(A) FRESNEL DIFFRACTION

3.1. Diffraction
Diffraction is an ordinary property of each wave (mechanical or electromagnetic). In
our daily experience, we find that if there is an obstacle in the path of
bendat the corners of obstacle. The sound of a person speaking in one sound waves, thev
in the adjacent room. The bending of'sound waves at the room is easily heard
of sound. corners, is called the diffraction
Similarly, if there is an opaque obstacle or an aperature in between the screen
light source, its distinct image is obtained on the screen. This and the
straight lines. But if the size of the obstacle or aperture is of theconcludes that light travels in
order of wavelength of light
(nearly10 m), light deviates from its rectilinear path at the corners of obstacle or aperture
(i.e., it bends at the corners) and some light reaches in the
where there should be complete darkness. Apart from this, geometrical shadow part as well
of light outside the geometrical shadow region, but there isthere is no uniform illumination
a definite manner depending upon the nature and size the distribution of intensity in
of the obstacle (or aperture). This is
called the diffraction of light waves.
The diffraction of light waves can be
Experiment
demonstrated by the following experiments :
(1)A plate of glass is first blackened with smoke and then a
Now the filament of a bulb kept at somne distance is seen through thenarrow slit is drawn on it.
slit, we find the filament
tospread with other filaments in an order of successive
decreasing intensity on either side of it.
(2) If light from a distant hole is seen by keeping a
wesee number of holes, in place of a single hole, with thin piece of cloth near the eye,
either side of the central hole. intensity successively decreasing on
(3) Diffraction at astraight edge In Fig. 3.1 (a), S is a slit and MN is a
The slit S is illuminated with a monochromatic light source. AD is a screen.
sharp edge kept in
 Diffraction 149

between the slit and the screen. The slit S, screen MN and the straight edge AD, all are
perpendicular to the plane of paper. According to the rectilinear propagation of light, the
part MP of the screen must be completely illuminated since light rays can directly fall on
this part, while the umbra part PN must becompletely dark since light rays coming to this
part are obstructed by the face AD of the edge. The result obtained in an actual experiment
is represented in Fig. 3.1 (b). Experimentally we find that
(i) In the part PN of the screen
(where there must be complete MILLUMINATED MILLUMINATED
REGION REGION
darkness) there is no complete FRINGES
darkness. But the intensity of light
gradually decreases from the point
Pto the point Q and then only after
the point Q, complete darkness is
obtained. S P P
REGION
(ii) In the part PM of the scre DARK INTENSITY REGION
DARK
(where there must be a complete
illumination), the alternate bright D
and dark fringes are obtained above
the point P. N
(iii) As we move from the point a) EXPERIMENTAL (b) INTENSITY
P towards the point M, we find that ARRANGEMENT DISTRIBUTION CURVE

the intensity of light at the successive

bright fringe decreases, while the Fig. 3.1. Diffractionat astraightedge
intensity of light at the successive dark fringe increases. Apart from this, the distance
between the two consecutive fringes decreases.
(iv) In the part PM, after some fringes there is aperfect uniform illumination on the screen.
We conclude from this experiment that light does not travel exactly ina straight line,
otherwise the part PN of the screen would have been completely dark. Hence light waves
bend at the corners of the sharp edge, changing their direction of propagation. This bending
of light at the corners is called the difraction.
 Distinction between the Interference and Diffraction
No. Interference Diffraction
Interference takes place due to Diffraction takes place due to the
the superposition of two separate super-position of secondary wavelets
wavefronts obtained from the two obtained from the different points of
coherent sources. a single wavefront.
2. Interference fringes are generally of|The diffraction fringes are not of equal
equal width. width.
3. In interference pattern, all the bright| In diffraction pattern, the intensity at the
fringes have the same intensity successive bright fringe decreases and
F(a, + a,)']while all dark fringes also the intensity at the successive dark
have the same intensity [-(a, -a) fringes.
3.2. Fresnel's and Fraunhofer's Class Diffraction
The phenomenon of diffraction is divided mainly in the
(1) Fresnel's diffiraction, and following two classes:
(2) Fraunhofer's diffraction.
Distinction between the Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction
The main differences in Fresnel and
Fraunhofer diffraction are :
(i) In Fresnel'sdiffraction, either thesource of light or
pattern is seen) or both the source and screen are at a finitethe screen (where the diffraction
aperture, while in Fraunhofer's diffraction, both the sourcedistance
of light
from the obstacle or
and the screen are
effectively at an infinite distance from the obstacle oraperture.
(ii) In Fresnel's class, the incident wavefront may be plane, spherical or cylindrical
(Fig. 3.3),while in Fraunhofer'sclass, the incident
wavefront is always plane.
APERTURE
INCIDENT WAVE FRONT

