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 Contents vii

11 The Territorial North 363 12 Canada: A Country of Regions

within a Global Economy 397
Chapter Overview 363
Introduction 363 Introduction 397
The Territorial North within Canada Regional Character and Structure 399
and the World 364 Urban Canada and the Advanced Economy 401
Physical Geography of the Territorial North 367 Canada’s Faultlines 401
Environmental Challenge: Climate Change 369 Canada and the Global Economy 403
Historical Geography of the Territorial North 370 The Future 404
The Territorial North Today 380 Challenge Questions 405
Economic Spearheads 385 Essay Questions 406
Frontier Vision of Development in Further Reading 406
the Territorial North 387
The Territorial North’s Economic Anchor:
Glossary 407
Megaprojects 389
Websites 416
Summary 394
Challenge Questions 394 Notes 420
Essay Questions 394 Bibliography 429
Further Reading 395 Index 454
Figures
1.1 Gable’s regions of Canada 5 5.3 Annual percentage change in real gross domestic product
1.2 The six geographic regions of Canada 6 for Canada, provinces, and territories, 2015 159
1.3 Regional populations by percentage, 1871 and 2016 8 5.4 CN: Symbol of the integrated North American
2.1 Physiographic regions and continental shelves in economy 162
Canada 25 5.5 Share of Canadian exports to United States,
2.2 Maximum extent of ice, 18,000 BP 26 2001–2015 163
2.3 Time zones 37 5.6 Manufacturing’s share of total employment,
2.4 Climatic zones of Canada 39 1998–2015 164
2.5 Seasonal temperatures in Celsius, January 42 5.7 Canadian and Mexican percentage shares of North
2.6 Seasonal temperatures in Celsius, July 43 American vehicle production, 2000–2014 (including
2.7 Annual precipitation in millimetres 45 heavy-duty trucks) 165
2.8 Permafrost zones 49 6.1 Ontario basic statistics, 2015 176
2.9 Drainage basins of Canada 51 6.2 Ontario’s economy to 2020: Which way? 177
2.10 Greenhouse gas emissions, Canada, 1990–2014 54 6.3 Ontario 178
3.1 Migration routes into North America 60 6.4 Physiographic regions in Central Canada 179
3.2 Culture regions of Indigenous peoples 65 6.5 The Great Lakes Basin 183
3.3 Indigenous language families 66 6.6 The Haldimand Tract 186
3.4 Canada, 1867 71 6.7 The heart of the problem: Mexico attracts more
3.5 Canada, 1873 73 investment than Canada 193
3.6 Canada, 1882 74 6.8 Employment in Canada’s automobile industry 194
3.7 Canada, 1905 77 6.9 Automobile assembly centres in Ontario 196
3.8 Canada, 1927 78 6.10 Historical and projected population in Northern Ontario,
3.9 Canada, 1999 79 1871–2036 203
3.10 Historic treaties 89 6.11 Canadian mine production of gold, by region, 2015 205
3.11 Modern treaties 90 6.12 De Beers diamond explorations in the Hudson Bay
3.12 Western Canada and the Northwest Rebellion of Lowlands 207
1885 99 6.13 Northern Ontario’s Ring of Fire 208
4.1 Population of Canada, 1851–2016, with an estimate for 7.1 Québec basic statistics, 2015 214
2025 116 7.2 Pastagate: Language inspector rejects “pasta” on Italian
4.2 Population increase, 1956–2056: Immigration, an restaurant menu 215
increasingly important component 117 7.3 Population of Québec, 1851–2011, and projected
4.3 Annual number of immigrants, 1901–2015 120 population, 2021–2061 216
4.4 Canada’s population zones and highway system 122 7.4 The St Lawrence River and Lake Ontario 218
4.5 Percentage of Canadian population in urban regions, 7.5 Map of British North America, 1774 222
1901–2015 126 7.6 Major export products from Québec, 2006, 2014, and
4.6 Population 65 years and over, 1971–2061 129 2015 (millions of $) 231
4.7 Indigenous population by ancestry, 1901–2011 131 7.7 Cree communities of Québec 234
4.8 Number and share of the foreign-born population in 7.8 Population by mother tongue, 2011: Québec and
Canada, 1901–2031 143 Montréal 235
5.1 Daily crude oil spot prices, 2010–2015 157 7.9 Canadian mine production of iron ore, by province,
5.2 Annual economic growth: Year-over-year per 2015 241
cent change in real GDP, 2010–2015 (seasonally 8.1 Western Canada 248
adjusted) 158 8.2 Western Canada basic statistics, 2015 250
 Figures ix

