectivity.
Functions of a WAN
1. Long-Distance Communication
o Interconnectivity: Links multiple LANs and other networks over large distances, enabling
communication between geographically dispersed locations.
2. Resource Sharing
o Centralized Data Centers: Allows organizations to centralize their data and resources in
one or more data centers, accessible from various locations.
o Remote Access: Enables employees to access the organization's resources from different
locations, facilitating telecommuting and remote work.
3. Data Transfer and Communication
o File Transfer: Facilitates the transfer of large files and data sets between different
locations.
o Email: Supports email communication across long distances.

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BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
 o Voice and Video Communication: Enables VoIP (Voice over IP) and video conferencing
for real-time communication.
4. Network Management and Monitoring
o Traffic Management: Ensures efficient data traffic flow, avoiding congestion and
optimizing performance.
o Monitoring and Troubleshooting: Continuous monitoring of network performance and
health, identifying and resolving issues promptly.
5. Security
o Encryption: Protects data during transmission, ensuring confidentiality and integrity.
o Firewalls and VPNs: Secure the network against unauthorized access and cyber threats.
Examples of WAN Technologies
1. Leased Lines: Dedicated, private communication lines provided by telecommunications
companies for secure and reliable data transmission.
2. MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching): A data-carrying technique for high-performance
telecommunications networks, directing data from one node to the next based on short path
labels.
3. Frame Relay: A standardized wide-area network technology that specifies the physical and data
link layers of digital telecommunications channels.
4. ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode): A network technology based on transferring data in cells
or packets of a fixed size, suitable for real-time and high-speed data transmission.
5. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network): A set of communication standards for simultaneous
digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over traditional telephone
networks.
Benefits of a WAN
1. Wide Coverage Area: Connects geographically dispersed locations, enabling global
communication and collaboration.
2. Centralized Data Management: Facilitates centralized management of data and resources,
improving efficiency and security.
3. Remote Work Enablement: Supports remote work and telecommuting, enhancing flexibility and
productivity.
4. Resource Optimization: Allows organizations to optimize the use of resources by sharing them
across multiple locations.
5. Scalability: Easily expandable to accommodate the growth and expansion of an organization.

Others include:
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
o Definition: A network that spans a city or a large campus.
o Characteristics: Larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, often used to connect
multiple LANs within a metropolitan area.
o Examples: City-wide Wi-Fi networks, university campus networks.
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)
o Definition: A network for connecting personal devices within a short range, typically
within a few meters.
o Characteristics: Used for personal devices like smartphones, tablets, and laptops, often
using wireless technologies like Bluetooth.
o Examples: Connecting a smartphone to a laptop, Bluetooth headphones.
5. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
o Definition: A secure network connection over a public network (usually the internet).
o Characteristics: Provides encrypted connections for secure data transmission, often used
by remote workers to access corporate networks.
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BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
 o Examples: Remote employees accessing a company’s internal network securely.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of nodes (devices) and connections in a
computer network. The choice of topology affects performance, scalability, and fault tolerance. Below
are the primary types of network topology:
Types of Network Topology
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There are six types of
network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh
Topology, and Hybrid Topology.

1) Bus Topology
 The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a single
cable known as a backbone cable called "single lane"
 Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the
backbone cable.
 When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network. All
the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been addressed or
not.
 The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
 The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is broadcast to
all the stations.
 The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access).

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing
through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks
that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.
o
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BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If
any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the
nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are used to
regenerate the signal.

2) Ring Topology- start here jane

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next
node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no termination
point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to
another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it reaches
the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches.
Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the
sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
o The repeater amplifies or regenerates the weakened signals, ensuring they maintain their
original strength and integrity for longer distances.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing the
network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and monitoring
are available.

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BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
 o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost is
very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent on
the single host computer.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If
any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new
devices increases the communication delay.

3) Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central
hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server are
known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology
o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as compared to
bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star
topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network
administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star
topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable, therefore
failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports on the
hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the
most popular Star topology networks.
Disadvantages of Star topology
o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected nodes
will not be able to communicate with each other.
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BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
 o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is
required.

4) Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each other
in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms a
parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband
transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can say
that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as star
networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will
damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

5) Mesh topology

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BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
 o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with
each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a
critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology
o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the computers
available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are connected
to those computers with which they communicate frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

 Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect
the communication between connected computers.
 Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between
other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and more
transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and manage.
If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the
network.

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BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
6) Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology and
if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For
example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another
branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of
the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting
the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the strength
of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid network.
It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are different
from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of
cabling, network devices, etc.

Information Communication Technology

BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION MODES
o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known
as transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission media provide
the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.

The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

i. Simplex mode

In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction.
o
A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot send
o
the data.
o This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the two-way
exchange of data. The simplex mode is used in the business field as in sales that do not require
any corresponding reply.
o The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but never allows
them to transmit back.
o Keyboard and Monitor are also the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only accept
the data from the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the screen.
o The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the communication channel
can be utilized during transmission.
Advantage of Simplex mode:
o In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel, so
that more data can be transmitted at a time.
Disadvantage of Simplex mode:
o Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between devices.

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BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
ii. Half-Duplex mode

o In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and receive the
data as well.
o Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
o The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.
o In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error occurs, then
the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.(Advantage)
o A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one party speaks, and
another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first party listens. Speaking
simultaneously will create the distorted sound which cannot be understood.

Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also can utilize the
entire bandwidth of the communication channel during the transmission of data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

o In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has to wait, this causes
the delay in sending the data at the right time.

iii. Full-duplex mode

In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the
o
directions.
o Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
o Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one direction, and
another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
o The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
o The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network. When two people
are communicating with each other by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same
time.
Advantage of Full-duplex mode:
o Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

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BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636
 o If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of the communication
channel is divided into two parts.

Differences b/w Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex mode

Basis for Simplex mode Half-duplex mode Full-duplex mode
comparison

Direction of In simplex mode, the In half-duplex mode, In full-duplex mode, the

communication communication is the communication is communication is bidirectional.
unidirectional. bidirectional, but one
at a time.

Send/Receive A device can only send the Both the devices can Both the devices can send and
data but cannot receive it send and receive the receive the data simultaneously.
or it can only receive the data, but one at a time.
data but cannot send it.

Performance The performance of half- The performance of The Full-duplex mode has better
duplex mode is better than full-duplex mode is performance among simplex and
the simplex mode. better than the half- half-duplex mode as it doubles the
duplex mode. utilization of the capacity of the
communication channel.

Example Examples of Simplex mode Example of half-duplex Example of the Full-duplex mode is
are radio, keyboard, and is Walkie-Talkies. a telephone network.
monitor.

ACTIVITY:
1. What is a computer network, and why is it significant in facilitating modern communication?
2. Explain the various functions of computer networks and provide examples to illustrate their
application.
3. Compare and contrast the Internet, Intranet, and Extranet, including examples for each.
4. Discuss the role of internet connectivity in advancing the Kenyan economy.
5. Why is network security important? Outline methods to protect computer networks from security
threats.
6. Define network topology and explain its relevance in designing efficient networks.
7. Highlight the pros and cons of the following network topologies:

i. Bus topology
ii. Ring topology
iii. Star topology

Information Communication Technology

BY: JOHN KOGI KINYUA [email protected]//0729968636