Chapter 14 PLASTICS Brief history: Plastic is one of the recent engineering materials which have appeared in the market all over the world. Some varieties of naturally occurring thermo-plastics were known to Egyptians and Romans who extracted and used these plastics for various purposes. A number of scientists carried out experiments for plastics and as a result of long research, the birth of plastic industry took place in the nineteenth century. The developments of plastic industry may broadly be grouped into following three stages: (1) The aim of first stage of development was mainly to imitate or copy the natural plastics. The main contribution during this phase was by a Scottish chemist—Alexander Parkes. He prepared a hard material in 1865 by mixing camphor and alcohol with nitro-cellulose. This material was known as Parkesite and it was used for gear wheels, door knobs, etc. (2) The second stage is comprised in first twenty years or so of this century. During this stage, the work done previously in plastic industry was scienti- fically scrutinised and this stage laid the founda- tion for further scientific development of plastics. The notable contribution during this stage was by a Belgian Scientist—Dr. L. Backcland. He pre- pared a product, known as Bakelite. It is thermo- setting substance. It was found to be strong and hard material with good insulating property. (3) The last stage includes the present trend and it aims at improving the old plastics and producing new varicties of plastics, Such development is mainly responsible for two World Wars during which intensive research was carried out to get plastics with desired properties. The beginning374 ENGINEERING MATERIALS of this stage was made by an Austrian scientist— Pollak. He prepared a substance from urea and formaldchyde in 1924, This substance was trans- parent like glass. But it was unbreakable. It was also possible to produce it in many attractive colours and shades. A strong revolution in plastic industry came during the period of second world war (1939-1944). Within such a short period, plastic has proved to bc a very important cnginecring material. Composition: Plastic is an organic substance and it consists of naturdl or synthetic binders or resins with or without moulding com: pounds. Various types of resins and commonly used moulds ing compounds will be discussed later on in this chapter. In general, it may be stated that plastics are compounds of carbon with other clements, such as hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. Carbon combines with itself and other clements and it forms more complicated compounds. The finished product of plastic is rigid and stable at normal temperature. It is, therefore, improper to associate the term plastic to such substances in the ordinary sensc of the term. It is, however, to be noted that plastics arc organic substances and these are capable of flow when necessary heat and pressure are applicd at some stage of their manufacture. The term plastic is, therefore, accepted to be the best one to describe the various diverse products of plastic industry. Polymerization: The simplest substances consisting of onc primary chemical are known as monomers or monoliths. They are te be combined or synthetised to form polymers by the process known as polymerization. The properties such as strength, rigidity, elasticity are considerably improved by polymerization and it further leads to the manufacture ‘of plastics in an economic ‘way. Following are the two methods of ploymerization: (1) Addition polymerization (2) Condensation polymerization.PLASTICS 375 (1) Addition polymerization: In this method, similar or different molecules join together due to opening of double bonds and the molecular weight of the resulting polymer is equal to the sum of the molecular weights of the reacting molecules. There is no loss of any substance in this process. The process involves three distinct stages: (i) Beginning of the process (ii) Expansion of chain (iii) End of process. The polymers obtained by this method are polythylene, polypropylene, polyvinylchloride, polystyrene, polyacrylates, etc. (2) Condensation polymerization: In this method, low-molecular substances are removed from the high-molecular substances formed from a large number of identical or different molecules. The reaction proceeds with an evolution of ammonia, hydrogen chloride and similar other low-molecular substances. The polymers obtained by this method are phenol-formal- dehyde, carbamide, melamine-formaldehyde, etc. Classification of plastics: Plastics are classificd according to their: (1) behaviour with respect to heating, (2) structure, and (3) physical and mechanical properties. (1) Behaviour with respect to heating: According to this classification, plastics are divided into two groups: . (1) Thermo-plastic (2) Thermo-setting. The above classification is based on the inherent character- istics of each group. These two groups can further be376 ENGINEERING MATERIALS divided into scveral distinct sub-divisions. These sub-divi- sions are based on the raw materials from which plastics are prepared. It is interesting to note that