A DIFFRACTED SCREEN
WAVE FRONT
S

Fig. 3.3. Fresnel'sdiffraction

 Diffraction 151
(ii) In Fresnel's diffraction, there is no need of using the lenses, while in Fraunhofer's
diffraction, light rays from a source of light kept at a finite distance are made incident on
the obstacle (or aperture) in form of aparallel beam by using aconvex lens L. For this, the
source isplaced in the focal plane of the convex lens Li.
In addition, the light rays diffracted by the obstacie (or aperture) are focused on a
screen kept at a finite distance by means of another convex lens L. For this, the screen is
placed in the focal plane of the convex lens La (Fig. 3.4).
APERTURE

INCIDENT
DIFFRACTED
WAVE FRONT
WAVE FRONT SCREEN
A

L1

L2

Fig. 3.4. Fraunhofer's diffraction

(iv) In Fresnel's diffraction, the diffraction pattern is the image of the obstacle or
aperture, while in Fraunhofers diffraction, the diffraction pattern is the image ofthe source.
(v) InFresnel's difraction,the intensity of light at a point isfound by the half period
zone method which is not perfectly accurate, while in Fraunhofer's diffraction, the intensity
of light at a point is calculated by the rigorous mathematical treatment.
It may be mentioned here that it is not essential that the incident wavefront must
always be plane for the Fraunhofer's diffraction, but it is required that the plane where the
diffraction pattern is formed, must be conjugate with the plane of the source of light.
Distinction between the Fresnel and Fraunhofer's Diffraction
S.No. Eresnel diffraction Fraunhofer's diffraction
1. The light source or screen or both the Both the light source and screen are
source and screen are at finite fromeffectively at infinite distance fromn the
the obstacle or aperture. obstacle or aperture.
2. The incident wavefront can be plane The incident wavefront and the screen
sperical or cylindrical. must be conjugate of each other.
3. There is no need of lenses. Both the source and screen kept at finite
distance can be treated to be at infinity
by keeping the source at first focus of
one convex lens and the screen at second
focus of another convex lens.
4. The intensity of light at a point| The intensity at a point is obtained by
is obtained by the half period zone | integral method precisely.
method which is not accurate.
5. The diffraction pattern is the image The diffraction pattern is the image of the
of obstacle or aperture. light source.
 (B) FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION

3.8, Fraunhofer Diffraction at a Single Slit

Consider amonochromatic source of light S of wavelength kept in the first focal
plane of a convergent lens L1, as shown in Fig. 3.15, so that the light rays emerging out
of the lens LË are parallel to each other. AB is a narrow slit of width a kept
to the plane of paper. Obviously the wavefront incident on the slit AB willperpendicular
be the plane
wavefront and the source Scan be assumed to be at infinity. The diffracted light from the
slit AB is focused on a screen P by another convergent lens LT by
second focal plane of lens LT. Geometrically, we must get a sharpkeeping the screen in the
image of the sourceS at
the point S' on the screen. But experimentally we find that on
the screen, we get alternate minima and maxima. The either side of the point S' on
intensity of light at the successive
maxima decreases, while the intensity of light at each minima is zero.
Explanation-According
normally on the slit AB
to the Huygens' wave theory, the plane wavefront is incident
and the position of the
incident wavefront at any P
instant t is AB. From each
point of the wavefront AB.
secondary wavelets are S'
emitted out in each direction. M
The undeviated wavelets
travelling in the direction of LË B
incident light get focused at
the point S' on the screen, L2
while the wavelets diffracted Fig, 3.15. Fraunhofer difraction at a single slit
at an angle are focused at the point P on the screen. Since the optical path of the point S
 Diffraction 165
fom each pointof the plane AB is equal, hence all the secondary wavelets reach the point
<in same phase. Thus there will be the maximum intensity of light at the point S'.
Now we are to find the intensity of light at the point P. For this, we drop a normal
ANM on the light ray BP going from Bto Pfrom the pointA. The optical path that from each
here ANM
noint of the plane ANM to the point P will be equal. It may he mentioned
Thus the waves
is not the wavefront, since at each point of it, waves are not in same phase.
reaching P from Btravel a distance BM more than the distance travelled by the waves
reaching the
reaching Pfrom the point A. Hence the path difference between the wavelets
noint Pfrom the points A and B diffracted at an angle 0 is A BM.
But from right-angled triangle BMA, BM = AB sin
Path difference A = ABsin = asin )
2 2
0r Phase difference x path difference= a sin ..(3.31)
plane wavefront
We can consider infinite point sourcesof secondary wavelets on the
befween A and B. Let the slit AB be divided into n equal parts, each part being the source of
wavelets originated from each
a secondary wavelet. The amplitude at the point P due to the different parts (the phase
part will be equal", but the phase difference will be different from
2T
difference increases from 0to Xa sin 0 from Ato B). The phase difference between
is
the waves obtained at the point P from any two consecutive parts
8= y2T a sin 9 ...(3.32)