8.3 Chernozemic soils in Western Canada 254 9.13 Dams and generating stations on the Peace River 312
8.4 Agricultural regions in Western Canada 255 9.14 Metro Vancouver 314
8.5 Carbon capture and storage at Boundary Dam Power 10.1 Atlantic Canada 323
Station 264 10.2 Atlantic Canada basic statistics, 2015 325
8.6 Alberta’s hydrocarbon resources: Oil sands and oil 10.3 The Labrador Current and the Gulf Stream 329
fields 270 10.4 Atlantic Canada in 1750 334
8.7 Cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) 271 10.5 The Maritime Provinces: First to enter
8.8 Projected Alberta oil production to 2030 272 Confederation 336
8.9 Oil sands deposits, with proposed and approved 10.6 Newfoundland and Labrador 338
pipelines and expansion 273 10.7 Lower Churchill hydroelectric projects 341
8.10 Canadian mine production of potash, 10.8 Major fishing banks in Atlantic Canada 343
2006–2015 275 10.9 Lobster landings in Atlantic Canada, 1895–2014 344
9.1 British Columbia 284 10.10 Georges Bank: The Canada–US boundary 345
9.2 British Columbia basic statistics, 2015 287 10.11 Cod landings for Newfoundland/Labrador and Atlantic
9.3 The Second Narrows Bridge: Getting supertankers to Canada, 1990–2014 (metric tonnes live weight) 346
port 288 10.12 Nova Scotia offshore gas sites and pipeline system 349
9.4 Physiography of British Columbia 289 10.13 Natural resources in Atlantic Canada 352
9.5 Great Bear Rainforest Land Use Zones 292 11.1 The Territorial North 364
9.6 Map of the proposed twinning of the Trans Mountain 11.2 The Territorial North basic statistics, 2015 365
pipeline 295 11.3 Nunavut’s suicide spike 375
9.7 Westridge oil terminal expansion, Burnaby, BC 295 11.4 The Arctic Basin and national borders 377
9.8 2015 simplified seismic hazard map for British 11.5 Major urban centres in the Territorial North 381
Columbia 296 11.6 Inuit Nunangat 383
9.9 Horizontal drilling 305 11.7 Resource development in the Territorial North 391
9.10 Forest regions in British Columbia 307 12.1 Gord Downie’s The Secret Path and the death of Chanie
9.11 Prince Rupert Gas Transmission and North Montney Wenjack 398
Mainline pipelines 309 12.2 Fighting over oil revenues 400
9.12 Mines in British Columbia 311 12.3 Energy East pipeline route 402
Tables
1.1 General Characteristics of the Six Canadian Regions, 5.4 The Orientation of Canadian Trade: From North
2015 7 American to Global? 163
1.2 Social Characteristics of the Six Canadian Regions, 5.5 Industrial Structure of Canada and Regions, Percentage
2011 13 of Workers by Industrial Sector, 2015 168
2.1 Geological Time Chart 25 5.6 Provincial Unemployment Rates, 2007, 2009, 2014, and
2.2 Latitude and Longitude of Selected Centres 38 2015 (percentage of total labour force) 169
2.3 Climatic Types 44 5.7 Federal Equalization Payments to Provinces, Fiscal Year
2.4 Air Masses Affecting Canada 44 2016–2017 170
2.5 Canada’s Drainage Basins 50 6.1 Equalization Payments to Ontario, 2009–10 to 2016–17
3.1 Timeline: Old World Hunters to Contact with ($ millions) 177
Europeans 62 6.2 Ontario Industrial Sectors by Number of Workers, 2005
3.2 Population of the Red River Settlement, 1869 69 and 2016 190
3.3 Canada’s Population by Provinces and Territories, 1901 6.3 Ontario Motor Vehicle Production, 1999–2014 195
and 1921 70 6.4 Ontario Automobile Assembly Plants, 2015 196
3.4 Timeline: Territorial Evolution of Canada 74 6.5 Population of Census Metropolitan Areas in Southern
3.5 Timeline: Evolution of Canada’s Internal Boundaries 79 Ontario, 2001 and 2015 197
3.6 Members of the House of Commons by Geographic 6.6 Population of Northern Ontario CMAs, 2001–2015 204
Region, 1911 and 2015 80 6.7 Population of Cities and Towns in Northern Ontario,
3.7 Modern Land Claim Agreements, 1975–2014 92 2001–2011 204
3.8 Population in Western Canada by Province, 7.1 Timeline: Historical Milestones in New France 221
1871–1911 100 7.2 Timeline: Historical Milestones in the British Colony of
3.9 Population of Western Canada by Ethnic Group, Lower Canada 223
1916 102 7.3 Timeline: Historical Milestones for Québec in
3.10 Population by Colony or Province, 1841–1871 (%) 106 Confederation 225
4.1 Population Size, Increase, and % Change by Geographic 7.4 Québec Industrial Sectors by Number of Workers, 2005
Region, 2001–2016 117 and 2016 228
4.2 Phases in the Demographic Transition Theory 118 7.5 Population of Census Metropolitan Areas in Québec,
4.3 Canada’s Rate of Natural Increase, 1851–2015 119 2001 and 2015 237
4.4 Population Density by Region, Canada, 2016 121 7.6 Population Change: Montréal and Toronto, 1951–2015
4.5 Population Zones, 2016 122 (000s) 238
4.6 Population of Census Metropolitan Areas, 2006 and 8.1 Western Canada: Population and GDP, 2015 261
2015 127 8.2 Western Canada Industrial Sectors by Number of
4.7 Major Phases for the Indigenous Population in Workers, 2005 and 2016 (000s) 261
Canada 132 8.3 Leading Crops by Acreage in Western Canada,
4.8 Indigenous Population by Identity, Canada and Regions, 2016 268
2001 and 2011 133 8.4 Recently Proposed Oil Pipelines to Tidewater 273
4.9 Ethnic Origins of Canadians, 1996 and 2011 136 8.5 Uranium Mines and Mills in Northern
5.1 Historic Shifts in Canada’s Industrial Structure 152 Saskatchewan 276
5.2 Major Economic Revolutions over the 8.6 Forested Areas by Province, Western Canada 276
Last 10,000 Years 153 8.7 Census Metropolitan Areas in Western Canada,
5.3 Canada’s Annual Unemployment Rate, 2006–2016 158 2001–2015 278
 Tables xi

8.8 Population of Small Cities, 2001–2011 279 10.4 Value of Resources, 2014 ($ millions) 347
8.9 Indigenous Population by Province, Western 10.5 Population Change in Atlantic Canada, 1996–2016 356
Canada 279 10.6 Census Metropolitan Areas in Atlantic Canada,
9.1 Exports through British Columbia, 2001, 2006, 2009, 2001–2015 357
and 2015 301 10.7 Urban Centres in Atlantic Canada, 2001 and 2011 358
9.2 British Columbia Industrial Sectors by Number of 11.1 Petroleum Resources in the Territorial North 378
Workers, 2005 and 2016 302 11.2 Capital Cities in the Territorial North 381
9.3 Census Metropolitan Areas in British Columbia, 11.3 Population and Indigenous Population, Territorial North,
2001–2015 315 2001–2015 382
9.4 Urban Centres in British Columbia, 2001–2011 316 11.4 Components of Population Growth for the Territories,
10.1 Basic Statistics for Atlantic Canada by Province, 2015 382
2015 325 11.5 Estimated Employment by Industrial Sector, Territorial
10.2 Atlantic Canada Industrial Sectors by Number of North, 2015 383
Workers, 2005 and 2016 339 11.6 Comprehensive Land Claim Agreements in the Territorial
10.3 Value of Commercial Atlantic Coast/Gulf of North 386
St Lawrence Fish Landings, by Province, 2014 11.7 Mineral and Petroleum Production in the Territorial
($ millions) 344 North, 2014 ($ millions) 393
Boxes
Vignette Boxes

