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784 - Semiconductor Physics Laboratory Manual - BBS09022

The document is a laboratory manual for the Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022) for B. Tech. Computer Science & Engineering students for the 2024-2025 Odd semester. It outlines various experiments, including the determination of Planck's constant, I-V characteristics of diodes, and properties of optical fibers, detailing the aims, materials, procedures, and expected outcomes for each experiment. Students are required to document specific sections of each experiment in their laboratory notebooks.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
12 views33 pages

784 - Semiconductor Physics Laboratory Manual - BBS09022

The document is a laboratory manual for the Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022) for B. Tech. Computer Science & Engineering students for the 2024-2025 Odd semester. It outlines various experiments, including the determination of Planck's constant, I-V characteristics of diodes, and properties of optical fibers, detailing the aims, materials, procedures, and expected outcomes for each experiment. Students are required to document specific sections of each experiment in their laboratory notebooks.

Uploaded by

ghantidebanjan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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B. Tech.

Computer Science & Engineering (DS, AIML, CYS) 1st Semester


Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022)
2024-2025 Odd

Laboratory Manual
Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022)
_____________________________________________________________________
Table of Contents

Experiment/Lab
Module Page
Exercise/Activity Name of the Experiment/Activity/Exercise
No. Number(s)
No.
Determination of Planck’s constant by Einstein’s photoelectric
I 1 02-04
effect equation. [2H]
Forward bias I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode and
a 2 05-08
determination of rac and rdc. [4H]
I-V characteristics of Zener diode in reverse bias condition and
II b 3 09-11
determination of rac and rdc. [4H]
To draw the load and line regulation characteristics of a Zener
c 4 12-15
diode and determination of percentage regulation. [4H]
Determination of the numerical aperture of an optical fiber.
a 5 16-18
[2H]
III
b 6 To determine the attenuation coefficient in optical fiber. [2H] 19-22

Determination of bandgap of a given semiconductor by four


a 7 23-25
probe method. [4H]
IV
b 8 Determination of Hall coefficient of a semiconductor. [4H] 26-29

To find the resonant frequency of a series L-C-R circuit and


V 9 30-33
also to determine its quality factor. [4H]

Students need to write sections 5, 8, 9, 10 and 7 of each experiment in their laboratory note book.

Prepared by the faculty members of the Department of Physics


Brainware University, Kolkata 1
B. Tech. Computer Science & Engineering (DS, AIML, CYS) 1st Semester
Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022)
2024-2025 Odd

Experiment 1 : Determination of Planck’s constant by Einstein’s photoelectric


effect equation

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To determine the Planck’s constant and work function of the metal by
using Einstein’s photoelectric effect equation.

2. Learning Outcomes: Understand the Planck’s constant, work function of metal and Photoelectric
effect.

3. Prerequisites: Students should have knowledge about Photoelectric effect. They also should know the
actual value of Planck’s constant.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus/Devices/Software required:
Photoelectric effect apparatus:
• Photo Sensitive Device: Vacuum photo tube.
• Light source: Halogen tungsten lamp 12 V/35 W.
• Monochromatic Filters: 635 nm, 570 nm, 540 nm, 500 nm, and 460 nm.
• Accelerating Voltage: Regulated Voltage Power Supply

5. Introduction and Theory:


From Einstein’s photoelectric equation, we know
1 2
ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝜈0 + 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
= ℎ𝜈0 + 𝑒𝑉𝑠

= 𝜙 + 𝑒𝑉𝑠 … … … (1)

where 𝜈 = frequency of incident light, 𝜈0 = threshold frequency,


ℎ = Planck’s constant,
𝑚 = mass of electron, 𝑒 = charge of an electron, 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = maximum possible velocity of electron,
𝑉𝑠 = stopping potential,
𝜙 = ℎ𝜈0 = work function of the metal.
𝜕𝑉𝑠
Now if we draw a graph (𝑉𝑠 vs 𝜈) then from this graph we can get a slope 𝜕𝜈
. Therefore, from the
equation (1) we can write
𝜕𝑉𝑠
ℎ=𝑒 … … … (2)
𝜕𝜈

Prepared by the faculty members of the Department of Physics


Brainware University, Kolkata 2
B. Tech. Computer Science & Engineering (DS, AIML, CYS) 1st Semester
Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022)
2024-2025 Odd

6. Operating Procedure:
(i) Set up a photoelectric apparatus consisting of a vacuum tube with a photosensitive material (such
as a metal) as the cathode and a light source.
(ii) At a certain voltage, the photoelectric current will reach zero. This voltage is known as the stopping
potential. Measure the stopping potential for different incident light frequencies by using different
color filters.
(iii) Make sure to maintain a constant intensity of light while changing the color filters.
(iv) Plot a graph by plotting frequency along the x-axis and stopping potential along the y-axis.
(v) The graph should be a straight line.
(vi) Calculate the slope.
(vii) By measuring the slope from the graph, Planck’s constant, ℎ can be determined by using the
formula ℎ = 𝑒 × slope.
(viii) The minimum energy required to liberate a photoelectron from the metal surface is called the
ℎ𝜈0
work functions of that metal. Work function can be determined by using the formula 𝜙 = 𝑒
(in
eV), where 𝜈0 is the threshold frequency.

8. Observations:

Colour of filter Wavelength 𝝀 (nm) Frequency 𝝂 (Hz) Stopping Potential 𝑉𝑠 (Volt)

Red
Yellow I
Yellow II
Green
Blue

9. Calculations & Analysis:


We have drawn a graph (𝑉𝑠 vs 𝜈). From the graph, Slope = ________ Volt.s.
Planck’s constant (ℎ) = slope × 𝑒 = _________ Js.

Threshold frequency (𝜈) = _______ Hz.


ℎ𝜈0
Work function (𝜙) = 𝑒
eV = _________.

10. Result & Interpretation:

Standard value of Planck’s constant = 6.626 × 10−34 Js.


Experimental value of Planck’s constant = _____________ Js.
Work function = ___________ eV.