obtained from each part be A.

Let the amplitude at the point P due to the waves
Thus we get n waveseach of amplitude A and phase
difference ð between the two consecutive waves. To
find their resultant amplitude at the point P, there
are the following two methods : (1) Phase diagram
method, and (2) Integral method.
(1) Phase diagram method -In Fig.
3.16,
thatthe
we draw vectors OP,P,P2 , PP3, ... such angle
magnitude of each vector is A and the These
between the two consecutive vectors is ð.
vectors form the sides of a polygon. The vector OP,
terminus
joining the origin Oof first vector and the
vector. Let the
P,of last vector gives the resultant
magnitude of resultant vector OP, be Re. If the
centre of polygon is C, by simple geometry we
subtends an
can see that each vector OP, PP2, Fig. 9.16. Phase diagram method
subtended by
angle ðat the centre C and the angle nò. Let CX be the normnal drawn from the
point
the resultant vector OP,at the centreCis from the point C.
Con OP and CY be the normaldrawn on OP,
OX
From right-angled ACXO, = sin or OX = 0Csin 2
OC 2
A ...3.33)
But OX = = 0Csin 2
2

Similarly, from right-angled ACYO, oc

OY
= sin
nÝ or OY = 0C sin
2 (9)
distance from the slit.
the width ofeach part is same and the screen is etectively at infiniteinclination.
Since
independent of the distance and the angle of
nence the amplitude remains
166 Unified Physics : Second Year (First Paper)
But OY =;OP,-Re RÍ = 0Csin
n8
2 2 ..3.34)
Dividing eqn. (3.34) by the eqn. (3.33), we get
Rg/2 OCsin (nô/2) or RÍ A sin (n8/2)
A/2 OCsin (S/2) sin (8/2) ...(3.35)
Substituting the value of Sfrom eqn. (3.32),
T a sin
sin
Re = Ax Tt asin 0 ..3.36)
sin
n
I asin0 A sin p Asin p
Let *p, then Re
2 sin (p/n) pln
Lsince n is very large, .. pln is very small and then sin (p/n) pln]
sin P
or
..3.37)
Now if 9= 0° or §=0or p=0(i.e., if all waves are in same phase), then
lim (sin P\ 1..:. R nA
Hence RÍ = Ro ..3.38)
This expression gives the resultant amplitude RÍ at a diffraction angle .
resultant intensity at the point P on the screen corresponding to the angle of Hence the
diffraction is
Ic Re
or
I =kRg?=k Ro?( .(3.39)
At = 0°,

I=l% ..(3.40)
(2) Integral method Consider the mid-point O of the slit AB
by the light of wavelength , asilluminated normally
the origin and the
amplitude of displacement at the point P of the
screen due to unit width of slit at the point O be A.
The displacement of wavelet from the unit width of
slit at point O can be expressed as
M y=A cOS 0t ...(3.41)
O/x
sin
0
Now if we consider a width d of the slit at a
point C at distance x from the
AB of the slit as shown in Fig.point
O in the plane
3.17, then the patn
difference between the wavelets reaching the pon
P from the point Cand point O
R
wilIlbe OM=x Sin O
corresponding to which the phase difference between
the wavelets will be xsin 0) and the amplitude
Fig. 3.17. 1
3.1H. Integral method of wavelet at the point P due to width dx of the slit al
the point Cwill be A dx. Hence the
displacement ol
 Diffraction 167

aVelet reaching the point P from the width dx of the slit at C can be expressed as
2Tt
.(3.42)
d =Adk cos (or - x sin 0)
Then the displacement of wavelet reaching the point P due to entire slit AB can be
obtained by integrating the above eqn. (3.42) for the limits ofx from x= to x = *t
Hence total displacement
2T
y= A
dr cos(ot xsin 0)
2Tx sin 9 2rx sin 0
or y= Acos ot cos dt+Asin o -al2
sin d