1.1 Curiosity: The Starting Point for Geography 4 5.5 New Link in the North–South Transportation
1.2 Canadian Unity: A Powerful Force 12 System 160
1.3 Indigenous Peoples, Modern Land Claims, and 6.1 Ontario’s Snowbelts 180
Resource-Sharing 15 6.2 The Welland Canal 184
1.4 Does Time Temper All? 16 6.3 Timeline of the Caledonia Dispute 187
2.1 Two Different Geographies 22 6.4 Hamilton: Steel City or Rust Town? 198
2.2 The Earth’s Crust and Major Types of Rocks 23 7.1 The Quiet Revolution and Natural
2.3 Alpine Glaciation, Glaciers, and Water for Rate of Population Increase 215
the Prairies 30 7.2 Demography Has Political Consequences 217
2.4 Cypress Hills 33 7.3 The St Lawrence River 218
2.5 Isostatic Rebound 34 7.4 Does Geography Draw Québec
2.6 Prince Edward Island 35 into the Circumpolar World? 220
2.7 Champlain Sea 36 7.5 The Rebellions of 1837–8 225
2.8 Prairie Climate Atlas 38 7.6 Administrative Regions in Québec’s North 239
2.9 Global Warming and Climate Change: What Is the 7.7 Indigenous Peoples Benefit from Resource
Difference? 40 Profit-Sharing Agreements 241
2.10 Natural Factors Affecting Global Warming 41 8.1 Water Deficit and Evapotranspiration 249
2.11 Air Masses 43 8.2 The Great Sand Hills 266
2.12 Types of Precipitation 44 8.3 Potash: Saskatchewan’s Underground Wealth 275
2.13 Fluctuations in World Temperatures 46 8.4 Winnipeg 278
3.1 Unity through the CPR 69 9.1 BC’s Precipitation: Too Much or Too Little? 291
3.2 America’s Manifest Destiny 72 9.2 Polluter Pays—Or Can a Company Dodge the
3.3 The Transfer of the Arctic Archipelago to Canada 75 Bullet? 296
3.4 The Loss of the Oregon Territory 76 9.3 Indigenous Title: Who Owns BC? 298
3.5 The Federal Government and Indigenous Peoples 82 9.4 Granville Island 316
3.6 The Failure to Create “Good Little Indians” 86 10.1 Weather in St John’s 328
3.7 From a Colonial Straitjacket to Indigenous Power 94 10.2 The Annapolis Valley 330
3.8 The Origin of the Métis Nation 97 10.3 Georges Bank 345
3.9 The Results of the 30 October 1995 Referendum 111 10.4 The Hibernia Platform 350
4.1 The Concept of Replacement Fertility 118 10.5 The Passing of the Big Commute 357
4.2 The Assembly of First Nations 132 10.6 Halifax 358
4.3 Time Heals All? 138 11.1 Sedimentary Basins 368
4.4 Charles Taylor on Multiculturalism 139 11.2 The Northwest Passage and the Franklin Search 371
4.5 Cultural Adjustment and Ethnic Neighbourhoods 140 11.3 European Diseases 372
4.6 Indigenous Realities: Family Instability and 11.4 The Arctic Council and the Circumpolar World 379
Murdered and Missing Women 144 11.5 Resource-Sharing with the Northwest
5.1 The Fourth Industrial Revolution 153 Territories, 2015 384
5.2 China: The Engine of a Commodities Super Cycle 155 11.6 Sea Transportation on the Arctic Ocean 388
5.3 The Third Super Cycle 156 11.7 Toxic Time Bombs: The Hidden Cost of Mining 392
5.4 GDP: A Measure of the Economy 158 12.1 Canadian Identities 399
 Boxes xiii

Contested Terrain Boxes

1.1 CETA and Canada’s Dairy Industry: A Central Canada 6.3 The Bailout of Chrysler and GM: Sound Public
Issue? 11 Policy? 193
2.1 The Northern Gateway Pipeline: Centripetal or 7.1 Maîtres Chez Nous 216
Centrifugal Effect? 24 8.1 Drawers of Bitumen? 271
3.1 The Supreme Court and the Métis 88 8.2 Pipeline Ruptures: Rare Events? 274
4.1 Social Engineering Often Backfires 124 9.1 Piping Oil across British Columbia 294
4.2 Immigration and Multiculturalism 141 9.2 Is Fracking Harmless? 305
4.3 Where Are the Indigenous Fathers? 145 10.1 Is the Economy All That Matters in a
5.1 Coal, the Industrial Revolution, and Global Hinterland? 337
Warming 151 10.2 Churchill Falls: Bonanza for Québec 342
6.1 Cleaner Air and Higher Electrical Costs 181 11.1 Less Ice, More Whales 369
6.2 Urban and Industrial Needs versus Precious 11.2 Global Warming and Arctic Tourism 386
Farmland 182 12.1 Are the Oil Sands in Canada’s Economic Future? 402
Preface
The purpose of this book is to introduce university historic roots in Canadian society. While they may
students to Canada’s regional geography. In study- rest dormant for some time, these raw tensions can
ing the regional geography of Canada, the student erupt into national crises. Four such stress points
gains an appreciation of the country’s amazing di- exist between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Can-
versity; learns how its regions interact with one adians; French and English Canadians; centralist
another; and grasps how regions change over time. (Ottawa and/or Central Canada) and decentralist
By developing the central theme that Canada is a (the other, less powerful regions) forces; and recent
country of regions, this text presents a number of immigrants (newcomers) and those born in Canada
images of Canada, revealing its physical, cultural, (old-timers). This book explores the nature of these
and economic diversity as well as its regional com- faultlines, the need to reach compromises, and the
plexity. Canada and its regions are involved in the fact that reaching compromises provides the coun-
global economy as never before. As a trading nation, try with its greatest strength—diversity. While more
Canada is affected by changes in world trade and progress in resolving differences is required, these
prices. These changes impact each region differ- faultlines are shown to be not divisive forces but
ently. Also, Canada’s population composition is now forces of change that ensure Canada’s existence as
highly diverse as a result of immigrants arriving an open society within the context of a country of
from around the world. These newcomers play a key regions.
role in Canada’s population growth.
The Regional Geography of Canada divides Canada into
six geographic regions: Ontario, Québec, Western Organization of the Text
Canada, British Columbia, Atlantic Canada, and This book consists of 12 chapters. Chapters 1 through
the Territorial North. Each region has a particular 5 deal with general topics related to Canada’s na-
regional geography, story, and population, and a tional and regional geographies—Canada’s physical,
unique location. These factors have determined each historical, and human geography—thereby setting
region’s character, set the direction for its develop- the stage for a discussion of the six main geographic
ment, and created a sense of place. In examining regions of Canada. Chapters 6 through 11 focus on
these themes, this book underscores the dynamic these six geographic regions. The core/periphery
nature of Canada’s regional geography, which is model provides a guide for the ordering of these re-
marked by a shift in power relations among Canada’s gions. The regional discussion begins with Ontario
regions. World trade opened Canada to global influ- and Québec, which represent the traditional demo-
ences, which, in turn, transformed each region and graphic, economic, and political core of Canada.
the relationships between the regions. This text em- The two chapters on the core regions are followed
ploys a core/periphery framework. Such an approach by our exploration of fast-growing, slow-growing,
allows the reader to comprehend more easily the and resource hinterland regions: Western Canada,
economic relations between regions as well as modi- British Columbia, Atlantic Canada, and the Territor-
fications in these relations that occur over time. A ial North. Chapter 12 provides a conclusion.
simplified version of the core/periphery framework Chapter 1 discusses the nature of regions and
takes the form of “have” and “have-not” provinces. regional geography, including the core/periphery
At the same time, social cracks within Canadian model and its applications. Chapter 2 introduces the
society provide a different insight into the nature major physiographic regions of Canada and other
of Canada and its regions. Each faultline has deep elements of physical geography that affect Canada
 Preface xv