cach of above group contains several hundred different products and with the advance of plastic industry, the number of sub-divisions under each category is constantly increasing. (i) Thermo-plastic: The thermo-plastic or heat non-convertible group is the general term applied to plastics which become soft whe: heated and hard when cooled. The process of softening ant hardening may be repeated for an indefinite time, provided) the temperature during heat is not so high as to cause chemical | decomposition. It is thus possible to shape and reshape these plastics by means of heat and pressure. One important advantage of this variety of plastics is that the scrap obtained from old and warn-out articles can be effectively used again. (i) Thermo-setting: The thermo-setting or heat convertible group is the general term applied to plastics which become rigid when moulded at suitable pressure and temperature. This type of plastics passcs originally through thermo-plastic stage. When they are heated in temperature range of 127°C to 177°C, they set permanently and further application of heat does not alter their form or soften them. But at temperature of about 343°C, charring occurs. This charring is a peculiar characteristic of organic substances. The thermo-setting plastics arc soluble in alcohol and certain organic solvents, when they are in thermo-plastic stage. This property is utilised for making paints and varnishes from these plastics. The thermo-setting plastics are durable, strong and hard. They are available in a variety of beautiful colours. They are mainly used in engineering application of plastics.PLASTICS 377 (2) Structure: According to this classification, plastics are divided into two groups: (i) Homogeneous plastic (ii) Heterogeneous plastic. (i) Homogeneous plastic: This variety of plastic contains carbon chain, i.c., the plastics of this group are composed only of carbon atoms. (ii) Heterogeneous plastic: This varicty of plastic is composed of the chain containing carbon and oxygen, nitrogen and other elements. (3) Physical and mechanical properties: According to this classification, plastics are divided into Jour groups: (i) Rigid plastics (ii) Semi-rigid plastics (iii) Soft plastics (iv) Elastomers. (i) Rigid plastics: These plastics have a high modulus of clasticity and they retain their shape under exterior stresscs applied at normal or moderately increased temperatures. (ii) Semi-rigid plastics: These plastics have a medium modulus of elasticity and the clongation under pressure completely disappears, when pressure is removed, (iii) Soft plastics: These plastics have a low modulus of elasticity and the elongation under pressure disappears slowly, when pressure is removed.378 ENGINEERING MATERIALS (iv) Elastomers : These plastics are soft and clastic materials with a low modulus of elasticity. They deform considerably in tension and the deformation disappears rapidly at room temperatures. Resins: As plastics are classified into two groups, according to their behaviour with respect to heating, resins or binders are also: broadly divided into the following two groups: (1) Thermo-plastic resins (2) Thermo-setting resins. (1) Thermo-plastic resins: Following are the commonly used thermo-plastic resins: (i) Alkyd (ii) Cellulose (iii) Cumarone-indene (iv) Methyl methacrylate (v) Styrene (vi) Vinyl. (i) Alkyd: These resins are made from glycerin and phthalic an- hydride. Their chemical composition is adjusted by drying oils. They cool slowly and possess clectric properties. They are used for preparing thin films of plastics. (it) Cellulose: These resins are derived from various cellulose compo- unds such as cellulose acetate, cellulose nitrate, cellulose esters, etc. Plastics made from cellulose are as clear as glass. They are tough and strong. They possess excellent electrical properties. It is also possible to obtain all types of colour effects with such plastics. (iti) Cumarone-indene : These resins become soft over a narrow range of tempera- ture. Their electrical properties do not change with humi-PLASTICS 379 dity. They are brittle and are used for floor tiles, rubber manufacture, etc. (iv) Methyl methacrylate : This resin is also known as acrylic. It is derived from coal petroleum and water by a complicatcd process. It is light in weight and transmit ultra-violet waves of light. It can be cut, sawn or turned. It possesses excellent optical properties and it acts as a good clectric insulator. When broken by an impact, it merely cracks and does not shatter away like glass. Plastics prepared from this resin are used for safety glass, coloured and artificial jewcls, roof lights, lighting fittings, bath and sink units, etc. (v) Styrene: This resin is produced from ethylene which is made from petroleum. This resin is light in weight. It trans- mits ultra-violet waves of light. It possesses very high electric resistance. It is not easily attacked by chemicals. Its water absorption is low. Plastics prepared from this resin are widely used as insulators at radio frequencies in wireless and television industry. (vi) Vinyl: There are several groups of this type of resin. They are produced