2Tx sin 0]a/2 2Tx sin 9 ]a/2

Sin COS

= AcOS Ot +A sin ot 2T sin 0

2T sin
2 J-al2 2 J-a/2

Ta sin Ta sin 0
A cos ot sin Aa sin
+0 = lcos Ot
T Sin 0 sin 0

TtaSin 0
Let
Aa sinnp
Then y= cos ot ...3.43)
p
the amplitude of
In the above eqn. (3.43), the term inside the bracket represents
displacement due to diffraction at an angle . Hence
Aa sin p
Re =
For diffraction at zero angle, = 0°, .. p=0 and then
lim sin P 1
p’0 p
RÍ = Aa
screen directly.
where Ro is the total amplitude of the wavelets reaching the
sin p ..3.44)
Hence resultant amplitude RÍ = Ro
resultant amplitude atdiffraction angle 0.
The above eqn. (3.44)represents thepoint
Hence the resultant intensity at any P on the screen corresponding to diffraction
angle Ois
I c Re
or I = kR
...(3.45)
I=

At = 0°,
I =, sin p ..(3.46)

Both the relations (3.40) and (3.46) are same.

 168 Unified Physics : Second Year (First Paper)
Intensity Distribution
From eqn. (3.40) or (3.46)., the resultant intensity at diffraction angle is given h.
the following relation:
I=
Tta sin 0 .3.47)
where p =
Conditions of maxima and minimaFrom above eqn.
the resultant intensity Iat a point P on thescreen depends on the(3.47),
it is clear that
(or on p). For maxima or minima, the derivative ofIwith angle of diffraction A
respect top must be zero, ie.
d/dp = 0
d|

p cos p - Sin p
=0

Sin p
i.e., either =0or p cos p- Sin p= 0or tan p=p.

But it is clear from eqn. (3.47) that if sin p =0, the

Sin p resultant intensity I=0. Hence
0 represents the condition of minima. Then tan
p=p will represent the condition
of maxima.

For minima-When sin p

=0, p=±, 2T, 3T,..., MT

(Remember that p+0, since whenp ’0, sin p

p ’1)
Tasin 9
= #mt

or asin =t m, where
For m=1,2, 3,.. and I,min =0
maximatan
To solve
p=p
the above
..(3.48)
equation (i.e., to find the
is valid), we draw two
curves y=p and y= tan p onvalues ofp for which the above
the same graph as shown in Fig.condition
y=p we get a straight line passing through 3.18. For
d
ue= and inclined at 45° with origin
a continuous curve with thep-axis. Buty = tan p1s
several
p=0, tan p= 0, if p= T2, tanbranchesp= 0,
(since if
if p =1,
tan p= 0 and if
p=3/2,
values of p at the points of
tan p = 0, ...). Tne
2T intersection of these
37 two curves satisfy the
2 these are the values of equation p= tan p, i.e"
p where the intensity o!
light is maximum.
It is clear from Fig. 3.18 that
p=tan pis valid at p= 0 and at closetheto condition
p 3TL,
5r/2, .... (more accuratelyat p = 0, 1·43 L,
Fig. 3.18. y = tan p and y=p
curveS 2-462 T, 3-471t, ..). We get central maxima at
the other values ofp. p=0 and subsidiary maxima
corresponding
 Diffraction 169
At thecentral mnaxima p= 0
Tt asin 0
= 0 or =0 ..(3.49)
and intensity at central maxima
For the subsidiary maxima
(2m + 1)r
p =
2 , where mn=1,2, 3,..
(2m + 1)2
asin 9 =
2
...3.50)
sin 3r/2 2 4
At the first subsidiary maxima, intensity Ij =l, 3T/2
=