and its regions. Chapter 3 is devoted to Canada’s China—are twofold. First, fluctuations in the global
historical geography, such as its territorial evolution economy result in “­ boom-and-bust cycles,” and
and the emergence of regional tensions and region- these cycles affect Canada and its regions. Western
alism. This discussion is followed, in C ­ hapter 4, Canada (led by Alberta and ­Saskatchewan) plus three
by an examination of the basic demographic and other resource-dependent regions—­Atlantic Canada,
social factors that influence Canada and its regions British Columbia, and the Territorial North—are
as well as its population. Chapter 5 explores the na- currently suffering from low prices for their re­sources.
tional and global economic forces that have shaped During the last boom, the opposite happened. Then
­Canada’s regions. To sharpen our awareness of how the economies of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Brit-
economic forces affect local and regional develop- ish Columbia attracted record numbers of new-
ments, four major themes running throughout this comers: migrants from other parts of Canada and
text are introduced in these first five chapters. The immigrants from abroad. High oil prices benefited
primary theme is that Canada is a country of re- Newfoundland and Labrador, though its population
gions. Two secondary themes—the integration of continued to decline. Since then, these regions have
the North American economy and the changing fallen into an economic slump.
world economy—­ reflect the recent shift in eco- Second, while Ontario and Québec remain
nomic circumstances and its effects on regional the economic and population pillars of Canada, a
geography. These two economic forces, described shift of regional power is in the wind. Over the last
as continentalism and globalization, exert both decade, Ontario and Québec have suffered a decline
positive and negative impacts on Canada and its re- in the number of workers in their manufacturing
gions, and are explored through the core/periphery sectors. This decline began with the relocation of
­model—­a model introduced in the first edition back many firms offshore, where labour costs are signifi-
in 2000 that has had its basic premises shaken by the cantly lower. Canadian manufactured goods also
uneven effects of global trade on Canada’s regions. were troubled by the so-called “Dutch disease”—a
The regional chapters explore the physical and combination of high energy prices and revenues and
human characteristics that distinguish each region a rising Canadian dollar—which made their produc-
from the others and that give each region its special tion and export more difficult, thus magnifying the
sense of place. To emphasize the uniqueness of each problems facing the industrial heartland of Canada.
region, the concept of an advanced economy, dis- All of these troubling trends came to an end in 2014.
cussed in Chapter 5, is examined in two ways: first Since then, for example, Ontario’s automobile in-
by identifying leading or spearhead industries and dustry has increased the value of its exports to the
second by a more in-depth discussion of the region’s United States.
predominant or historic economic anchor. These Reviews play an important role in crafting a
economic anchors are the automobile industry in new edition. How to recast Canada’s regions within
Ontario; Hydro-Québec in Québec; agriculture in the global economic crisis was one challenge. Others
Western Canada; forestry in British Columbia; the were to restructure the book by splitting Chapter 4
fisheries in Atlantic Canada; and megaprojects in the into two chapters, one dealing with population and
Territorial North. From this presentation, the unique the other with economic matters; and to reorder
character of each region emerges. In the concluding the sequences of regional chapters by the popula-
chapter we discuss the future of Canada and its re- tion size of each region. All revisions had the goal of
gions within the rapidly changing global economy. focusing on who we are, where we have been, and
where we are headed—individually, collectively,
and as a country of regions—all from a regional
Seventh Edition perspective.
For Canada’s regions, the consequences of recent Consequently, this new edition has experi-
global economic developments—notably the remark- enced a major overhaul in content to account for
able industrialization of Asian countries, especially changes both globally and within Canada. As well as
xvi Preface

features from the previous edition that helped stu- I have called on the resources of The National
dents make connections and understand historical Atlas of Canada and Statistics Canada to provide maps
and contemporary processes, “Contested Terrain” and statistics. As well, both organizations have cre-
boxes highlight controversial issues that make the ated important websites for geography students.
regional geography of Canada dynamic and at times These websites provide access to a wide range of
difficult for the major political actors to navigate. geographic data and maps that, because they are
Many new photos, maps, vignettes, tables, graphs, constantly updated, allow the student to access the
further readings, websites, and glossary terms aim most recently available information on Canada and
to facilitate and enrich student learning, and new its regions.
essay questions have been added to each chapter. The staff at Oxford University Press, but par-
ticularly Phyllis Wilson, made the preparation of the
seventh edition a pleasant and rewarding task. Peter
Acknowledgements Chambers, the developmental editor who worked
With each edition, I have benefited from the con- with me in the initial phases of revising the text and
structive comments of anonymous reviewers selected selecting new photographs, deserves special thanks.
by Oxford University Press. I especially owe a debt Richard Tallman, who diligently and skilfully has
of thanks to one of those reviewers who spiced his edited my manuscripts into polished finished prod-
critical comments with words of encouragement that ucts for each of the last six editions, deserves special
kept me going. As Canada has changed, so has each mention. As copy editor, Richard has become an old
edition of this book. When I look back at the first friend who often pushes me to clarify my ideas.
edition, I see a much different Canada from today. Finally, a special note of appreciation to my wife,
This transformation process is often captured in the Karen, is in order, as well as to our four wonderful
constructive comments of reviewers. grandchildren, Casey, Davis, Austyn, and Bodhi.
Important Features
of this Edition
T he seventh edition of The Regional Geography of Canada has been fully revised to incorporate the newest
­Statistics Canada data and reflect Canada’s ever-changing role in the global economy. This is reflected
in the new Chapter 4, Canada’s Human Face, on the nation’s demography, and in a new Chapter 5, Canada’s
Economic Face, on the economy. Building on the strengths of previous editions, the text takes into account
key factors in human geography such as the slow but continuing recovery from the global economic crisis
and the significant industrialization of Asian countries, which are contributing factors in shifting and re-
shaping the balance of power across the nation.
As in previous editions, the seventh edition incorporates a wide range of resources for students that
complement and enhance the text. Features appearing throughout the text include:

• New essay questions at the end of each chapter that ask students to undertake research and think
critically about important issues that have been introduced.
• New and updated “Contested Terrain” boxes that draw attention to specific issues in the regional
geography of Canada.
• New and revised vignettes that focus on issues specific to each chapter.
• New and updated “Think About It” questions that prompt students to analyze the material both
in and out of the classroom.
• New and revised cross-chapter references that highlight the interconnectedness of content across
chapters to ensure a comprehensive study of the material.
• Numerous new figures and tables that help to delineate the changing social and cultural face of
Canada and its regions.
• New and updated maps that highlight the characteristics of various regions across Canada.
• New colour photographs that engage the reader and provide strong visual references tied to the
material.