hy passing acctylene gas through acetic acid or dry hydrogen chloride. The process is carried out under controlled light, heat and pressure. Plastics prepared from this resin are odourless, non-toxic, transparent and colourless. Vinyl chloride posseses high resilience and it is used for wire and cable coatings. Polythylene is a vinyl resin which is tough and flexible and is used for cable covering. Polyvinyl butyral is another variety of vinyl resin which is used in safety glass. (2) Thermo-setting resins: Following are the commonly used thermo-setting resins: (i) Casein (ii) Melamine-formaldelhyde380 ENGINEERING MATERIALS (iii) Phenol formaldehyde (iv) Phenol furfuraldehyde (v) Urea formaldehyde. (i) Casein: Casein is a phosphor protein and it is derived by the precipitation of milk with acids. It absorbs moisture and is not very strong. But it is casily workable and it possesses bright attractive appearance. Plastics prepared from this resin are used for buckles, buttons, etc. . (ii) Melamine-formaldehyde : Melamine is obtained from calcium carbide. Formal, dehyde is preparcd synthetically from methane which is the simplest hydrocarbon. Melamine, when reacted with formal- dehyde, forms this resin. It is highly resistant to water and possesses excellent resistance to electrical arcs. Plastics made from this resin are used for electrical insulators, glass-rcin- forced plastics, preparing papers having high strength in wet condition, decorative laminates in light colours for wall and ceiling linings, etc. (iii) Phenol formaldehyde: Phenol is carbolic acid. It is extracted from coal-tar or prepared from benzene. When reacted with formaldehyde, it forms this resin. It is highly resistant to heat. It posscsses excellent mechanical and clectrical properties. It is also not casily attacked by water, dilute mineral acids, organic acids, oil, mild alkalies, common solvents, etc. Plastics prepared from this resin are uscd for paints, varnishes, preparation of laminated products, electrical fittings, w.c. seats, water- resistant adhesives for plywood, ctc. (iv) Phenol furfuraldehyde : Furfuraldehyde vapours are formed by digesting husks or rice, shells of oat or ground-nut, etc. with sulphuric acid in the presence of a catalyst. These varpours, when reacted with phenol, form this resin. It is dark in colour and resists very high temperatures.PLASTICS 381 (v) Urea formaldehyde : Urea is prepared from calcium cyanamide or by heating under pressure, a mixture of liquid carbon dioxide and liquid ammonia. Urea, when reacted with formaldehyde, forms this resin. It possesses excellent clectrical properties. It is not easily attacked by dilute acids and alkalies, oil, chemicals, water, ctc. Plastics made from this resin are widely used for making adhesives for wood and wood products, lighting fixtures such as lamps, reflectors, etc. Moulding compounds: To give desired properties to finished plastic articles, certain moulding compounds, are to be added to plastics. Following are such moulding compounds: (1) Catalysts (2) Fillers (3) Hardeners (4) Lubricants (5) Pigments (6) Plasticizers (7) Solvents, (1) Catalysts: These compounds are added to assist and accelerate the hardening of resin. For instance, ester acts as catalyst for urea formaldehyde. (2) Fillers: Fillers are inert materials and they impart strength, hardness and other properties to plastics. The choice of a filler should be carefully made. It should be confirmed that addition of a filler does not have detrimental effect on other properties of plastics. The fillers may be used in the following forms: (i) Fibrous fillers (ii) Laminated fillers (iti) Powder fillers.382 ENGINEERING MATERIALS (i) Fibrous fillers: ‘They increase thermal resistance and impact strength of plastics. They also increase strength and reduce brittleness of plastics. They are widely used in the manufacture of plastics. The commonly used fibrous fillers are asbestos, wood and glass fibres. (ii) Laminated fillers : They make the plastics very strong. The commonly used laminated fillers are papers, wood vencers, asbestop cardboards, cotton, etc. (iii) Powder fillers : They provide valuable properties to plastics such as acid- resistance, water-resistancc, etc. They also lead to increase in durability, improvement in hardness and reduction in cost. ‘The commonly used powder fillers are quartz powder, chalk, wood flour, ctc. (3) Hardners: These compounds are added to increase the hardness of resin. For instance, hcexamethylenc tetramine acts as hardener for phenol formaldchyde. (4) Lubricants: Lubricants are applicd on the surface of moulds so that articles of plastics do not stick to the moulds. The application of lubricants on surface of moulds allows easy removal of articles of plastics from moulds. The commonly used lubri- cants are graphite, parafine, wax, etc. (5) Pigments: The addition of pigment helps in two ways, namely, they act as fillers and they impart desired colour to plastics. They should be durable and adequately fast to light. The commonly used pigments are zinc oxides, barytes, ctc. The selection of pigments should be done in such a way that their addition docs not