22
sin 5r/2 2 4 lo
Atthe second subsidiary maxima, intensity Ih = Io 5u/2
=
2572'o6
sin 7r/2)? 49,3o
4
At the third subsidiary maxima, intensity l3 = lo 7r/2 120

Thus in the diffraction pattern of a single

slit, we get maxima of successive decreasing
intensities on either side of central maxima.
Most of the part of the incident light is
concentrated within the central maxima, A
minima is obtained between the two maxima,
when p=# T, t 2T.,... Maxima is not exactly 32 - 22 - 2 3.
in between the two minima, but it is slightly a sin
displaced towards the centre. Fig. 3.19
shows the intensity distribution curve and the
diffraction pattern obtained due to a single slit. Fig. 3.19. Intensity distribution curve
Angular Width of Principal Maxima for diffraction at a single slit
The angular separation between the first minima on either side of the central maxima
is called the angular width of the principal maxima. Since there is the principal maxima at
a sin = 0and first minima at a sin = ,hence it is clear that the angular width of
principal maxima is inversely proportional to the slit width a. On increasing the slit width
the spread of principal maxima decreases and on decreasing the slit width a, the spread
of principal maxima increases. When the width of slit becomes equal to the wavelength of
incident light (i.e., a= ), the angular separation of the first subsidiary maxima from the
principal maxima is 90°, ie., no subsidiary maxima is formed, but the complete field of view
is flled with the principal maxima (since when a-' and m=1, sin = 1, i.e., =90°).
In the central maxima, the intensity of light is distributed from p = T to p= +T Or
trom asin =- toa sin 9 = +.. Hence for the half angular width
a sin = )
Or 0 = sin- (Na) (Na)
(since Wa is a small quantity).
Thus angular half width of principal maxima is
sin = ..3.51)
a
 170 Unified Physics : Second Year (First Paper)
If the distance of screen from the slit (i.e., focal length of the lens L) is f, the half
linear width of the principal maxima on the screen

...(3.52)
Distinction between the diffraction at a single slit and interference at two
slits
Now we can differentiate between the diffraction pattern of a single slit and the
interference pattern of two slits
(1)In the difraction pattern, we get a central maxima of maximum intensity with the
successive asymmetricsubsidiary maxima of successive decreasing intensities. As narrow
the slit, wide is the central maxima. While in the interference pattern, all maxima and
minima are of same width and they are at equal separation.
(2)In the diffraction pattern, the intensity of light at the successive subsidiary maxima
decreases, while in the interference pattern all maxima are of same intensities. As smaller
the separation between the slits, larger is the fringe width.
(3) In the interference pattern, the intensity of light at each maxima is nearly four
times the intensity of light at the central maxima in the diffraction pattern.
8.10. Diffraction Grating and Fraunhofer Diffraction at N
Parallel Slits
Diffraction grating The diffraction grating is an arrangement consisting of severall
parallel and equidistant slits, each of cqual width. It was first constructed by the scientist
Fraunhofer. It is constructed by drawing the several equidistant parallel lines on an optically
plane glass plate with a pointed diamond.

OPAQUE b

GRATING
ELEMENT b e
e =a + b
--
TRANSPARENT Fa

(a) GRATING SURFACE (b)CROSS

SECTION VIEW

Fig. 3.21. Diffraction grating

In Fig. 3.21, there is a plane glass plate which is ruled with N parallel and equidistant
lines.Let each line be of width b and the separation between the two consecutive lines be a
as shown Fig.3.21. The width of the line drawn is opaque, while the space between the two
consecutive lines is transparent and behaves like a slit through which light is transmitted.
This is why it is also called the transmission grating. * Thus a grating can be considered
to be equivalent to N parallel and equidistant slits. The distance between the centres of the
two consecutive slits is a+ b (=e say) which is called the grating element as shown in
Fig. 3.21 (b). Generally, the value of efor the grating to be used with the visible light is of
the order of 106 m (i.e.. there are nearly 10,000 lines drawn on l cmn length of the grating).
Diffraction at grating or N parallel slits-In Fig. 3.22, AB is a grating consisting
of Nparallel and equidistant slits S, S,... The length of each slit is perpendicular to the
Plane of paper. The width of each slit is a and width of the opaque space between the two

between
T parallel and equidistant lines are drawn on the silvered surface of aplate, then the space
the two consecutive lines reflects the incident light. Such a grating is called the reflection grating.
 172 Unified Physics : Second Year (First Paper)
consccutive slits is b, i.e., the grating clement is e a + b. The points of two consecutive
slits situated at a distance e are called the corresponding points.
Let a parallel beam of light (i.e., a plane wavefront) fros
amonochromatic source of light of wavelength ). be incide
normally on the grating. The light diffracted by it is focused o
a screen by means of a convergent lens L on a screen XY ko
in the second focal plane of the lens L (which is not shown in
e siA
n