The result is a new edition that retains the strengths that have made The Regional Geography of Canada a
best-selling text while introducing new concepts and exploring topics of interest to today’s student.
 Regions
1 of Canada
Chapter Overview
The study of Canada’s regional geography provides an analysis and synthesis of Canada, and provides an
intuitive grasp of the country’s regional nature as well as the relationships between its regions. The following
topics are examined in greater detail in Chapter 1:

• Geography as a discipline.
• Regional geography.
• Canada’s geographic regions.
• The dynamic nature of Canada and its regions.
• Sense of place.
• Faultlines within Canada.
• Core/periphery theory.
• Understanding Canada’s regions.

Introduction
Geography helps us understand our world. Since Canada Canada consists of six regions. Each differs by
is such a huge and diverse country, its geography is ­location, physical geography, resources, population, and
best understood from a regional perspective. In fact, the historical development. From these differences, a strong
image of Canada as “a country of regions” runs deep in sense of regional identity exists in each region. These iden-
Canadian thought and literature, and even in the n
­ ational tities, shaped over time as people came face to face with
psyche. This image is, in fact, political reality as geog- challenges presented by their economic, physical, and
raphy and history have forged Canada into a complex social environments, produced a unique sense of place
and varied set of regions within a federal political frame- in each region as well as a deep attachment to Canada.
work. In its early years, railway building bound the coun- At the same time, each part of Canada contains powerful
try together and railways still play a unifying role (see centrifugal forces that, from time to time, erupt into frac-
­Further Reading). Each region has its own political agenda tious disagreements between the federal government and
and economic objectives that sometimes collide, causing particular regions, and these tensions pose challenges—
tensions within the federation. The core/­periphery model some serious and other less so—to Canadian unity. So
provides an overarching account of these ­regions and far, Canadians have overcome such friction through com-
their economic relationship to each other. promises and thus remain a strong and united country.

A lake near Huntsville, Ontario, an area only a few hours by car from Canada’s largest city, Toronto. The contrast between the two
areas—not just physically but culturally as well—is striking. By closely examining the reasons for such differences in places across
Canada, we can better understand country’s geographic diversity.
shsphotography/123RF
 4 The Regional Geography of Canada

Geography as Regional Geography

a Discipline
The geographic study of a particular part of the
Geography provides a description and explanation world is called regional geography. In such studies,
THINK of lands, places, and peoples beyond our personal people, interacting with their economic, physical,
ABOUT IT
experience (Vignette 1.1). De Blij and Murphy (2006: and social environments, are perceived as placing
Does a sense of
3) go so far as to state that “Geography is destiny,” their imprint on the landscape just as the land-
place still apply if
a person moves meaning that for most people, place is the most scape helps to determine their lives and activities.
from the region of powerful determinant of their life chances, experi- In layperson’s terms, the goal of regional geog-
his/her birth and ences, and opportunities. In that sense, geography raphy is to find out what makes a region “tick.”
­resettles in another
part of Canada?
sets the parameters for a person’s life opportunities, By achieving such an understanding, we gain a
and this concept transfers easily to regions and na- fuller appreciation of the complexity and diversity
tions. The concept of “place” is much more than an of our world.
area; rather, “place” refers to the community/region Regional geography has evolved over time.1
where one was born and raised, and e­ mphasizes that Originally, geographers focused their attention on
this geographical fact combines the physical place the physical aspects of a region that affected and
with the local culture. In geography, this concept of shaped the people and their institutions. Today,
place is known as a sense of place. Of course, within geographers place more emphasis on the human
Canada, there are a variety of senses of place. An Inuk side because the physical environment is largely
in Cambridge Bay has a different sense of place to a mediated through culture, economy, and technol-
Québecer in Rimouski or a Vancouverite in British ogy (Agnew, 2002; Paasi, 2003). The argument,
Columbia. Thus, sense of place reflects the attitudes based on a challenge and response paradigm, goes
and values of the ­inhabitants of particular commun- like this:
ities. Yet, sense of place has a hierarchical feature
whereby regional and ­national “layers” are added A multitude of profound and often r­ epeated
to this local palate, giving rise to both a sense of extreme experiences mark people in a
regional consciousness and a sense of national con- particular region, requiring them to re-
sciousness. As such, they combine to form a regional spond. In turn, their responses help create
identity and a national identity, and these identities a common sense of regional belonging and
are the cornerstones of regional geography. consciousness.

Vignette 1.1

Curiosity: The Starting Point for Geography

Curiosity about distant places is not a new phenomenon. The ancient Greeks were curious about the
world around them. From reports of travellers, they recognized that the earth varied from place to place
and that different peoples inhabited each place. Stimulated by the travels, writings, and map-making of
scholars such as Herodotus (484–c. 425 BCE), Aristotle (384–332 BCE), Thales (c. 625–c. 547 BCE), Ptolemy
(90–168 CE), and Eratosthenes (c. 276–c. 192 BCE), the ancient Greeks coined the word “geography” and
mapped their known world. By considering both human and physical aspects of a region, geographers
have developed an integrative approach to the study of our world. This approach, which is the essence
of geography, separates geography from other disciplines. The richness and excitement of geography
are revealed in Canada’s six regions—each region is the product of its physical setting, past events, and
contemporary issues that combine to produce a set of unique regional identities.
 1 | Regions of Canada 5

FIGURE 1.1 Gable’s regions of Canada

Political cartoonist Brian Gable aptly captured the occasionally fractured relationships between provinces and territories
with his map of Canada. In 1985, regional tensions reached the boiling point over the threat of Québec separating from
Canada. The results of the 1995 referendum were very close, but afterwards the heated political scene cooled somewhat and
political separation lost its appeal—at least for now. Fast-forward to 2017, and the stresses between regions have taken on a
more economic tone: the crippled energy industry of Alberta has seen the Canadian dollar fall; the federal deficit has climbed;
and the equalization payments are under fire.
Source: Brian Gable/The Globe and Mail/Canadian Press Images