Prepared by the faculty members of the Department of Physics


Brainware University, Kolkata 3
B. Tech. Computer Science & Engineering (DS, AIML, CYS) 1st Semester
Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022)
2024-2025 Odd

11. Follow-up Questions:

i) What is the photoelectric effect?


Ans: The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from a metal when it absorbs
photons (particles of light) with sufficient energy. This effect was first explained by Albert Einstein in 1905
and played a crucial role in the development of quantum mechanics and our understanding of the particle
nature of light.

ii) What is threshold frequency?


Ans: The threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of light (or photons) required to initiate the
photoelectric effect for a specific material.
If the frequency of incident light is below the threshold frequency, no photoelectrons will be emitted from
the material, regardless of the light intensity.

iii) What is the work function of metal?


Ans: The work function (𝜙) of a metal is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the
surface of the metal. It is usually measured in electron-volts (eV) or joules (J).

iv) What is the value and dimension of Planck’s constant?


Ans: The value of Planck’s constant is 6.626 × 10−34 Js. The dimension of Planck’s constant is [ML2T-1].

v) What do you mean by stopping potential?


Ans: The minimum voltage required between the cathode and anode of the photocell which makes the
photocurrent zero is called the stopping potential.

12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable):

13. Assessments:

14. Suggested readings: Textbooks and reference books as per syllabus.

Prepared by the faculty members of the Department of Physics


Brainware University, Kolkata 4
B. Tech. Computer Science & Engineering (DS, AIML, CYS) 1st Semester
Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022)
2024-2025 Odd

Experiment 2 : Forward bias I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode and


determination of rac and rdc

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To study the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of p-n junction
diode in forward bias.

2. Learning Outcomes: Determination of dynamic (𝑟𝑎𝑐 ) and static (𝑟𝑑𝑐 ) resistances of p-n junction diode
in forward bias.

3. Prerequisites: It is essential to have a basic understanding of how a p-n junction diode works in
forward bias and a basic knowledge of plotting graphs on graph paper.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus / Devices/Software required: Power supply, Ammeter, Voltmeter,


p-n junction diode, Circuit Board, Connecting Wires.

5. Introduction and Theory:

Fig: Circuit diagram of p-n junction diode under forward bias

When a p-side and n-side of a p-n junction diode are connected with the +ve and −ve terminals of a battery,
respectively, then the diode is said to be forward-biased. If the applied forward voltage is 𝑉 volt across the
diode, current flowing through it is given by,
𝑒𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) …………….. (1)
𝜂𝑘𝐵 𝑇
where, 𝐼𝑆 = reverse saturation current,
𝑒 = magnitude of electron’s charge,
𝑘𝐵 = Boltzmann constant,
𝑇 = absolute temperature,
𝜂 = numerical constant depending on the material of the diode (for Ge, 𝜂 = 1 and Si, 𝜂 = 2).

If the diode current 𝐼 is plotted as a function of the forward voltage 𝑉, the resulting curve is known as the static
characteristics curve. At a specified point 𝑃, the dc and ac resistance of the diode can be determined from I-V
characteristics curve by using the relation at a relevant point (𝑃).
𝑉
𝑟𝑑𝑐 (at 𝑃) =
𝐼

Prepared by the faculty members of the Department of Physics


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2024-2025 Odd

𝜕𝑉
𝑟𝑎𝑐 (at 𝑃) = .
𝜕𝐼

6. Operating Procedure:
(i) Set up the circuit of forward bias of p-n junction diode on the circuit board. Connect the p-side of
the p-n junction diode to the positive terminal of the power supply and n-side of the diode to the
negative terminal of the power supply to make forward biasing of p-n junction diode. Add a series
resistor in line with the diode to limit the current and prevent damage.
(ii) Set the forward bias voltage to a low value and gradually increase the voltage across the diode
using the power supply while noting the corresponding current values from the ammeter.
(iii) Record multiple voltage-current pairs for various forward bias voltage values.
(iv) Plot a graph with voltage on the x-axis and current on the y-axis. This graph will show the forward
bias I-V characteristics of the diode.
Determination of rac and rdc:
(i) For the I-V characteristics of p-n junction diode, observe the slope of the curve around the
operating point 𝑃 (where the diode is operating in the normal conducting region). The dynamic
resistance 𝑟𝑎𝑐 can be approximated as the reciprocal of the slope of the I-V curve at that point:
1 1 𝜕𝑉
𝑟𝑎𝑐 = = = .
slope 𝜕𝐼 𝜕𝐼
𝜕𝑉
(ii) The static resistance 𝑟𝑑𝑐 can be approximated at any specified point 𝑃 on the I-V characteristics
curve by the following formula:
𝑉
𝑟𝑑𝑐 = .
𝐼

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting:


I. The voltmeter and the ammeter should be connected in parallel and in series, respectively, to the
diode.
II. Connection should be proper and tight.
III. The supply switch ‘ON’ should be pressed after completing the circuit.
IV. DC supply should be increased slowly in steps.
V. Reading of the ammeter and voltmeter should be taken, avoiding parallax.

8. Observations:

No. of observation Forward voltage(𝑉) in volt Forward current (𝐼) in mA


1
2
3
4
.
.

Prepared by the faculty members of the Department of Physics


Brainware University, Kolkata 6
B. Tech. Computer Science & Engineering (DS, AIML, CYS) 1st Semester
Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022)
2024-2025 Odd

9. Calculations & Analysis:


At a specified point P on the I-V curve 𝑟𝑑𝑐 and 𝑟𝑎𝑐 can be calculated by using the following relations:
𝑉
𝑟𝑑𝑐 (𝑎𝑡 𝑃) =
𝐼
𝜕𝑉
𝑟𝑎𝑐 (𝑎𝑡 𝑃) =
𝜕𝐼

10. Result & Interpretation:


Forward bias characteristics for a p-n diode are observed. Exponential increase of 𝐼 with increase of 𝑉 is
found under forward bias.
The obtained value of static resistance from I-V characteristics curve, 𝑟𝑑𝑐 (at 𝑃) = ________ Ω.
The obtained value of dynamic resistance from I-V characteristics curve, 𝑟𝑎𝑐 (at 𝑃) = ________ Ω.

