INTRODUCTION

In electronics, an analog-to-digital converter (ADC, A/D, or A-to-D) is a system that

converts an analog signal, such as a sound picked up by a microphone or light entering a digital
camera, into a digital signal. An ADC may also provide an isolated measurement such as
an electronic device that converts an analog input voltage or current to a digital number
representing the magnitude of the voltage or current. Typically the digital output is a two's
complement binary number that is proportional to the input, but there are other possibilities.
There are several ADC architectures. Due to the complexity and the need for precisely
matched components, all but the most specialized ADCs are implemented as integrated
circuits (ICs). These typically take the form of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) mixed-
signal integrated circuit chips that integrate both analog and digital circuits.
A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) performs the reverse function; it converts a digital signal
into an analog signal.

The following figure depicts the

Block Diagram of an Analog to Digital converter

From this figure, it is clear that the input to an analog to digital converter is an analog or natural
signal and the output is a digital or discrete time signal.
In practical systems, the analog to digital converter serves as an interface between external
environment and a digital system.
COMPONENT USED
1.ARDUINO UNO
Arduino UNO is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P. It has 14 digital
input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic
resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header and a reset button. It contains
everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB
cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.

Arduino UNO

2.Breadboard
A breadboard (sometimes called protoboard) is essentially the foundation to construct and
prototype electronics. A breadboard allows for easy and quick creation of temporary electronic
circuits or to carry out experiments with circuit design. Breadboards enable developers to easily
connect components or wires thanks to the rows and columns of internally connected spring
clips underneath the perforated plastic enclosure. The grid is made up of perfectly aligned
spring clip holes that are 0.1″ apart in both the X and Y dimensions.

Breadboard
3.Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope (informally scope or O-scope) is a type of electronic test instrument that
graphically displays varying voltages of one or more signals as a function of time. Their main
purpose is capturing information on electrical signals for debugging, analysis, or
characterization. The displayed waveform can then be analyzed for properties such
as amplitude, frequency, rise time, time interval, distortion, and others. Originally, calculation
of these values required manually measuring the waveform against the scales built into the
screen of the instrument. Modern digital instruments may calculate and display these properties
directly.

Oscilloscope

4.555 Timer IC
The 555 timer IC is an integral part of electronics projects. Be it a simple project involving a
single 8-bit microcontroller and some peripherals or a complex one involving system on chips
(SoCs), a 555 timer is involved. These provide time delays, as an oscillator and as a flip-flop
element among other applications.

555 Timer IC
5.Capacitor
This is a very common 0.1uF capacitor. Used on all sorts of applications to decouple ICs from
power supplies. 0.1" spaced leads make this a perfect candidate for breadboarding and perf
boarding. Rated at 50V.

0.1uF Capacitor

6. Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that forms an
adjustable voltage divider.[1] If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it acts as
a variable resistor or rheostat. The measuring instrument called a potentiometer is essentially
a voltage divider used for measuring electric potential (voltage); the component is an
implementation of the same principle, hence its name. Potentiometers are commonly used to
control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment. It is also used in speed
control of fans. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers.

Potentiometer

7.Resistors
A 1k resistor is an electronic component that has a resistance of 1,000 ohms and is used to
reduce the flow of electric current in a circuit. The "k" in 1k is an abbreviation for the prefix
"kilo" which means 1,000. Resistors are passive components that are often used to limit the
current in a circuit to protect other components from damage. The value of a resistor is
measured in ohms, which is represented by the symbol Ω (omega).
WORKING OF ADC ON ARDUINO
1. Analog Signal Input:
 Arduino boards, like the Arduino Uno, have analog input pins (A0 to A5 for Uno)
that can read voltages between 0V and 5V.
 The ADC is used to convert the voltage value from these pins into a digital value.

2. Conversion Process:
 The Arduino’s ADC works using a process called successive approximation. It
converts the analog signal into a 10-bit digital number. This means that the ADC can
output a value between 0 and 1023, where:
o 0 corresponds to 0V (the minimum voltage).
o 1023 corresponds to 5V (the maximum voltage).
 The input voltage is compared against a reference voltage, which is typically 5V on
many Arduino boards, and the ADC produces a digital representation of the analog
voltage relative to this reference.

3. Resolution:
 10-bit resolution means that the input voltage is divided into 1024 discrete levels. For
example, if the reference voltage is 5V, each step in the 10-bit digital value represents
approximately 5V / 1024 = 0.0049V (or about 4.9 millivolts).

4.Sampling:
 The ADC on the Arduino reads the input voltage at a particular sampling rate. For the
Arduino Uno, this is typically around 10 kHz for 10-bit resolution.
Arduino Code Example: Here is an example Arduino code that reads an analog value
and prints it to the Serial Monitor:
Arduino Code
Arduino code that reads an analog value and prints it to the Serial Monitor:

/*
* Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) with 555 and Arduino
*
* Copyright (C) 2018 Oğuzhan Eroğlu <[email protected]>
* Licensed under The MIT License (MIT)
*
*/

byte PULSE_PIN = 2;

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
pinMode(PULSE_PIN, INPUT);
}

unsigned int val;

unsigned long prev_time = 0;

unsigned int con = 0;

unsigned int coff = 0;
unsigned int pval = 0;
unsigned int bps = 0;

void loop() {
unsigned long curr_time = micros();

if ((curr_time - prev_time) >= 1000000/10) {

 prev_time = micros();

Serial.print("BPS: ");
Serial.print(bps);
Serial.print(" - CON: ");
Serial.print(con);
Serial.print(" - COFF: ");
Serial.println(coff);

con = 0;
coff = 0;
bps = 0;
}

val = digitalRead(PULSE_PIN);

if (pval != val) {
pval = val;
bps++;
}

if (val) {
con++;
} else {
coff++;
}
}
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Schematic Diagram of Analog to Digital Convertor

RESULTS
Arduino Uno has 6 0n-board ADC channels which can be used to read analog signal in the
range 0-5V. It has 10-bit ADC means it will give digital value in the range of 0 – 1023
(2^10). This is called as a resolution which indicates the number of discrete values it can
produce over the range of analog values.

CONCLUSIONS
The analog-to-digital conversion in Arduino allows you to interface with real-world analog
signals. The built-in ADC is useful for a wide range of applications, including sensors that
provide analog output, like temperature, light, or sound sensors.
REFERENCES
1. "Jitter effects on Analog to Digital and Digital to Analog Converters" (PDF).
Retrieved August 19, 2012.
2. Löhning, Michael; Fettweis, Gerhard (2007). "The effects of aperture jitter and clock
jitter in wideband ADCs". Computer Standards & Interfaces Archive. 29 (1): 11–
18. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.3.9217. doi:10.1016/j.csi.2005.12.005.
3. Redmayne, Derek; Steer, Alison (December 8, 2008), "Understanding the effect of
clock jitter on high-speed ADCs", eetimes.com
4. "RF-Sampling and GSPS ADCs – Breakthrough ADCs Revolutionize Radio
Architectures" (PDF). Texas Instruments. Archived (PDF) from the original on
October 9, 2022. Retrieved November 4, 2013.
5. "Voltage-to-Frequency Analog-to-Digital Converters". globalspec.com