Canada’s Geographic In this book, we examine Canada as composed

of six geographic regions (Figure 1.2):
Regions
• Atlantic Canada
The geographer’s challenge is to divide a large spa- • Québec
tial unit like Canada into a series of “like places.” • Ontario
To do so, a regional geographer is forced to make • Western Canada
a number of subjective decisions, including the se- • British Columbia
lection of “core” physical and human characteris- • Territorial North
tics that logically divide a large spatial unit into a THINK
ABOUT IT
series of regions and that distinguish each region The six regions were selected for several
Each region has
from adjacent ones. Towards the margins of a reasons. First, a huge Canada needs to be div- had its struggles
region, its core characteristics become less distinct ided into a set of manageable segments. Too with Ottawa. What
and merge with those characteristics of a neigh- many regions would distract the reader from the event(s) affected
relations between
bouring region. In that sense, boundaries separ- goal of easily grasping the basic nature of Can-
your region and
ating regions are best considered transition zones ada’s regional geography. Six regions allow us to Ottawa?
rather than finite limits. readily comprehend ­Canada’s regional geography
 6 The Regional Geography of Canada

Territorial North

British
Columbia

Western Canada
Québec

Ontario Atlantic
Canada

N
0 kilometres 500

FIGURE 1.2 The six geographic regions of Canada

The coastal boundaries of Canada are recognized by other nations except for the “sector” boundary in the Arctic Ocean,
which is shown as a dashed boundary. In the near future, the Territorial North may extend well into the Arctic Ocean and its
seabed. In 2018, Canada plans to submit to the United Nations its claim to part of the “international” portion of the continental
shelf of the Arctic Ocean. If successful, Canada may gain a portion of the Arctic Ocean’s seabed as large as the Maritimes.

For discussion of Canada’s claim to the Arctic populated and is losing population because of the
THINK seabed, see Chapter 11, especially the section titled
ABOUT IT
decline of its mining and forestry activities.
“Strategic Frontier, Arctic Sovereignty, and the Northwest
Passage,” page 376.
Second, an effort has been made to balance these
Each of the six
regions could be regions by their geographic size, economic import-
subdivided. For and to place these ­regions within a conceptual ance, and population size, thus allowing for com-
instance, a strong framework based on the core/periphery model, parisons (see Table 1.1). For this reason, Alberta is
case could be
made to divide discussed later in this chapter. This is not to say combined with Saskatchewan and Manitoba to form
Ontario into two that there are not internal r­ egions or sub-regions. Western Canada, while Newfoundland and Labrador
parts—Southern In ­Chapter 5, Ontario ­provides such an example. along with Prince Edward Island, New B ­ runswick,
and Northern
­Ontario. But even
Ontario is subdivided into Southern Ontario (the and Nova Scotia comprise Atlantic Canada. The
so, do you agree industrial core of Canada) and Northern Ontario Territorial North, consisting of three territories,
with the author’s (a resource h
­ interland). Southern O ­ ntario is Can- makes up a single region. Three provinces, Ontario,
rationale to limit
ada’s most densely populated area and contains Québec, and British Columbia, have the geographic
the number of
­regions to six? the bulk of the nation’s manufacturing industries. size, economic importance, and population size to
Northern Ontario, on the other hand, is sparsely form separate geographic regions.
 1 | Regions of Canada 7

TABLE 1.1 General Characteristics of the Six Canadian Regions, 2015

Geographic Region Area* (000 km2) Area (%) Population Population (%) GDP (%)
Ontario 1,076.4 10.8 13,850,090 38.5 38.5

Québec 1,542.1 15.4 8,284,656 23.0 19.1

Western Canada 1,960.7 19.6 6,654,345 18.5 24.8

British Columbia 944.7 9.5 4,703,939 13.1 12.7

Atlantic Canada 539.1 5.4 2,374,154 6.6 5.4

Territorial North 3,909.8 39.3 118,567 0.3 0.5

Canada 9,972.8 100.0 35,985,751 100.0 100.0

*Includes freshwater bodies such as the Canadian portion of the Great Lakes.
Source: Statistics Canada (2016a, 2016b).

Canadians understand this set of regions partly • Ontario: automobile manufacturing

because of the following features: • Québec: hydroelectric power
• British Columbia: forest industry
• They are associated with distinctive physical • Western Canada: agriculture
features, natural resources, and economic • Atlantic Canada: fisheries
activities. • The Territorial North: megaprojects
• They reflect the political structure of
Canada. The task of interpreting Canada and its six re-
• They facilitate the use of statistical data. gions poses a challenge. A spatial conceptual frame-
• They are linked to regional identity. work based on the core/periphery model helps us
• They are associated with reoccurring regional to understand the nature of this regional diversity
disputes. within the national and global economies. At the
• They replicate regional economic strengths same time, the social dimensions of Canada are cap-
and cultural presence. tured in the concept of faultlines that identify and
address deep-rooted tensions in Canadian society
The critical question is: What distinguishes each of that sometimes stir negative feelings towards Ottawa
Canada’s six regions? Certainly geographic location and even other provinces. Such tensions present an
and historical development play a key role. Equally obstacle to Canadian unity and often result in neces-
important are contemporary elements such as vari- sary adjustments to the regional nature of Canada.
ations in area, population, and economic strength These faultlines require a reaction—a kind of chal-
(Table 1.1), while the proportions of French-­speaking lenge and response paradigm—that results in a con-
and Indigenous peoples in each region form ­another tinuous reshaping of Canada and its regions.
essential part of the puzzle (Table 1.2). These basic
geographic elements provide a start to understand-
ing the nature of the six regions. Further under- Geography of
standing is provided by analysis of an important
economic activity—an “economic anchor”—found
Political Power
in each region. By examining these historically and Canada and its regions are dynamic entities. Popula-
currently important economic a­ctivities for each tion provides one indicator of this dynamism. Since
region we gain detailed insights into the nature and Confederation, Canada’s population has increased
strength of each regional economy and are better about tenfold. In 1867 Canada’s population was
able to identify the challenges they face. These eco- 3.5 million and by 2015 it had reached 36 m ­ illion
nomic anchors are: (Statistics Canada, 2016a). Yet, this population increase
 8 The Regional Geography of Canada