11. Follow-up Questions:


i) What is a p-n junction diode?
Ans: A p-n junction diode is a two-terminal semiconductor device that allows current to flow in one
direction (from the p-side to the n-side) while blocking current in the opposite direction. It is a device
created by combining p-type and n-type semiconductor materials.

ii) What is I-V characteristics of p-n junction diode?


Ans: The I-V (current-voltage) characteristics of a p-n junction diode describe how the current through the
diode varies with the voltage applied across it. The I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode can be
summarized as follows:
Forward Bias: Initially low current, followed by a gradual increase and then a rapid increase as voltage
increases beyond the threshold voltage.
Reverse Bias: Low reverse leakage current followed by a sudden increase in reverse current (avalanche
breakdown) when the breakdown voltage is exceeded.

iii) What is forward and reverse biasing of p-n junction diode?


Ans: Forward and reverse biasing are two common ways of applying an external voltage to a p-n junction
diode.
Forward Bias: In forward bias, the p-side of the diode is connected to the positive terminal and the n-side
is connected to the negative terminal of a voltage source.
Reverse Bias: In reverse bias, the p-type side of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of a voltage
source, and the n-type side is connected to the positive terminal.

iv) Can you identify the material of the diode by just looking at the I-V characteristics curve?
Ans: The forward current in a diode does not assume a significant value unless the forward voltage exceeds
a certain critical value, known as cut-in voltage. For a Ge diode the cut-in voltage is 0.2 V and for Si the cut-
in voltage is 0.6 V.

v) What is rdc and rac on p-n unction diode?


Ans: Static Resistance is the normal ohmic resistance in accordance with Ohm's Law. Static resistance is
also defined as the ratio of DC voltage applied across diode to the DC current or direct current flowing
through the diode.

Prepared by the faculty members of the Department of Physics


Brainware University, Kolkata 7
B. Tech. Computer Science & Engineering (DS, AIML, CYS) 1st Semester
Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022)
2024-2025 Odd

𝑉
𝑟𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼
The dynamic resistance is the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when AC voltage is applied. It
is also defined as the ratio of the change in voltage to the change in current.
𝜕𝑉
𝑟𝑎𝑐 =
𝜕𝐼

12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable):

13. Assessments:

14. Suggested readings: Textbooks and reference books as per syllabus.

Prepared by the faculty members of the Department of Physics


Brainware University, Kolkata 8
B. Tech. Computer Science & Engineering (DS, AIML, CYS) 1st Semester
Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022)
2024-2025 Odd

Experiment No 3 : I-V characteristics of Zener diode in reverse bias condition


and Determination of rac and rdc

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To study the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a Zener diode
in reverse bias condition.

2. Learning Outcomes: Determination of dynamic (𝑟𝑎𝑐 ) and static (𝑟𝑑𝑐 ) resistance of Zener diode in
reverse bias condition.

3. Prerequisites: It is essential to have a basic understanding of how a Zener diode works in reverse
bias condition and a basic knowledge of plotting graph on a graph paper.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus/Devices/Software required: Power supply, Ammeter,


Voltmeter, Zener diode, Circuit Board, Connecting Wires

5. Introduction and Theory:

Fig: Circuit diagram of reverse-biased Zener diode


When a Zener diode is reverse biased (positive voltage is applied to the n-side with respect to the p-
side) the current flowing through the diode is very small at the start. Above a certain value of reverse
voltage (breakdown voltage), the current increases rapidly although the voltage remains nearly
constant. The diode is then said to be operating in the breakdown region.
The dc or static resistance of the Zener diode at a point 𝑃 (say) is given by
𝑉𝑍
𝑟𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝑍
and the ac or dynamic resistance of the Zener diode is given by
𝜕𝑉𝑍
𝑟𝑎𝑐 = .
𝜕𝐼𝑍
Both 𝑟𝑑𝑐 and 𝑟𝑎𝑐 can be determined from the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics curve of the Zener
diode.

6. Operating Procedure:
(i) At first identify the anode (p-side) and the cathode (n-side) of the Zener diode and make the
circuit connections as shown in the given figure.

Prepared by the faculty members of the Department of Physics


Brainware University, Kolkata 9
B. Tech. Computer Science & Engineering (DS, AIML, CYS) 1st Semester
Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022)
2024-2025 Odd

(ii) Keeping the control knob of the power supply to the minimum position switch on the ac mains
operating the power supply.
(iii) Now gradually increase the reverse voltage in small steps and in each step note the reverse current
from the given ammeter.
(iv) Continue the process up to a suitable value of reverse current which must lie well below the
maximum allowable reverse current.
(v) Draw a curve by plotting the reverse voltage (V) in V along the (– ve) x-axis and the corresponding
reverse current (I) in mA along (–ve) y-axis.
(vi) Identify a small portion of the I-V curve in the breakdown region where the current and voltage
variations are small. This is typically a small signal variation around the operating point.
(iii) For the reverse characteristics of Zener diode, observe the slope of the curve around the operating
point 𝑃. The dynamic resistance is approximated as the reciprocal of the slope of the I-V curve at
that point.
1 1 𝜕𝑉
𝑟𝑎𝑐 = = = .
slope 𝜕𝐼 𝜕𝐼
𝜕𝑉
(iv) The static resistance 𝑟𝑑𝑐 can be approximated at any specified point 𝑃 on the I-V characteristics
curve by the following formula:
𝑉
𝑟𝑑𝑐 = .
𝐼

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting:


I. Care should be taken so that the current through the Zener diode does not exceed the
maximum read value. For this purpose, series resistance (𝑅𝑆 ) of proper value is used.
II. In the Zener breakdown region, voltage across the diode changes very little. Therefore, a
voltmeter with a very small gradation should be used.

8. Observations:
No. of observation Zener reverse voltage (V) in volt Zener reverse current (I) in mA
1
2
3
4
.
.

9. Calculations & Analysis:


𝑉𝑍
𝑟𝑑𝑐 (at 𝑃) =
𝐼𝑍
𝜕𝑉𝑍
𝑟𝑎𝑐 (at 𝑃) = 𝜕𝐼𝑍
.

