Non-Gunpowder Artillery

(Medieval Mechanical Artillery)

Convention is to refer to non-gunpowder artillery as 'machines' or 'engines'. While

some of the the large pieces used in the late medieval era can be traced to
tension and torsion powered machines used in ancient times, the rotating-beam
engine (most famous of which is the trébuchet) is unique to medieval warfare. Like
modern artillery, medieval crew-operated weapons were of two general
categories relating to tactical employment: indirect fire (throwing or lobbing)
objects (projectiles) toward a target area, and directly shooting a missile
(arrow/bolt or 'bullet') at a target. The size of such weapons and logistical
demands of providing the consumable projectiles to be shot emphasized the use
of such machines mainly for siege operations - employed both by the besiegers
and the defenders. However, such machines, in their diminutive form, were
occasionally used in field battles.

Note that this page addresses only mechanical artillery and not the broader range
of devices, such as towers and rams, employed in siege operations.

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 Directory

Indirect-Firing
Machines:
trébuchet
General Direct-Firing Further
mangonel
Remarks Machines Links
catapult
pierrière

General Remarks

W ar machines [engines] were employed throughout the middle ages, even after the
introduction of effective gunpowder artillery. The names to distinguish specific
machines used by contemporary chroniclers and other observers were not standard.
This leaves today's historians with some doubt, in some cases, as to what specific
machine is really being described in the old texts. However, contemporary drawings
and the scattered written references allow for an understanding of the various types,
even though there may be some disagreement as to the exact names. Names of
categories used in this page are based upon those followed by M. Reanud Beffeyte,
who has researched for many years and has successfully reconstructed an array of
medieval war machines. His work is further exhibited at the ARMEDIEVAL website.

Terminology is further compounded by the fact that some of the machines existed
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 during the ancient Greek and Roman eras, and they were also used by Eastern
armies, especially the Muslims. It is in the Muslim realm that the one machine unique to
the medieval era emerged (most likely it had an earlier origin in Chinia) and was
introduced to the Western armies. The machine, in various configurations, operated on
a balance or lever principal. It propelled its projectiles from force due to the rotation of
a beam about a fulcrum. These machines are often described as trébuchets, though
some authorities distinguish the different configurations of these machines with distinct
terms for each. Unfortunately, there is not complete agreement on the various, specific
terms. This page uses the expression 'rotating-beam' machines where some other
authors employ 'lever-artillery' or 'balance-machines'.

Scholars generally agree that rotating-beam throwing machines initially existed in

ancient China, and are estimated to have been transmitted to Central Asia and then to
the Western Muslim world around the seventh century C.E. Initially, a team of men,
rather than a weight, were used to pull down the short length of a beam that rotated
about a pivot point supported by an upright frame. This swiftly raised the long length of
the beam which held the projectile to be launched. The use of human pulling power is
described as 'traction power'. In some cases, both small counterweights and
manpower were employed in these rotating-beam machines. Some authors see this
combination as a 'hybrid' form in the evolution of the rotating-beam engines. In its final
form, the robust rotating-beam engine operated entirely by the counterweight, and is
sometimes described as a 'gravity engine'.

Stone or earth filled hutches gave the energy to launch and hurl very heavy objects.
When constructed with due consideration for the geometric aspects of balance, these
large machines had remarkable stability and endurance, allowing repeated firings
upon the same target over a long period. Estimates are that the counterweight
trébuchet was developed in the eastern Mediterranean region in the late twelfth century
and its use spread rapidly to norhtern Europe. The obvious military benefit led to the
counterweight rotating-beam engines replacing in the medieval era most of the ancient
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 Greek and Roman arm-throwing catapults designs.

As with all weapons, there was continuous experimentation and variations in

construction. Some rotating-beam engines had the hutches rigidly fastend to the
pivoting arm. Many historians believe that these were called 'mangonels' by Western
Europeans of the thirteenth through fifteenth centuries. However, the expression
'mangonel' can be traced to a Byzantine-Greek word for the rotating-beam machines
used in the seventh century. Obviously the names for the machines did not remain
constant as the configurations evolved during the medieval era. More on the
controversy of the mangonel is addressed later in this page. In this document, the
'mangonel' will be portrayed as M. Beffeyte, a leading authority on medieval siege
weapons, has judged most appropriate based upon the frequency he has found the
term used by medieval observers/authors.