alter or affect the other properties of plastics.PLASTICS 383 (6) Plasticizers: These compounds are added to improve plasticity and to impart softness to plastics. They should be chemically inert, poorly volatile and non-toxic. The addition of plasticizers facilitate the moulding process of plastic articles. The commonly used plasticizers are camphor, triacetin, tributyl phosphate, ctc. The proportion of plasticizers in plastics should not exceed 10 per cent. Otherwise the strength of plastics will decrease. (7) Solvents: These compounds are added to dissolve the plasticizer. For instance, alcohol is added in cellulose nitrate plastics to dissolve camphor. Fabrication: Following are the processes involved in the fabrication of articles of plastics: (1) Blowing (2) Calendering (3) Casting (4) Laminating (5) Moulding. Each process will now be briefly described. (I) Blowing: This method of fabrication of articles of plastics is more or less the same as that one employed in glass industry. A lump of plastic material is taken and by blowing, it is converted into hollow plastic articles such as jars, bottles, toys, ete. (2) Calendering: In this process, the plastic material is allowed to pass between the cylindrical rollers. The process is used to prepare plain flat sheets of plastics. The process consists of closely placed four revolving384 ENGINEERING MATERIALS cylinders. The first three cylinders are heated andthe last one is kept cold. The plastic material passes between first three cylinders and it is converted into thin sheets, It is cooled while passing through the surface of the cold cylinder. If cloth is to be provided with plastic coating, the cloth is inserted alongwith plastic material between second and third heated rollers, The rollers may be provided with artistic designs which will appear on the finished product. (3) Casting: This process is similar in principle to that of metal casting. The resin is heated and when it is in plastic fon it is poured into the mould. Curing of articles is then donc either with or without the application of heat. During curing, low pressure may be applied, if necessary. This process is used to prepare plastics of beautiful colours and it is most suitable for cellulose plastics. (4) Laminating: In this process, thermo-setting resins are just applied on sheets of paper, asbestos, ctc., to form plastic laminates. The thickness of sheets varies from 0-12 mm to 15mm. They possess exccllent mechanical and electrical properties. Due to the pleasing finish surface, they are used for ornamental and decorative purposes. (5) Moulding: This is the most commonly adopted process for the fabrication of plastic articles. The general process consists in placing the raw materials in a mould and then heating it. Moulding can be done by various methods such as compre- ssion moulding, extrusion moulding, injection moulding, jet moulding and transfer moulding. The choice of moulding method will depend on the article to be prepared. These methods are briefly described as follows: (i) Compression moulding : In this method, the moulds to receive the plastic material are prepared. The moulds are usually heated and then thePLASTICS 385 plastic material is placed in the moulds. The moulds are closed and they are heated to a temperature of 100°C to 200°C under a pressure of 100 to 500 kg/cm®. The plastic material gets the shape of moulds on account of heat and pressure. In case of thermo-plastic, the moulds are cooled before articles are taken out. Thus the moulds are to be heated and cooled alternatively in the preparation of thermo-plastic articles. ‘Thus for production of thermo-plastics, this method. proves to be uneconomical as considerable time is lost in cooling the moulds. In case of thermo-setting plastics, it is not necessary to cool the moulds as articles of such plastics get the shape due to chemical action, (i) Extrusion moulding: In this method, the resin powder is fed through hopper at the inlet end of the revolving screw. At the outlet end, the material is heated and it is extruded or forced through a nozzle as shown in fig. 14-1, The plastic material as it comes out from nozzle is received in cold moulds. ‘Resin Powder Heating Jacket Nozzle Extrusion moulding Fic. 14-1 ‘The method of extrusion moulding is adopted for thermo- plastic resins to form narrow ribbons, shects, etc. (i) Injection moulding: This is comparatively a modern method of moulding. The plastic material is loaded, heated and then injected into386 ENGINEERING MATERIALS the mould. It is then allowed to cool before being taken out from the mould. As shown in fig. 14-2, the resin powder is allowed to fall through a hopper and it is then pushed by a piston into a hot cylinder. The plastic material is melted and it is then forced to fall in the cool mould under a pressure of about 1600 kg/cm® through nozzle. The article gets the shape of mould and becomes solid. The process of injection moulding is very much suitable for thermo-plastic resins. The complete process is automatic and articles can be prepared within 10 seconds to one minut. It is thus adopted to prepare plastic articles of small size on @ large scale. : Article Piston t Cylinder — Heating Jacket Injection moulding Fic. 14-2 (iv) Set moulding : In this method, the plastic material is moderately heated. It is then allowed to pass through nozzle, which is preheated to a high temperature. This method of moulding may be adopted for thermo-plastics as well as thermosetting materials. (v) Transfer moulding: - When the process of injection moulding is applied to thermo-setting resins, it is known as transfer moulding. In this process, the moulds are also heated before the plastic material is injected through the nozzle. Thus the thermo- setting resins are heated in this process in two chambers, namely,PLASTICS 387 cylinder and mould. The pressure on mould is maintained till the chemical action to prepare the plastic article is com- pleted. The plastic materials are removed from the moulds either mechanically or manually. Properties of plastics: To appreciate the importance of plastic as an engincering material, it will be interesting to study its some of the out- standing gencral properties. It may however be remembered that each plastic material has its own peculiar properties to suit its particular uses. Success of plastic as an engineering material for a particular purpose will depend upon the correct choice of the variety of plastic. Following are the properties of plastics: (1) Appearance: Some plastics are complctely transparent in appearance. With the addition of suitable pigments, plastics can be made to have appearance of varicty of attractive, opaque, stable and translucent colours. (2) Chemical resistance: Plastics offer great resistance to moisturc, chemicals and solvents. The degree of chemical resistance depends on the chemical composition of plastics. Many plastics arc found to possess excellent corrosion resistance. Hence they are used to convey chemicals. (3) Dimensional stability: This property of plastics favours quite satisfactorily with that of other common engineering materials. (4) Ductility: Plastics lack ductility. Hence their members may fail without warning. (5) Durability: Plastics are quite durable, if they possess sufficient surface hardness. Plastics, especially thermo-plastic varieties,388, ENGINEERING MATERIALS are likely to be attacked by termites and rodents. But the danger of such an attack is not very serious due to the fact that plastics have no nutritional value. (6) Electric insulation: Plastics possess excellent electric insulating property. They are far superior to ordinary clectric insulators. (7) Finishing: Any surface treatment may be given to plastics. It is also easy to have technical control during its franitety It results in mass production of plastic articles with uniform|ty of surface finish. , (8) Fire-resistance: Plastics are organic in nature and hence, all plastics are combustible. But, depending upon the structure, the resis- tance to high temperature and fire varies considerably among various varieties of plastics. Ccllulose acetate plastics burn slowly. Polyvinyl chloride plastics are non-inflammable. Phenol formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde resist fire and they are used as fire-proofing materials. (9) Fixing: Plastics can he easily fixed in position. They can be bolted, clamped, drilled, glued, screw-threaded or simply push-fitted in position. (10) Humidity: The properties of plastics are governed to some extent by humidity. The strength of plastics containing water attract- ing groups such as cellulosic plastics, is considerably affected by the presence of moisture. On the other hand, plastics which do not contain water attracting groups such as polyvinyl chloride plastics, offer great resistance to moisture. (11) Maintenance: It is easy to maintain plastic surfaces. They do not require any protective coat of paints.PLASTICS 389 (12) Melting point: Most of plastics have low melting point and melting point of some plastics is only about 50°C. They cannot, therefore, he used in positions having high temperatures or to convey boiling water. In general, it can be said that the coefficient of thermal expansion of plastics is about ten times that of steel. Thermo-setting varietics of plastics are less susceptible to heat than thermo-plastic varieties of plastics. To improve the resistance of plastics to heat, glass fibre reinforcement may be added in the structure of plastics. (13) Optical property: Several types of plastics are transparent and translucent. (14) Sound absorption: Acoustical boards are prepared by impregnating fibre- glass with phenolic resins. This material has absorption coefficient of about 0-67. (15) Strength: An ideal section of plastics for stiuctural member has yet not been designed. Plastics arc reasonably strong. The strength of plastics may be increased by reinforcing with various fibrous materials. Plastic members can be used as tensile members as their strength to weight ratio in tension very nearly approaches to that of metals. But the following considerations are responsible to discourage the use of plastics as structural material: (i) Plastics are costly. (ii) Plastics are subject to creep under constant heavy Joads. (iii) The