Prepared by the faculty members of the Department of Physics


Brainware University, Kolkata 10
B. Tech. Computer Science & Engineering (DS, AIML, CYS) 1st Semester
Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022)
2024-2025 Odd

10. Result & Interpretation:

From the I-V characteristics, the obtained value of 𝑟𝑑𝑐 (at 𝑃) =_______Ω and 𝑟𝑎𝑐 (at 𝑃) = _______Ω.
Zener Breakdown is obtained (From graph) at ~________ V.

11. Follow-up Questions:


i) What is Zener diode?
Ans: A Zener diode is a silicon semiconductor device that permits current to flow in either a forward or reverse
direction. The diode consists of a special, heavily doped p-n junction, designed to conduct in the reverse
direction when a certain specified voltage (break down voltage) is reached
ii) What is reverse biasing of Zener diode?
Ans: Reverse biasing of a Zener diode refers to applying a voltage in the reverse direction across the diode's
terminals, meaning that the P-type side of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the power supply,
and the N-type side is connected to the positive terminal of the power supply. In this configuration, the diode
is operated in its breakdown region, known as the Zener breakdown.

iii) What is Zener breakdown?


Ans: Zener breakdown happens in heavily doped PN junction diodes. In these diodes, if the reverse bias
voltages reach closer to Zener Voltage, the electric field gets stronger and is sufficient enough to pull electrons
from the valance band. These electrons then gain energy from the electric field and break free from the atom.
Thus, for these diodes in the Zener breakdown region, a slight increase in the voltage causes a sudden increase
in the current.

iv) What is Avalanche Breakdown?


Ans: Avalanche breakdown is a phenomenon that occurs in semiconductor devices, particularly p-n junction
diodes, when they are operated in reverse bias. It involves the sudden and rapid increase in current due to the
generation and multiplication of electron-hole pairs within the depletion region of the diode. This breakdown
mechanism is characterized by a chain reaction of carrier generation and impact ionization, leading to a
significant increase in current flow.

v) Write down some applications of Zener diode.


Ans: Zener diodes are widely used in all kinds of electronic circuits. The two main applications are voltage
regulator and over voltage protection.

12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable):

13. Assessments:

14. Suggested readings: Textbooks and reference books as per syllabus.

Prepared by the faculty members of the Department of Physics


Brainware University, Kolkata 11
B. Tech. Computer Science & Engineering (DS, AIML, CYS) 1st Semester
Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022)
2024-2025 Odd

Experiment 4 : To draw the load and line regulation characteristics of a Zener


diode and determination of percentage regulation

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To study the load and line regulation characteristics of a Zener diode and
hence to determine the percentage regulation.

2. Learning Outcomes: To understand the performance of Zener diode as a voltage regulator.

3. Prerequisites: It is essential to have a basic understanding of how a Zener diode works in reverse bias
conditions and a basic knowledge of plotting graphs on graph paper.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus / Devices/Software required: Power supply, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Zener


diode, Circuit Board, Connecting Wires.

5. Introduction and Theory:

The voltage across a Zener diode in the breakdown region is almost constant. This property enables the
application of the Zener diode as a voltage regulator.
a) Line regulation: In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed. Only the input
voltage is varied. The output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is maintained above a
minimum value.
∆𝑉𝑜
Percentage of Line Regulation (𝑆𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 ) = × 100%
∆𝑉𝑖
where 𝑉0 is the output voltage and 𝑉𝑖 is the input voltage. ∆𝑉0 is the change in the output voltage for a
particular change in the input voltage, ∆𝑉𝑖.

b) Load regulation: In this regulation, the input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is varied. The output
voltage remains the same as long as the load resistance is maintained above a minimum value.
𝑉𝑁𝐿 − 𝑉𝐹𝐿
Percentage of Load Regulation (𝑆𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 ) = × 100%
𝑉𝐹𝐿
where 𝑉𝑁𝐿 is the no-load voltage – the output voltage corresponding to zero load current, i.e., infinite load
resistance (open-load condition) and 𝑉𝐹𝐿 is the full-load voltage – the output voltage corresponding to the
maximum load (current), i.e., the minimum load resistance.
Rs IL Rs IL

- + -
+
Vi Vi
+ RL Vo - + RL Vo
-

(a) (b)

Fig: Circuit diagram of (a) line regulation & (b) load regulation

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2024-2025 Odd

6. Operating Procedure:
Line Regulation:
(i) To study the line regulation set the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 to a suitable low value such that the voltage
across the Zener diode does not go below 𝑉𝑧 .
(ii) Adjust the load current IL to a suitable fixed value by changing 𝑅𝐿 .
(iii) Note the input (𝑉𝑖 ) and the output (𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑜 ) voltages from the connected two voltmeters
respectively.
(iv) Now increase the input voltage in small steps and at each step note 𝑉𝑖 and 𝑉𝐿 (= 𝑉𝑜 ).
(v) Check the constancy of the load current at each step and if necessary, adjust it to the chosen
fixed value by changing 𝑅𝐿 .
Load Regulation:
(i) To study the performance of the Zener diode as a voltage regulator, make the circuit
connections as shown in the figure.
(ii) Keep the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 fixed at a value much higher than 𝑉𝑧 , Zener voltage.
(iii) Disconnect 𝑅𝐿 (load Resistance). This makes 𝐼𝐿 = 0. Note the output voltage from the
voltmeter which is connected across RL. This voltage is 𝑉𝑁𝐿 .
(iv) Insert suitable high load resistance 𝑅𝐿 to get a minimum load current 𝐼𝐿 .
(v) Note this value of 𝐼𝐿 from the given ammeter and the corresponding output load voltage 𝑉𝐿
from the voltmeter.
(vi) Increase the load current 𝐼𝐿 in small steps and at each step note the readings for 𝐼𝐿 and 𝑉𝐿 .
(vii) Check the constancy of the input at every step and if necessary, adjust it.
(viii) Make sure that 𝑅𝐿 is not short-circuited in any case.