THINK
was not distributed evenly across the c­ountry, and
this fact leads to different levels of political power
Sense of Place
ABOUT IT
in each region (Figure 1.3). By 1871, Canada had
What did Marshall
expanded its territory and population, reaching In spite of our globalized world with its homogen-
McLuhan, a famous
Canadian philoso- 3.7 million people (Statistics Canada, 2012b). While ized urban landscapes, the unique character of
pher and teacher, the combined population of Ontario and Québec had places still matters. The term “sense of place” em-
mean when he increased to 21.9 million by 2015, their percentage of bodies this perspective and provides a social co-
wrote: “Canada is
the only country
Canada’s population had declined from 75 per cent in hesiveness. Sense of place has deep roots in cultural
in the world that 1871 to 61 per cent (Statistics Canada, 2016a). Over and human geography. Leading scholars in this area
knows how to the same span of time, the western half of the country include Agnew, Cresswell, Paasi, Relph, and Tuan.
live without an
identity”?
saw its population jump from less than 100,000 to While “sense of place” has been defined and used in
11.3 ­million, forming 32 per cent of Canada’s popula- different ways, in this text the term reflects a deeply
tion. Atlantic Canada, on the other hand, had dropped felt attachment to a region by local residents who
from 21 per cent to 6.6 per cent over the same time have, over time, bonded to their region and its re-
span. This dramatic demographic shift mirrors the sulting institutions and urban landscapes. As such,
major realignment of Canada’s economy caused by sense of place provides some protection from the
global forces. Such changes pull at the ropes holding predictable cityscapes produced by economic and
the political balance of power, and in 2015 Alberta and cultural globalization. These urban features, such as
British Columbia, along with Ontario and Québec, McDonald’s restaurants, are associated with a sense
received more seats for the October 2015 federal of placelessness (Relph, 1976). Distinctive cityscapes,
election (see Chapter 4 for a more complete ­account on the other hand, provide an exclusive identity to
of the geography of political power and electoral a place that often evokes a powerful psychological
redistribution). bond between people and the locale. In sharp con-
trast, generic landscapes have global roots offering a
50 standard product. For example, Tim Hortons coffee
is the same from Vancouver to St John’s. Physical
location provides another form of sense of place.
40 Yellowknife, located on the rocky shores of Great
1871 Slave Lake, exhibits a uniquely northern character
2016 (see Photo 1.1). Yellowknife is also noted for its large
30
Indigenous population that, in 2011, accounted for
25 per cent of its residents.
%

A strong sense of place can evoke a negative

20
reaction to the federal government. Such centri-
­
fugal energy flies awkwardly within the Canadian
10
federal system. Québec provides such an example,
where culture, history, and geography have had four
centuries to nurture a strong sense of place and to
0 give birth to a nationalist movement that has, from
Atlantic Québec Ontario Western BC Territorial
Canada Canada North
time to time, sought to separate Québec from the
rest of Canada. On the other hand, natural disas-
FIGURE 1.3 Regional populations by percentage, 1871 and 2016 ters often place provinces in a difficult financial
In 1867, all Canadians lived in the original four colonies. Within four years, Canada position, and provinces rely on Ottawa for support.
gained sparsely populated lands, but its population geography changed little. One federal program, Disaster Financial Assistance
However, by 2016, nearly one-third of Canada population was west of Ontario,
marking the shift of the country’s centre of population gravity westward, a trend
Arrangements, eases the financial burden of the
­
that is likely to continue for the foreseeable future. provinces and provides Ottawa an opportunity to
Source: Adapted from Statistics Canada (1871 and 2016a). demonstrate its commitment to national unity.
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Essentials of
woodworking
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
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Title: Essentials of woodworking

A textbook for schools

Author: Ira Samuel Griffith

Illustrator: Edwin Victor Lawrence

Release date: October 12, 2023 [eBook #71855]

Language: English

Original publication: Peoria: The Manual Arts Press, 1908

Credits: Aaron Adrignola, Harry Lamé and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ESSENTIALS

OF WOODWORKING ***
Please see the Transcriber’s Notes
at the end of this text.
This book on woodworking contains
notes and working drawings for the
content in Correlated courses in
woodwork and mechanical drawing
by the same author, available at
Project Gutenberg.
FOREST INTERIOR. SEQUOIA NATIONAL PARK, CALIFORNIA.
 ESSENTIALS OF
WOODWORKING
A TEXTBOOK FOR
SCHOOLS

BY

Ira Samuel Griffith, A.

B.

ILLUSTRATIONS BY

E d w i n V i c to r L aw r e n c e
The Manual Arts
Press

Peoria, Illinois

Copyright
Ira Samuel Griffith
1908
 PREFACE.
An experience, somewhat extended, in teaching academic
branches of learning as well as woodworking, has convinced the
author that the most effective teaching of woodworking can be
accomplished only when its content is made a subject of as diligent
study as is that of the other and older branches. Such a study
necessitates the possession, by the student, of a text-book.
The selection of a suitable text is made difficult because of the fact
that tool processes are usually treated in connection either with
models or exercises. It is hardly to be expected that any one set of
models or of exercises, tho they may be of very great value, will fill
the needs of varying local school conditions. The production of a
text-book which shall deal with tool processes in a general way
without reference to any particular set of models or exercises is the
author’s aim. It is believed that such a text will prove suitable
wherever the essentials of woodworking shall be taught, whether in
grammar, high school or college, and whatever the system of
instruction.
A few words as to the manner of using the text seem advisable. It
is not expected that the book will be studied chapter by chapter,
consecutively, as are the elementary texts in mathematics or
science. Rather, it is to be studied topically. To illustrate: A class is to
make a model, project, exercise, or whatever we may choose to call
it, which will require a knowledge of certain tools and the manner of
using them. At a period previous to their intended use the numbers
of the sections of the text relating to these tools and their uses, or
the page numbers, should be given the student. Previous to the
period in which these tools are to be used he should be required to
study the sections so marked. The recitation upon the assigned text
should take place at the beginning of the period following that of the
assignment, and may be conducted in a manner quite similar to that
of academic branches.
 This should prepare the way and make intelligible the
“demonstration” which may be given in connection with the recitation
or at its close.
If as thoro a knowledge of the matter studied is insisted upon in
the recitation as is insisted upon in the academic classroom, there
need be but little excuse for ignorance on the part of the pupil when
he begins his work or at any subsequent time.
Acknowledgement is due the Department of Forestry, Washington,
D. C., for the use of material contained in the chapter on Woods and
for the prints from which many of the half-tones relating to forestry,
were produced.
 INTRODUCTION.
Care of Tools and Bench.
It is important that a beginner should become impressed with the
importance of keeping his tools in the best condition. Good results
can be obtained only when tools are kept sharp and clean, and used
only for the purposes for which they are made. Tools properly
sharpened and properly used permit one to work easily as well as
accurately. When it becomes necessary for the worker to use undue
strength because of the dullness of his tools, “troubles” begin to
accumulate and the “pleasure of doing” is soon changed to despair.
Orderliness and carefulness, with knowledge and patience are
sure to bring good results; just as a lack of them will bring failure.
The bench top must not be marked with pencil or scratched
unnecessarily. Chisel boards are to protect the top from any
accidental cuts and should always be used for that purpose. Bench
tops that are scraped and shellaced or oiled every other year ought
to remain in as good condition as when new except for the few
accidental marks too deep to remove, which the thoughtless boy
may have inflicted.
Good workers take pride in keeping their benches in good order.
Tools that are not in immediate use should be placed in their racks
that they may not be injured or cause injury to the worker. At the
close of the period the bright parts of tools that have come in contact
with perspiring hands should be wiped off with oily waste kept for
that purpose. All tools should then be put away in their proper places
and the top of the bench brushed clean.
The beginner should also understand that, important as are the
results he may be able to produce in wood, more serious results are
being produced in himself in the habits he is forming. Carefulness,
neatness, accuracy, ability to economize in time and material, ability
to “think” and “to do” because of the thinking, honesty, orderliness—
these are some of the more important results that are oftentimes
overlooked.
 CONTENTS.