The most effective counterweight rotating-beam machine developed in the Western

medieval armies had suspended hutches that swung on a piviot at the short end of the
rotating arm. These are what M. Beffeyte calls 'trébuchets'. Expressions for 'trébuchet'
('trabuchis', 'trabuqet', etc.) reportedly first appear in Western accounts in the late
twelfth century. The first references appear to be to rotating-beam machines, powered
by swinging counterweight hutches, and using a sling to hold the projectile. There were
variations of counterweight configurations. Some trébuchets had one hutch, others had
two -- equally balanced on both sides of the beam. These were given (by some
authors) a particular name, couillard.

The specific war machines shown below are divided into two broad categories
according to their artillery role: Indirect Fire and Direct Fire.

RETURN To DIRECTORY

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 Indirect-Firing Machines

TRÉBUCHET

trébuchet. A rotating-beam throwing

engine (machine) based upon
counterweight induced energy quickly
rotating the arm about a pivot. The
principal required balance in the
structure and was most effective when
using a movable hutch (� articuler le
contrepoids), or hopper, that held the
'weight' of stones or earth.
Trébuchet is the more current term,
though it was called many names by the
medieval chroniclers and writers. Even,

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 medieval chroniclers and writers. Even,
today there is not complete agreement
on what to call the engine when the hutch
is fixed, and does not swing as the arm
moves (see mangonel below). The
trébuchet had great precision and the
advantage of hitting the same spot
repeatedly. It was quite effective in trying
to blast a hole through stone walls or
wooden barriers, and continuing
bombardment into nightime.
A form of the trébuchet which had split
counterweights was a rotating-beam
engine called a couillard, or biffa. The
advantage was that it was lighter to
transport and easier to assemble on
site.
Power of rotating-beam machines
varied considerably due to the weight of
objects thrown and of the counterweight,
among many other factors unique to
each firing and engine. It is estimated
that the larger machines had a range of
200 meters for hurling a 100 kg object.
Its rate of fire was about 2 times per
hour. Crews could be well over 50 men.

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 trébuchet

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 trébuchet

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 trébuchet

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 A nineteeth-century scholar's version of a traction-assisted trébuchet. It
is questionable that the manpower actually added much to the
effectivness of the large counterweight rotating-beam machine
illustrated here. However, this 'hybrid' system was significant as the
rotating-beam engines grew in size (and throwing capability) beyond the
simple 'bricole' machines shown later in this page.

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 RETURN To DIRECTORY

MANGONEL

Controversy surrounds using the term 'mangonel' to describe a particular medieval

war machine. There is no documentary support for portraying the 'mangonel' as a
single-arm torsion catapult, as do many dictionaries and English/American works on
medieval weapons. The convention seems to have grown from assumptions of 19th
century writers who were very familiar with ancient Roman mechanical artillery, and
easily conveyed the meaning of the word 'mangonel' found in early medieval sources
to mean the Roman single-arm torsion catapult.
In Western documents, one of the earliest reports of a 'mangana' (Latin plural for
'mangonel') is in the poem by Abbon de Saint-Germain-des-Prés (850-923)
describing the Viking siege of Paris in 885/6. However, the monk Abbon's description
of the configuration of the particular engine is vague, allowing later scholars'
interpretations to be based upon on their preconceived concepts of the 'mangonel'.
Guillaume le Breton's report (c. 1200s) of a 'mangonellus Turcorum' also fails to
provide a useful description of the weapon. The modern French translator of
Guillaume, Waquet, references a French scholar on medieval weapons, Camille
Enlart, who states that the mangonel was a throwing machine with a fixed, not
suspended, counterweight hutch. From Enlart's work, it appears that this positon was
influenced mostly by that of the 19th century French author, Viollet-le-Duc. Guillaume le
Breton's reference (ca. 1200s) to a 'Turkish' mangonel as being new to the crusaders
supports the theory that this was one of the medieval rotating-beam engines
introduced to western Europe by the eastern Muslims.
This makes medieval Muslim documents particularly important in the search to define
the medieval 'mangonel'. One such work is a well illustrated, 1462 Arabic manuscript
by Yusuf ibn Urunbugha al-Zaradkash called Kitab aniq fi al- manajaniq (An Elegant
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 Book on Trebuchets). Western Arabists examining this work and that of other Muslim
writers have not yet found an unchallenged resolution to the 'mangonel' question.
A leading scholar on Arabic and early medieval literature relating to the 'rotating-beam'
artillery used in the Middle Ages is Dr. Paul Chevedden. He traces the expresion
'mangonel' to the Greek term manganik�n, that came into the Arabic as manjaniq.
The Muslims who are credited with further developing the 'rotating-beam' engines
appear to have associated the term with the larger trestle-framed configuration of this
machine. Dr. Chevedden is one who practices the convention of calling all rotating-
beam machines 'trebuchets'. His works are included among the references given
below, and provide valuable coverage for the English reading public on the topic.