behaviour of plastics is very sensitive to changes in temperature. (iv) The stiffness of plastics is very poor. (16) Thermal property: The thermal conductivity of plastics is low and it can be compared with that of wood. Foamed or expanded plastics are among the leading thermal insulators.390 ENGINEERING MATERIALS (17) Weather resistance: Only limited varieties of plastics can be exposed to weather. The important group of plastics which can resist weather effects is one prepared from phenolic resins. Certain plastics are seriously affected by ultraviolet light in the presence of sunlight. The resistance to sunlight of such plastics can be improved by incorporating fillers and pigments which absorb or reflect the ultraviolet light at the surface. Thus the interior of plastics is protected. (18) Weight: Plastics, whether thermo-plastic or thermo-setting, have low specific gravity, the average being 1-30 to 1-40. The light weight of plastics reduces the transport costs and facilitates Uses of plastics: The uses of particular plastics are mentioned while discussing thermo-plastic resins and thermo-setting resins. The typical uses of plastics in building are summarised as follows: (1) bath and sink units, (2) cistern ball floats, @) (4) decorative laminates and mouldings, (5) electrical conduits, (6) electrical insulators, corrugated and plain sheets, (7) films for water-proofing, damp-proofing and concrete curing, (8) floor tiles, (9) foams for thermal insulation, (10) jointless flooring, (11) lighting fixtures, (12) overhead water tanks, (13) paints and varnishes, (14) pipes to carry cold water,PLASTICS 391 (15) roof lights, (16) safety glass, (17) wall tiles, (18) water-resistant adhesives, etc. Conclusion: Plastic has emerged as a new engineering material. The properties of various types of plastics make them suitable for wide range of engineering applications. At the same time, they have their own limitations which make them unsuitable in certain cases. But development of plastic industry is very recent and there is much scope in it for research. Hence, with passing of time, their shortcomings or drawbacks may be improved and plastics may be put to still better uses. The shortcomings of plastics can be summarised as follows: (1) Most of the plastics possess low heat resistance. (2) Plastics are not very hard. (3) Plastics disintegrate gradually and because of the effects of light, air and temperature, they lose strength, become soft and get dull, as time passes. (4) Plastics exhibit high creep. (5) Plastics have a high coefficient of thermal expansion. It varies from 25 x 10-§ to 120 x 10-* as compared to 11 x 10-® of steel. QUESTIONS Mention brief history of plastics. What is the composition of plastics? How are plastics classified? Describe commonly used thermo-plastic resins. Discuss commonly used thermo-setting resins. oP we ‘Comment upon various moulding compounds.392 ENGINEERING MATERIALS 7, Write short notes on: (1) Alkyd (2) Casein (3) Moulding (4) Fillers (5) Strength of plastics (6) Fire-resistance of plastics (7) Acrylic (8) Calendering (9) Plasticizers (10) Urea formaldehyde (11) Vinyl. \ 8. What are the processes involved in fabrication of plastic articles? 9. Enumerate general properties of plastics. 10. Mention the uses of plastics. 11. What is polymerization? Describe its two methods. 12. Write a critical note on plastic as an engineering material. 13. Mention the shortcomings of plastics. 14. Differentiate between the following: (1) Catalysts and plasticizers (2) Blowing and moulding (3) Injection moulding and transfer moulding (4) Thermo-plastic resins and thermo-setting resins (5) Phenol formaldehyde and phenol furfuraldehyde (6) Casting and laminating (7) Compression moulding and extrusion moulding (8) Plasticizers and lubricants (9) Addition polymerization and condensation polymeri- zation - (10) Homogeneous plastics and heterogeneous plastics (11) Rigid plastics and elastomers (12) Monomer and polymer (13) Soft plastics and semi-rigid plastics (14) Fibrous fillers and laminated fillers.15. PLASTICS 393 Give sketches of the following: (1) (2) Extrusion moulding Injection moulding. Give reasons for the following: ay (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) The choice of a filler should be carefully made. Compression moulding proves to be uneconomical for production of thermo-plastics. Injection moulding is adopted to prepare plastic articles of small size on a large scale. Plastics are used to convey chemicals. ‘The scrap obtained from old and worn-out articles of thermo-plastics can be effectively used again. ‘The thermo-setting plastics are used for making paints and varnishes. Certain moulding compounds are added to plastics. Lubricants are applied on the surface of moulds. The proportion of plasticizers in plastics should not exceed 10 per cent. AMl plastics are combustible. Plastics cannot be used in positions having high tempera- tures or to convey loiling water, Glass fibre reinforcement is sometimes added in the structure of plastics. Polymerization leads to the manufacture of plastics in an economic way. Plastic members can be used as tensile members