Introduction.

Care of tools and bench 3

PART I.

Tools and Elementary Processes.

Chapter I.—Laying-out Tools; Their Uses 9

1. The rule; 2. The try-square; 3. The framing
square; 4. The bevel; 5. The marking gage; 6.
The pencil gage; 7. Splitting gage; 8. The
mortise gage; 9. The Dividers; 10. Pencil and
knife.
Chapter II.—Saws 20
11. Saws; 12. The crosscut saw; 13. The rip-
saw; 14. The back-saw; 15. The turning saw;
16. The compass saw; 17. Saw filing.
Chapter III.—Planes 28
18. Planes; 19. Setting the blade; 20.
Adjustment of the iron; 21. The jack-plane;
22. The smooth-plane; 23. The jointer; 24.
The block-plane; 25. The wooden plane; 26.
Planing first surface true; 27. Face side, face
 edge; 28. Planing first edge square with face
side; 29. Finishing the second edge; 30.
Finishing the second side; 31. Planing the
first end square; 32. Finishing the second
end; 33. End planing with the shooting board;
34. Rules for planing to dimensions; 35.
Planing a chamfer.
Chapter IV.—Boring Tools 46
36. Brace or bitstock; 37. Center bit; 38. The
auger bit; 39. The drill bit; The gimlet bit; 40.
Countersink bit; 41. The screwdriver bit; 42.
The brad-awl; 43. Positions while boring; 44.
Thru boring; 45. Boring to depth.
Chapter V.—Chisels and Chiseling 53
46. Chisels; 47. Horizontal paring across the
grain; 48. Vertical paring; 49. Oblique and
curved line paring; 50. Paring chamfers; 51.
The firmer gouge; 52. Grinding beveled edge
tools; 53. Whetting beveled edge tools; 54.
Oilstones; 55. Sharpening the chisel; 56.
Sharpening plane-irons; 57. To tell whether a
tool is sharp or not.
Chapter VI.—Form Work; Modeling 65
58. Making a cylinder; 59. The spokeshave;
60. Making curved edges; 61. Modeling.
Chapter VII.—1. Laying Out Duplicate Parts;
2. Scraping and Sandpapering; 3.
Fastening Parts 70
62. Laying out duplicate parts; 63. Scraping;
64. Sandpapering; 65. Hammers; 66. Nails;
67. Nailing; 68. Nailset; 69. Withdrawing
 nails; 70. The screwdriver; 71. Screws; 72.
Fastening with screws; 73. Glue; 74. Clamps;
75. Gluing.

PART II.

Simple Joinery.

Chapter VIII.—Type Forms 84

76. Joinery; 77. General directions for joinery;
78. Dado; 79. Directions for dado; 80. Cross-
lap joint; 81. Directions for cross-lap joint, first
method; 82. Directions for cross-lap joint,
second method; 83. Glue joint; 84. Directions
for glue joint; 85. Doweling; 86. Directions for
doweling; 87. Keyed tenon-and-mortise; 88.
Directions for key; 89. Directions for tenon;
90. Directions for mortise; 91. Directions for
mortise in the tenon; 92. Blind mortise-and-
tenon; 93. Directions for tenon; 94. Directions
for laying out mortise; 95. Directions for
cutting mortise, first method; 96. Directions
for cutting mortise, second method; 97. Miter
joint; 98. Directions for miter joint; 99.
Dovetail joint; 100. Directions for dovetail
joint.
Chapter IX.—Elementary Cabinet Work 105
101. Combination plane; 102. Drawer
construction; 103. Directions for rabbeted
corner; 104. Directions for dovetail corner;
105. Directions for drawer; 106. Paneling;
107. Cutting grooves; 108. Haunched
mortise-and-tenon; 109. Rabbeting; 110.
 Fitting a door; 111. Hinging a door; 112.
Locks.

PART III.

Wood and Wood Finishing.

Chapter X.—Wood 116

113. Structure; 114. Growth; 115. Respiration
and transpiration; 116. Moisture; 117.
Shrinkage; 118. Weight; 119. Other
properties; 120. Grain.
Chapter XI.—Lumbering and Milling 126
121. Lumbering; 122. Milling; 123. Quarter
sawing; 124. Waste; 125. Lumber
transportation; 126. Seasoning; 127. Lumber
terms and measurements.
Chapter XII.—Common Woods 138
128. Classification. Coniferous woods; 129.
Cedar; 130. Cypress; 131. Pine; 132. Spruce.
Broad-leaved woods; 133. Ash; 134.
Basswood; 135. Birch; 136. Butternut; 137.
Cherry; 138. Chestnut; 139. Elm; 140. Gum;
141. Hickory; 142. Maple; 143. Oak; 144.
Sycamore; 145. Tulip wood; 146. Walnut.
Chapter XIII.—Wood Finishing 150
147. Wood finishes; 148. Brushes; 149.
General directions for using brush; 150.
Fillers; 151. Filling with paste filler; 152.
Stains; 153. Waxing; 154. Varnishes; 155.
Shellac; 156. Shellac finishes; 157. Oil or
 copal varnishes; 158. Flowing copal varnish;
159. Typical finishes for coarse-grained
woods; 160. Patching; 161. Painting.
Appendix I.—Additional Joints 164

Appendix II.—Wood Finishing Recipes 171

1. Wax; 2. Water stains; 3. Oil stains; 4. Spirit
stains.
Appendix III.—Working Drawings 173
1. Instruments; 2. Conventions; 3. Projection
and relation of views; 4. Letters and figures;
5. Constructions; 6. Order of procedure.
 PART I.
TOOLS AND ELEMENTARY
PROCESSES.

CHAPTER I.
Laying-Out Tools—Their Uses.

1. The Rule.—The foot rule is used as a unit of measurement in

woodwork. The rule ordinarily used is called a two-
foot rule because of its length. Such rules are hinged so as to fold
once or twice and are usually made of boxwood or maple. The
divisions along the outer edges, the edges opposite the center hinge,
are inches, halves, fourths, eighths, and on one side sixteenths also.
Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.
 The rule should not be laid flat on the surface to be measured but
should be stood on edge so that the knife point can be made to
touch the divisions on the rule and the wood at the same time. Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.

Whenever there are several measurements to be made along a

straight line, the rule should not be raised until all are made, for with
each placing of the rule errors are likely to occur.
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