Further references:
Waquet, Henri, ed., trans. of Abbon's. Le siege de Paris par les Normands, Poeme du IXe siecle,
Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1942.
Cahen, Claude, "Un traite d'armurerie compose pour Saladin," Bulletin d'etudes orientales, 12 (1947-
1948), pp.103-63.
Chevedden, Paul E. et al., "The Trebuchet," Scientific American (July 1995), pp. 66-71.
Chevedden, Paul E. "The Artillery of King James I the Conqueror." Iberia and the Mediterranean World
of the Middle Ages: Essays in Honor of Robert I. Burns, edited by P.E. Chevedden, D.J. Kagay, and
P.G. Padilla, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1996, pp.47-94.
Chevedden, Paul E, "The Hybrid Trebuchet: The Halfway Step to the Counterweight Trebuchet," On the
Social Origins of Medieval Institutions: Essays in Honor of Joseph F. O'Callaghan, edited by Donald J.
Kagay and Theresa M. Vann, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1998, pp.179-222.
Enlart, Camille, Manuel d'archeologie francaise depuis les temps merovingiens jusqu'a la renaissance,
3 vols., Paris, A. Picard, 1902-1916, 2nd ed., 1932, vol. 2, part 2, pp.491-92.
Hill, Donald. "Trebuchets," Viator, Medieval and Renaissance Studies, vol.4, 1973, pp.99-114.
Viollet-le-Duc, E., Dictionnaire raisonn� de l'architecture fran�aise du xie au xvie si�cle, vol 5,
Paris, Morel, 1875.

West European and/or Muslim medieval observers may have employed the term
'mangonel' for any war machine that hurled large projectiles. The term may have had
limited meaning for only a few of the medieval observers, or the meaning changed
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 limited meaning for only a few of the medieval observers, or the meaning changed
over time and among different societies. The evidence suggests that it was used most
prevalently to refer to rotating-beam engines -- whether to all, or only to a particular
type is unresolved. Following the count-based judgment of M. Beffeyte, this
presentation classifies the mangonel as a rotating-beam throwing machine with a fixed
counterweight hutch.

mangonel. Note the fixed counterweight hutch. A 'Mangonneay ..�

Roues', from instructions given to the duke of Savoy's engineer in the
fourteenth century.

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 mangonel according to Beffeyte -- many others classify it as a 'trébuchet'.

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 mangonel according to Beffeyte --many others classify it as a 'trébuchet'.

Note: reference to web sites with historic illustrations of trébuchets are given at the end of this
webpage.

RETURN To DIRECTORY
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 CATAPULT (ONAGER)

single arm, torsion-powered catapult.

The term 'catapult' is often used as a generic label for all throwing machines. In
modern times it describes any system that launches an object from a platform. Military
historians and reference works are not in agreement when the term 'catapult' is used to
label a specifically configured medieval non-gunpowder weapon. As a specific
weapon, the single arm, torsion-powered, stone-throwing engine shown here is
frequently called a 'catapult'. This machine has its throwing arm's lower end inserted
into twisted sinew and is held in torsion. This torsion engine is of ancinet origin. The
Romans replaced the cup at the throwing end of the arm with a sling, and called the
machine an 'onager'. This one-arm torsion catapult continued to be used in medieval
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 times, though there is doubt that the term 'onager' may have still been used. Some
medieval drawings suggest that some questionable modifications were attempted.
One shows a large bow incorporated in the design so as to enforce the main throwing
arm.
Some references label the configuration shown here as a 'mangonel' [as mentioned
above under indirect-firing machines]. Many writers use the term 'catapult' to label what
in this document is called a 'baliste' [see below, as another direct-firing machine].

catapult, or onager.

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 catapult as the Roman onager.

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PIERRIÉRES, ETC.

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 pierrière. bricole.