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting:


I. Care should be taken so that the current through Zener diode does not exceed the maximum
specified value. For this purpose, a series resistance (𝑅𝑆 ) of proper value is used.
II. In the Zener breakdown region, the voltage across the diode changes very little. Therefore, a
voltmeter with a very small gradation should be used.

8. Observations:
Line Regulation:
Fixed load current = …………. mA

No. of observation Input voltage(V) Load Voltage(V)

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Load Regulation:

Fixed input voltage = ………… Volt

No. of Observation Load Current (mA) Load Voltage (V)

9. Calculations & Analysis:


From the line regulation graph,
∆𝑉𝑜 = ………. Volt, ∆𝑉𝑖 = ………. Volt.
∆𝑉𝑜
Percentage Line Regulation (𝑆𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 ) = × 100%.
∆𝑉𝑖
From the load regulation graph, 𝑉𝑁𝐿 = ………. Volt, 𝑉𝐹𝐿 = ………. Volt.
𝑉𝑁𝐿 − 𝑉𝐹𝐿
Percentage load regulation (𝑆𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 ) = × 100%.
𝑉𝐹𝐿

10. Result & Interpretation:


As the line and load regulation percentages are obtained as _______ and _______, respectively, the Zener
diode is working as _______ voltage regulator.

11. Follow-up Questions:

i) How is a Zener diode used for voltage regulation?


Ans: Zener diodes are often used in voltage regulation circuits to maintain a stable output voltage regardless
of fluctuations in the input voltage. By connecting a Zener diode in reverse bias across the load, it acts as a
voltage reference, maintaining a nearly constant voltage drop across itself. This helps in stabilizing the
output voltage.

ii) What is line regulation?


Ans: In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed, only input voltage is changing.
Output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is maintained above a minimum value.

iii) What is load regulation?


Ans: In this type of regulation, input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is varying. Output volt remains
same, as long as the load resistance is maintained above a minimum value.

iv) What is the difference between p-n diode and Zener diode?

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Ans:
Basis for comparison P-N diode Zener diode
Definition It is a diode which conducts This diode allows the current to
only in one direction, i.e. in flow in both forward and
forward direction. reverse direction.
Doping Level Low High
Applications Rectification Voltage regulator

v) In a voltage regulation circuit using a Zener diode, what role does the series resistor play?
Ans: In a voltage regulation circuit using a Zener diode, the series resistor plays a crucial role in limiting the
current through the Zener diode and ensuring stable operation of the voltage regulator.

12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable):

13. Assessments:

14. Suggested readings: Textbooks and reference books as per syllabus.

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Experiment 5 : To Determine the numerical aperture of optical fiber

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To find the numerical aperture of a given optic fiber and hence to find
its acceptance angle.

2. Learning Outcomes: Understand the working procedure of optical fiber.

3. Prerequisites: Students should have basic knowledge about optical fiber.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus / Devices/Software required: Laser source, optical fiber, numerical


aperture kit, numerical aperture scale.

5. Introduction and Theory:


If 𝜃0 is the semi- vertical angle of the acceptance cone of the fiber, the numerical aperture
(abbreviated as N.A.) of the fiber is defined as sin 𝜃0 . It can be shown that
1
𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 −𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 2 1
N. A. = sin 𝜃0 = 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 [2 × 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
] = 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 [2∆]2 ………..(1)
𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = refractive index of the core,
𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = refractive index of the cladding,
𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 −𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
Δ= 𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
………..(2)

Fig.: Schematic ray diagram of optical fiber indicating the acceptance angle.
Let 𝑑 be the diameter of the circular spot on the screen at a distance 𝐿 from the fiber end, then
we can write
𝑑
2 𝑑
N. A. = sin 𝜃0 = = …………. (3)
√𝐿2 +𝑑
2 √(4𝐿2 +𝑑 2 )
4
Thus, measuring 𝑑 and 𝐿, N. A. can be calculated.

6. Operating Procedure:
i) The measurement of numerical aperture step by step procedure is as follows:
ii) First switch on the power supply of the numerical aperture kit. Red light should appear at the end
of the optical fiber.
iii) Hold a white screen (paper/graph paper) at a fixed distance from the optical fiber.

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iv) Measure the distance L from the optical fiber to the screen and also the diameter (d) of the laser
spot on the paper.
v) Substitute the measured values of 𝐿 and 𝑑 in the N.A. formula
𝑑
2 𝑑
vi) N. A. = sin 𝜃0 = = .
𝑑2 √4𝐿2 +𝑑2
√𝐿2 +
4
vii) Repeat the experiment by increasing the distance between the paper screen and the optical fiber.

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting:


I. Smaller N.A. makes it harder to launch power into the fiber.
II. In case the intensity within the circular spot is not evenly distributed, some turns of
the fiber should be wound on the mandrel.

8. Observations:

Obs. No. 𝐿 (𝑚𝑚) 𝑑(𝑚𝑚) N. A. = sin 𝜃0 𝜃0∘

𝑑
9. Calculations & Analysis: N. A. = sin 𝜃0 = .
√4𝐿2 +𝑑2

𝐿 is the distance from the optical fiber to the screen and 𝑑 is the diameter of the laser spot on the paper.

10. Result & Interpretation:


Average N. A. = …………………
Average Acceptance angle = ………………

11. Follow-up Questions:


i) What is the numerical aperture of optical fiber?
Ans: The numerical aperture (NA) of an optical fiber is a fundamental parameter that characterizes the light-
gathering ability and light-confining ability of the fiber. Mathematically, the numerical aperture of an optical
fiber is given by: NA = n * sin(θ), where: NA is the numerical aperture, n is the refractive index of the medium
surrounding the fiber (usually air), θ is the maximum angle with respect to the fiber axis at which light can
enter the fiber and still be guided by total internal reflection.
ii) What is optical fiber?
Ans: An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, and transparent filament made of glass or plastic that is used for
transmitting light signals over long distances. It serves as a waveguide, guiding light along its length through
multiple internal reflections.