Fig. 3.22).
According to the Huygens' wave theory, as the wavefront
e sin9 reaches the plane of grating, secondary wavelets are given ot
in alldirections from each point of the slits.
We have read in diffraction at a single slit that the resultant
e sin
9 amplitude of the waves diffracted at an angle at each slit is
Tta sin 9
sin P where p
Re = Ro (from eqn. 3.38). Thus
we can assume that from the centre of each slit we get a waye

of amplitude Ro | Sin P diffracted at an angle 0. Due toN slits

Fig. 3.22. Diffraction
from N parallel slits in the grating, we get N
parallel waves difracted at an angle 9
from the centres of slits S,, ST, S3, ..... It is clear from Fig. 3.22, that these waves do not
reach a point on the screen in the same phase since their optical paths are not equal. The
path difference between the two successive waves is A=e sin 0.
.:. The phase difference between the two successive 2
iswaves o= esin
Expression for the resultant intensityThe amplitude of the wave difracted at an
angle from each slit is
Re= RoSn P,wherep = Ta sin 9
and the phase difference between the two
successive waves is ...(3.57)
2r
e sin
Nowwe can find the resultant amplitude due to
each of amplitude Re and phase the superposition of N such waves
difference
successively increasing by ¢, by the phase diagram
method shown in Fig. 3.23.
In Fig. 3.23, we draw
PP3,... such that the magnitude vectors
of
OP, P,P2>
and the angle between the two each vector is RÍ
is ¢. These vectors form the consecutive vectors
sides of a polygon. The 4
vector OP, joining the origin of first vector Oand the
terminus of last vector P, gives the
Let the magnitude of resultant vector.
the centre of resultant vector OP, be Re. If
polygon is C, by
can see that each vector OP1, simple geometry we
P,P, ....
angle o at the centre C and the angle subtends an Rol
the resultant vector OP, at the subtended by
CX be the normal drawn from thecentre C is No. Let O X P
point C on OP, and
CY be the normal drawn on OP, from the point C. Fig. 3.23.Phase diagram method
 Diffraction 173

OX
From right-angled ACXO, OC
= sin
2
or 0X = 0Csin
RÍ Ro - 0Csin ...(3.58)
But OX = ,OP;= 2
OY No No
Similarly. from right-angled ACYO, OC
sin
2
or OY = 0Csin
1 R No
But OY - OP, =R, = 0Csin ...(3.59)

Dividing eqn. (3.59) by the eqn. (3.58), we get

R/2 OCsin (NG/2)
OCsin (G/2)
or R Rel sin (N/2))
Re/2 sin (/2)
Substituting the value of Re, We get
R = sin p\ sin (No/2)|
sin (/2)
R= NRo sin p\ sin
N
(No/2)
sin (/2)
Hence the resultant intensity Ic R or I = kR2
2
hPsin (NÙ2)
or I= kN?RO2/ N sin (/2)|
..3.60)

Ta sin 0 2Te sin

’0 and = ’0
When ’0°, p=

lim SinP,land lim sin (No/2)

Then >0 Nsin (/2)|
p0 P
i.e.,
l, = kN'R?
2
Sin p sin (N¢/2) ..(3.61)
Hence from eqn. (3.60), I= lo p |N sin (/2)|
2
term
Sin p represents the intensity due to
In this expression (3.61), the first
2
sin (No/2)
intensity
at a single slit, while the second term Nsin(o/2) , represents the
diffraction
intensity obtained
ofN waves obtained from N slits. Thus the resultant
due to interference
determined due to the interference of N diffracted waves.
at a point on the screen is =0 i.e., (o/2) =#t, wheren=
0, 1,2, 3....
maxima-When sin (o/2) the term
Principal
and in the limit when sin (/2) -’0, the value of
1nen sin (No/2) is also zero
sin (No/2) intensity will be maximum.
(/2) will be 1. Hence from eqn. (3.61), the resultant
|N sin 2
..(3.62)
Imar = lo (sin P
i.e.,
maxima, hence they are called the principal maxima.
these
Since intensity is maximum at the number of
intensity
slitson the grating, the due
on increasing to N
Since lh c N²Ro². hence
increases, Obviously, the intensity at the central maxima
eprincipal maxima single slit.
slits is N² times the intensity obtained due to a
174 Unified Physics : Second Year (First Paper)
2ne sin
But o = hence the condition for principalmaxima is
1