The term 'pierrière' was also use as a generic expression for stone-throwing engines
of any kind. The general convention is to use the term for the more simple forms. They
generally operated on a rotating-beam and weight-assisted [bricole] principle -- the
arm rotating about a pivot supported on an upright pole-frame-- and were traction-
operated by men pulling on one end of the launcing arm. No doubt, these were the first
rotating-beam engines. However, they remained in the artillery inventory along with the
more robust, larger 'trébuchets' (with the heavy punch) as these smaller machines were
highly portable. They had the advantage of a rapid rate of fire, and remained valuable
in a fire-supressing role -- against the crews of the larger artillery pieces.
Trébuchets and the small pierrières (shown here) can be classified as 'rotating-beam
operated engines'. Photographs of reconstructed 'rotating-beam engines' may be
viewed at a separate webpage on Siege Engines of the Middle Ages.

RETURN To DIRECTORY

Direct-Firing Machines
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 BALISTE and ARBALÈTE À TOUR

tension-powered arbalète à tour. two arms, torsion-powered baliste

[ballista].

The large, carriage or post-mounted crossbow had two distinct forms, even in ancient
times. One configuration, arbalète à tour, was of a single bow, aligned horizontally; its
energy was from tension (as with the normal hand-bow), due to the spanning of the
wood or steel bow. The second configuration, baliste [ballista], was two horizontally-
aligned arms, each under torsion when the common chord at the far ends was
spanned. The spanning of either device required wenches [arbalète à tour]. Each of
the configurations could be modified to project sizable stones as well as large arrows
or javelin bolts. These were often portable enough to be brought on to some
battlefields, but were more commonly used in position defense. There is strong doubt
that the two arm, torsion-powered configuration continued to be used in medieval
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 times. Most accounts suggest that the tension bows, firing bolts or arrows were what
the medieval forces used as their principal heavy direct-firing weapon until the advent
of the gunpowder pot-de-fer in the early 14th century.

Several references label the large, post-mounted crossbow a 'catapult', and call what
was shown earlier in this document as a 'catapult', a 'ballista'. This convention appears
to be a carry-over of those used with the study of ancient military history, where the
Roman 'ballista' [a 'catapult/onager' in this document] had two smaller configurations
termed 'onager' and 'scorpion'. The 'scorpion' of the medieval era [see below] was not
the same as the one used by the Romans. A few reference works label the medieval
large, mounted crossbow a 'Springal'.

SPRING-ENGINES

spring-engine [a scorpion shown here].

As the concept was simple, there were many variations of spring-engines. It was
characterized by the main launching, or striking, arm being bent back and held under
tension. When the arm was released, it struck and launched an arrow (like the image
shown), it was a true direct-firing weapon. Some variations had the bent-back arm be
a 'throwing-arm', topped with a sling or cup, from which stones and the like were
hurled. These had a slight curved-trajectory, and performed as indirect-fire weapons,
much like the catapults shown earlier.
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 much like the catapults shown earlier.

RETURN To DIRECTORY

RETURN To Top of Page.

FURTHER LINKS:
Highly recommended are the following web sites presenting historic illustrations
of trébuchets:

Counterweight Trébuchets
Traction Trébuchets

The foregoing are extensions of The Grey Company Trebuchet Page, which
provides information on, and links to, modern reconstruction projects.

To see modern reconstructions of some of the engines on this page, visit

ARMEDIEVAL website. The site reflects a few of the over 30 medieval mechnical
engines, and some early gunpowder weapons, constructed by M. Renaud Beffeyte
and used in sustained demonstrations at various locations.

Another interesting aspect to explore is The Secrets of the Medieval Engineer.

Medieval Siege Engine Kits for educational instruction are promoted at the following
website:
Pathfinders Design and Technology: Medieval Siege Engine
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 Kits are promoted as easy to make, fun and educational. The model machines
accurately recreate medieval siege weaponry, and are not so big that they will hurt
someone. The kits are by Derek Wulff, an inventor, teacher and wooden science kit
creator. He teaches classes on building workable bridges and simple machines with
the goal to enhance an understanding of medieval times, as well to encourage
children to make and use toys that celebrate ingenuity and science.

More information on medieval artillery can be found at

Gunpowder Weapons of the Late Fifteenth Century website.

Return to Hundred Years' War Web Page.

Return to Oriflamme Web Page.

This page was created in July 1998, revised and last updated 28 May 2004.
Comments can be sent to the Société de l'Oriflamme.

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