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iii) What is the principle on the basis of which optical fibers work?
Ans: Optical fibers works on the principle of total internal reflection of light. When light ray strikes at the
internal surface of optical fiber called core such that incidence angle is greater than critical angle, then
incident light ray reflects in the same medium and this phenomenon repeats. In this way light signal travels
from one end of the cable to another end.

iv) Write down the numerical aperture of optical fiber in terms of refractive index of material of optical
fiber.
Ans: The numerical aperture in terms of the refractive indices of the core and cladding becomes N. A. =
√𝑛12 − 𝑛22 where, 𝑛1 is the refractive index of the core and 𝑛2 is the refractive index of the cladding.
v) What are the uses of optical fibers?
Ans: Optical fibers have a wide range of applications across various fields due to their ability to transmit light
signals over long distances with minimal signal loss. Some key applications of optical fibers are
telecommunications, internet connectivity, cable television, medical imaging, laser delivery etc.

12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable):

13. Assessments:

14. Suggested readings: Textbooks and reference books as per syllabus.

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Experiment 6 : To determine the attenuation coefficient in optical fiber

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: Determination of attenuation co-efficient in optical fiber.

2. Learning Outcomes: Understand the application of optical fiber.

3. Prerequisites: Students should have basic knowledge about optical fiber.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus/Devices/Software required: Optical fiber trainer kit, optical fiber


and laser source.

5. Introduction and Theory


In order to find attenuation loss in decibels per meter (Abbreviated as dB/m), the working
formula should be as
−𝛼𝑧
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 10 10 ………………….. (1)

where ‘z’ is the length of the fiber in meter, α is the attenuation coefficient in dB/m,

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 is the power to the input of the fiber i.e. at z = 0 and Poutput is the power at the output end i.e.
at
z = z0.
Let us consider two fibers of lengths L1 and L2 (L2 > L1), both being fed by same input ( Pinput). Let the
respective outputs be P2 and P1.Accordingly, from (1) we can write
−𝛼𝐿1
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 10 10 ………………….. (2)
−𝛼𝐿2
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 10 10 …………………... (3)

Dividing (2) by (3) we get

𝑃1 −𝛼
(𝐿 )
= 10 10 1 −𝐿2
𝑃2
𝑃 𝛼
or, log10 𝑃1 = − 10 (𝐿1 − 𝐿2 )
2

10 𝑃
or, 𝛼 = (𝐿 )
log10 1 …………………. (4)
1 −𝐿2 𝑃2

α in dB/m.

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6. Operating Procedure
The schematic diagram of the Optical Fiber loss measurement is shown in figure

Step 1 :

Connect one end of the ‘1’ Meter Optical Fiber PatchCord to LED ( P0 ) of the THP-FOEK10 and the
another end to the ‘Pin’ of the THP-FOEK’10 ( i.e. launching output power of a FO LED at 660 nm into OF
cable and output of OF cable is launching into power meter module ). Check out the Fiber is free of all
twists and strains.

Step 2 :
Connect DMM test leads to ‘Pout’ red lead to red socket and black lead to black socket respectively and
set the DMM to 2000 mV range. Now, Power Meter is ready to function.

Step 3 :

Connect Power Adapter plug to THP-FOEK10 socket ‘Vin’ and Plug the adapter to 230 VAC line. Switch on
ON/OFF switch of THP-FOEK10.

Step 4:

Adjust the ‘SET Po /If ‘ knob to set output power of the FO LED to the value, -13.5 dB m i.e. DMM reading
will be -135 mV.

Note this as Po1 .

Note : The Power Meter Module is calibrated at -13.5 dBm.

Step 5:

Remove the ‘1’ Meter OF PatchCord from THP-FOEK10 and connect ‘5’ Meter OF PatchCord as given in
Step 1.Do not disturb ‘SET Po /If’ ,note the DMM Reading/10 as P02 .

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Step 6:

Remove the one end of the ‘5’ Meter PatchCord at ‘Pin’ then connect this to one side of the provided
SMA Mating Sleeve. Another side of SMA Mating Sleeve connect with the one end of the ‘1’ Meter
PatchCord connect to the ‘Pin’ of THP-FOEK10. Note DMM reading/10 as Po3 .

( Po2 - Po3) gives loss in ‘1’ Meter OF Cable plus due to the SMA Mating Sleeve. ( Po1 - Po3) gives loss in the
‘5’ Meter OF Cable plus loss due to the SMA Mating Sleeve. Here, it is assumed that 4.8 dB is the loss in
the SMA Mating Sleeve.

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting

I. Attenuation in fiber means loss of optical power in the fiber itself. This loss may arisedue
to many aspects, some of which are as follows a) Material absorption/scattering losses, b)
micro-bending /macro-bending, c) leakage from core, d) splice/joint losses, e) Inverse square
law losses.

II. The attenuation is also a function of wavelength to be studied. Loss increases considerably
when the operating wavelength is beyond 1550 nm.

III. The attenuation for silica fiber is as small as 0.154 dB/km at operating wavelength 1550 nm.
But the attenuation can go up to 10 dB/m for fiber plastic.

8. Observations

Table 1 (Wavelength λ used = ………… nm)


Different observations correspond to different gain of output amplifier
Obs. No. P1 P2 Loss in dB/m Average loss
(dB/m)

Table 2 (Wavelength λ used = ………… nm)


Different observations correspond to different gain of output amplifier
Obs. No. P1 P2 Loss in dB/m Average loss
(dB/m)

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9. Calculations & Analysis:

10. Result & Interpretation:

11. Follow-up Questions:


i) What is attenuation in optical fiber?
Ans: The attenuation of an optical fiber measures the amount of light lost between input and output.
Total attenuation is the sum of all losses. Optical losses of a fiber are usually expressed in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km). The expression is called the fiber’s attenuation coefficient α and the expression is
10 𝑃
𝛼 = 𝐿 −𝐿 log10 𝑃1 in dB/m
2 1 2
where, 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are the power at the distances 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 .

ii) What are the main factors that contribute to attenuation in optical fibers?
Ans: Attenuation in optical fibers refers to the reduction in the intensity of an optical signal as it travels
along the length of the fiber. Overall, a combination of absorption, scattering, bending losses, and other
factors contribute to attenuation in optical fibers.
iii) What are the units of the attenuation coefficient in optical fibers?
Ans: The attenuation coefficient in optical fibers is typically measured in decibels per unit length (dB/m).
This unit is commonly used in the field of fiber optics because it provides a logarithmic representation of
how much signal strength is lost per unit length of the fiber.

iv) What is the core and cladding of optical fiber?