2 2 ) e sin ) =t nn

Or e sin = t nh, where n =0, 1, 2,...

n=0means that all the waves reach the screen in the same phase and we get th ..3.63)
central maxima or the zero order principal maxima. Similarly, for n= 1,2, 3,....etc. weda
the lst order, 2nd order, 3rd order ... principal maxima respectively.
No
Minima--From eqn. (3.61), for the minimum intensity sin 2 = 0,
But sin #0(since sin =0 is the condition of principal maxima)
No
i.e., 2
=# m or e sin =+
..3.64)
where m=1,2,3,....,. but m # 0, N, 2N,...
Thus for m=0, we get the zero order principal maxima and for m= 1,2,3, ... (N-])
we get minima and then for m =N, we get the first order principal maxima. It
between the two consecutive principal maxima, there are (N - 1) minima. But means that
there must
be a maxima between the two consecutive minima, hence we
must obtain (N -2) other
maxima in between the two consecutive principal maxima. Such
secondary maxima. maxima are called the
Secondary maxima Condition for secondary maxima is that =0
do
d
From eqn. (3.61), sin No/2 2 =0
N sin ¢/2}
N
I% hP
2
2sin(NÙ/2)
N sin (/2)
X
|N sin 2) ( N

cos(3)sia =0
N sin (Q/2) cos(No/2) - cos (0/2) sin (/2)
or tan (No/2) = N tan (0/2) sin (No/2)= 0
The values of )obtained from this .(3.65)
secondary maxima. equation (except o = ) give the positions of
But if tan (NÙ/2) =N tan (0/2), then
sin (No/2) =N tan (/2) cos
or
sin (No/2) = Ntan (/2)
(No/2)
sec (No/2)
N tan (/2) Ntan (/2)
/1+ tan (No/2) /1+N'tan? (G/2)
sin (No/2) N' tan (¢/2)
sin (0/2) [1+N tan (/2)]sin (4/2)

[1+Ntan (/2)] cos (2)

cos
Hence from eqn. (3.61), (/2) + Nsin (¢/2) 1+(N-1) sin (/2)
I= 1
...(3.66)
1+(N'- 1) sin (/2)
 Diffraction 175
From cqns. (3.66) and (3.62), we find that the intensity at the secondary maxima is
times the intensity at principal maxima. i.e.,
1+(N'-1) sin (/2)
Intensity at the secondary maxima ..(3.67)
Intensity at the principal maxima 1+(N'-1) sin" (4/2)
As the value of N increases, the
intensity at the secondary maxima
decreases, Since thereare large number
of lines (or slits)in a grating, therefore
the secondary maxima are not visible N=2
in the diffraction pattern of a grating
and there is the complete darkness in
between the two consecutive principal
maxima.
Fig. 3.24 shows the intensity
distribution curves for N = 2, N = 3,
N=5 and N=15 slits when a and e are
constants. Obviously as N increases, the
principal maxima becomes narrower,
ie., it becomes sharp. It may be
mentioned here that in Fig. 3.29 the
intensity at the secondary nmaxima has
been shown much larger than the actual
value.
Angular width of the principal N=1
maximaThe angular separation 3 2
between the first minima on either
side
the Fig.3.24. Intensity distribution curve for
of the principal maxima is called different values of N
angular width of the principal maxima.
For principal maxima
e sin =n
..(3.68)
Ne sin = Nnà
or
on the grating.
where N isthe total number of slits
For minima (N- 1)2 (N+1)2 ...(3.69)
esin =# N N'** N
principal maxima.
minima in between the two consecutive
Thus there are (N - 1) either side of the principal maxima,
Hence for the first minima
on ..(3.70)
=nNÀ ± À angle of
Ne sin ( ± do) for the nth principal maxima and + d0 is the
difraction
where is the angle of principal maxima.
after the nth
diffraction for the first minima
(3.70),
From eqns. (3.68) and 0] = ±A
Ne[sin (0 ±d0) - sin d(sin0)
But sin (0 ± de) sin d =+1
= + or Ne de(Sin6) do
Ne d(sin 0)
...(3.71)
Ne cos 0 do = t or db =* Ne cos
Or
 176 Unifed Physics:Second Year (First Paper)
This expression (3.71) gives the half angular width ofthe principal maxima. Obvioust.
the half angular width of the principalmaxima is inversely proportional to the total wid'
(= Ne) of the grating.
Order of missing maxima We have read that the resultant intensity due to
diftraction at an angle from a plane transmission grating is
sin (No/2) Ta sin
and =
2ne sin
l= where p =
N sin (/2)|
2