Ans: An optical fiber consists of two main components: the core and the cladding. The core is the
innermost part of the optical fiber and serves as the pathway for the light signal to travel. The cladding
surrounds the core and is made of a material with a slightly lower refractive index than the core.

v) Why the refractive index of the core is higher than cladding in optical fiber?
Ans: The refractive index of the core in an optical fiber is intentionally made higher than that of the
cladding to achieve a phenomenon called total internal reflection. This phenomenon of total internal
reflection allows the light signal to bounce back and forth within the core, effectively traveling along the
length of the fiber. The core's higher refractive index creates a situation where light remains confined
within the core, resulting in minimal loss of signal strength due to leakage or scattering.

12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable):

13. Assessments:

14. Suggested readings: Textbooks and reference books as per syllabus.

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Experiment 7 : Determination of bandgap of a given semiconductor by four probe


method

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To study the temperature dependence of resistivity of a


semiconductor (using four probe method) and to determine the bandgap of a given semiconductor
material (Ge).

2. Learning Outcomes: Understand the basic knowledge of the band gap of a semiconductor.

3. Prerequisites: Students should have a basic idea about semiconductors.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus / Devices/Software required


I. Four probe apparatus,
II. sample (a Ge crystal in the form of a chip),
III. oven,
IV. thermometer,
V. constant power supply,
VI. oven power supply,
VII. panel meters for measurement of current and voltage.

5. Introduction and Theory:


The energy gap between the top of the valence band (𝐸𝑣 ) and the bottom of the conduction band (𝐸𝑐 )
is known as the bandgap 𝐸𝑔 = 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑣 .
The band gap of a semiconductor is given by
𝐸𝑔
ln 𝜌 = 𝑘2𝑘 − ln 𝐴 ……………………... (2)
𝐵𝑇

where 𝜌 is the resistivity of the semiconductor,


𝑘𝐵 is the Boltzmann constant (= 8.6 × 10−5 eV/K),
𝑇 is the absolute temperature and 𝐴 is a constant.

The resistivity of the given semiconductor is given by


𝜌0
𝜌= ………………………… (3)
𝐺7 (𝑊⁄𝑆)

The correction factor:


2𝑆
𝐺7 (𝑊⁄𝑆) = 𝑊
ln 2 ……………………. (4)

𝑉
Again, 𝜌0 = 2𝜋𝑆 …………………... (5)
𝐼

where, 𝑉 is the voltage,


𝐼 is the fixed current,
𝑊 is the thickness of the sample = 0.5 mm = 0.05 cm,
𝑆 is the distance between any two probes of the four probes, used to measure the resistivity of the

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semiconductor sample (see the follow-up questions).


Using eqs. (4) and (5), eq. (3) can be written as
𝑉
2𝜋𝑆 𝜋𝑊
𝜌= 𝐼 =( ) 𝑉.
2𝑆 𝐼 ln 2
𝑊 ln 2

6. Operating Procedure
(i) Switch on the mains supply of four probe set up and put the digital panel meter in the current
measuring mode through the selector switch. In this position LED facing mA would glow. Adjust
the current to a desired value (low).
(ii) Now put the digital panel meter in voltage measuring mode. In this position LED facing mA would
glow and the meter would read the voltage between the probes.
(iii) Switch on the temperature controller and adjust the set temperature.
(iv) The LED would light up indicating the oven is ‘ON’ and the temperature would start rising.
(v) Keeping the current constant increase the temperature of the oven in suitable steps and in each
step note the temperature and the potential difference (𝑉) across the specimen and calculate the
𝜋𝑊
resistivity by using the formula 𝜌 = (𝐼 ln 2) 𝑉 (see the theory part).
(vi) Decrease the temperature of the oven in similar steps, allow sufficient time in each step to attain
steady state, and then note the temperature and the potential difference (𝑉) across the specimen
and current 𝐼. Hence obtain the value of 𝜌 at different temperatures.
(vii) Obtain the mean of the two values of ρ for each temperature.
1
(viii) For each temperature calculate the value of in 𝐾 −1 and the value of ln 𝜌.
𝑇
1
(ix) Draw a curve by plotting in 𝐾 −1 along the x-axis and ln ρ along the y-axis.
𝑇
(x) From the curve find the slope and then calculate 𝐸𝑔 in eV by following the formula 𝐸𝑔 =
2𝑘𝐵 × slope.

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting

I. Current should be kept constant throughout the experiment.


II. The germanium crystal being very brittle, minimum pressure is maintained for proper
electrical contacts.
III. All the observations should be noted while the temperature decreases.

8. Observations
Fixed current (𝐼) = ………… mA.
Temperature, 𝜋𝑊
No. of Temperature, 𝑡 𝑇 = 𝑡 + 273 −1 −1 𝜌=( )𝑉
Voltage (mV) 𝑇 (K ) 𝐼 ln 2 ln 𝜌
obs. (0C) (K)
(Ω. cm)

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9. Calculations & Analysis:


1
𝐸𝑔 = 2𝑘𝐵 × slope of ln 𝜌 vs plot.
𝑇

10. Result & Interpretation: Standard value of bandgap 𝐸𝑔 is 0.7 eV (in the case of Ge semiconductor).
Experimentally we have determined the band gap as _________ eV.

11. Follow-up Questions

i) What is bandgap?
Ans: It is the minimum energy gap between the valance band and the conduction band. It is also called the
forbidden energy gap.
ii) What are the valance band and the conduction band?
Ans: The outermost energy band which is completely filled up is called the valance band. The band just above
the valance band is called the conduction band.

iii) What are the values of 𝑬𝒈 for Ge and Si?