In this expression, the first term represents the difraction at a single slit

while the second term sin (NÍ/ represents the interference between the N diffractei
N sin (¢/2)|
sin (No/2)1
waves obtained from Nslits ofthe grating. Iffor some values of0, the value of sin(/2)
is maximum and the value of (sin P is zero, then in the resultant difiraction patern. the
principal maxima will be absent. But for minima in diffraction due to a single slit, sin p =0
or p=±mTt, wherem=1,2, 3, .... but m 0, n, 2n, ... p
Ta sin
or a sin =t mà
..3.72)
For maxima in the interference of N diffracted waves, sin (N¢/2) = maximum
sin (/2)
2 = #m, where n =0, 1, 2,...
Tte sin 0
=#m or esin =t ...3.73)
Dividing eqn. (3.72) by eqn. (3.73),
e n

m ...3.74)
Since n and m are integers,
2(nlm)th, order of the interferencetherefore ela will also be an integer. Thus (n/m)",
maxima will be missing in the resultant diffraction
pattern.
For example, if b=a, then e =a + b= 2a
or =2=
a m
n=2m (where
i.e.,the 2nd, 4th, ....
interference maxima will
m=1,2,3, .... )
Ifb = 2a, then e be missing.
=atb3a
or =3=n
or n = 3m
m
iLe., the 3rd, 6th, ... interference
maxima will be missing.
Maximum number of orders of the principal
We have read that the condition of maxima
principal maxima due to diffraction at a grating
e sin = n
Since maximum possible value of sin 0 is 1
when = 90o
Mmax= ...(3.75)
Thus only the integer number of orders of maxima in Rmax Will be obtained inthe
diffraction pattern.
 Diffraction 177
maxima
For example, if e < 2A, then nmar < 2, i.e., there will be only the first order
in the diffraction pattern.
Maximum wavelength measurable by a grating
minimum
In eqn. e sin = n A, since the maximum possible value of is 1 and
possible value of nis 1, hence
...3.76)
Amax e
Hence the maximum wavelength measurable by a given grating is equal to the grating
element.

3.11. Formation of Spectra bya Plane Diffraction Grating

We have read that when a monochromatic light of wavelength à is incident normally
where n=0, 1,2, 3, ....and
on a grating, the condition of principal maxima ise sin = nn,
e=grating element.
From this, it is clear that
different corresponding
(i) For a particular wavelength , the angle of diffiraction 9 is
to the principal maxima of different orders. corresponding to
(ii) For a given order n, the angle of diffraction is different
is the value of the angle of
the different wavelengths. Longer the wavelength, larger
diffraction .
R2 SECOND ORDER (n=2)
Now ifwhite light is made incident
on a grating, in each order the value WHITE
of will be different corresponding LIGHT R FIRST ORDER (n = 1)
to the different wavelength present in
the incident white light. Thus we get a ZERO ORDER (n = 0)
spectrum in each order (Fig. 3.25). The
first order (n = 1) principal maxima of V
FIRST ORDER (n = 1)
wavelengths in the incident light form Ri
the first order spectrum. Similarly the
second order (n = 2) principal maxima R
V2
SECOND ORDER (n = 2)
of wavelengths in the incident light
form the second order spectrum. spectrum by plane
Fig. 3.25. Formation of
Since the angle of diffraction diftraction grating
of allthe
=0° fortheprincipal maxima therefore the zero order maxima is white in the direction
Wavelengths corresponds to n=0, are the first order and second order spectrum,
which there
of incident lighton either side of