Ans: 𝐸𝑔 = 0.7 eV for Ge and 𝐸𝑔 = 1.2 eV for Si at 0 K.

iv) Distinguish between conductor, semiconductor, and insulator in terms of energy bandgap.
Ans: For conductor energy band gap is 𝐸𝑔 = 0 eV. For semiconductor: 0 eV < 𝐸𝑔 < 3 eV and for insulator
𝐸𝑔 > 3 eV.

v) What is the four probe method?


Ans: The four probe method, also known as the four-point probe method, is a technique used for accurately
measuring the electrical resistivity or sheet resistance of a material, particularly thin films, semiconductors,
and other materials with relatively high resistivity. This method involves four equally spaced electrical probes
(Two probes are for current carrying and the other two are for voltage sensing).

12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable):

13. Assessments:

14. Suggested readings: Textbooks and reference books as per syllabus.

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Experiment 8 : Determination of Hall coefficient of a semiconductor

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To determine the Hall voltage developed across a given
semiconductor material and to calculate the Hall coefficient.

2. Learning Outcomes: Understand the basic knowledge of the Hall effect and its applications in
semiconductor.

3. Prerequisites: Students should have knowledge about Hall effect and semiconductor devices.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus / Devices/Software required:


Hall Effect experiment kit consists of the following:
• Hall probe (Ge crystal mounted on a PCB)
• Electromagnet
• Power supply for electromagnet
• Constant current power supply with two digital meters:
a) Digital millivoltmeter 0-200 mV
b) Digital milliammeter 0-20 mA
• Digital gauss meter with Hall probe
• Wooden stand for probes.

5. Introduction and Theory: We know the static magnetic field has no effect on the charges unless they are
in motion. When charges flow, a magnetic field directed perpendicular to the direction of flux produces a
mutually perpendicular force on the charges. When this happens, electrons and holes will be separated by
opposite forces. They will in turn produce an electric field (𝐸⃗ ) which depends on the cross product of
⃗ ) and the current density (𝐽):
magnetic field (𝐵
𝐸⃗ = 𝑅𝐻 (𝐽 × 𝐵
⃗) … … … (1)
where 𝑅𝐻 is called the Hall coefficient. Now we consider a bar semiconductor with its dimensions along
⃗ along the z-axis, then 𝐸⃗ will be along the y-
the x-, y-, and z-axes. Let 𝐽 be directed along the x-axis and 𝐵
axis.
In general, Hall voltage is not a linear function of the applied magnetic field. Thus, the Hall coefficient is not
generally a constant, but a function of the applied magnetic field.
𝑉 𝑡
The working formula is: 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐼 𝐻𝐵 … … … (2)
𝐻
where, 𝐼𝐻 is current flowing through the semiconductor,
𝑡 is the thickness of the semiconductor = 0.5 mm (supplied)
𝑉𝐻 is the Hall voltage.

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6. Operating Procedure:
(i) Switch on the constant current source and measure the magnetic field by the gaussmeter by
placing the gauss probe between the electromagnet by gradually increasing the current.
(ii) Plot a calibration curve by plotting current along the x-axis and magnetic field along the y-axis.
(iii) Switch on the Hall effect set up and adjust the current.
(iv) Place the semiconductor (Hall probe) between the poles of the electromagnet.
(v) Switch over the display to voltage side.
(vi) Switch on the electromagnet power supply and adjust the current to a fixed value so that the
magnetic field is fixed.
(vii) Rotate the semiconductor (Hall probe) till it become perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage
will be maximum in this adjustment.
(viii) Measure Hall voltage for different current at constant magnetic field.
(ix) Plot a graph by plotting the Hall current (𝐼𝐻 ) along the x-axis and the Hall voltage (𝑉𝐻 ) along the y-
axis.
(x) Calculate the slope from the 𝑉𝐻 vs 𝐼𝐻 plot.
(xi) Calculate the fixed magnetic field from the calibration curve.
𝑉𝐻 𝑡
(xii) Finally, calculate the Hall coefficient 𝑅𝐻 by using the formula 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐼𝐻 𝐵
(see the theory part), 𝑡 is
the thickness of the semiconductor.

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting


I. To obtain uniform magnetic field the distance between the poles should be kept small.
II. Hall probe connections are made in such a way that maintain the ohmic (not rectifying)
contact and it is imperative not to touch or adjust the connections, otherwise the entire
experiment will become meaningless.
III. The sample is very brittle and hence careful handling is maintained.
IV. The Hall probe is properly centered and oriented in the magnetic field such that
maximum Hall-voltage is generated.
V. The initial Hall-voltage without magnetic field is to be monitored continuously
monitor throughout the experiment and has been subtracted from the actual Hall-
voltage reading.
VI. The sample current is not allowed to exceed beyond the prescribed limit.
VII. The movable pole pieces of the electromagnet are symmetrically moved in order to
avoid asymmetry in the magnetic field.

8. Observations:

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Table-1: Calibration curve data table

Magnetizing current (𝐼) in Magnetic field (𝐵) in


No. of obs.
amp gauss

Table-2: Hall current vs Hall voltage data at constant magnetic field


Magnetizing current Magnetic field (𝐵′) Hall current (𝐼𝐻 ) Hall voltage(𝑉𝐻 )
(𝐼′) (Amp) (gauss) (mA) (mV)

9. Calculations & Analysis:


a. We draw a graph of magnetizing current (along x-axis) vs magnetic field (along y-axis).
b. We draw a graph Hall current 𝐼𝐻 along x-axis and Hall voltage 𝑉𝐻 along y-axis.
From the 𝑉𝐻 vs 𝐼𝐻 graph, at a particular point 𝑃 on the straight line,

𝑉𝐻′ =______________
𝐼𝐻′ = ______________
𝑉𝐻′ 𝑡
Therefore, 𝑅𝐻 = ′ 𝐵′ =_________________
𝐼𝐻

10. Result & Interpretation:


In this experiment we have determined the value of Hall coefficient, 𝑅𝐻 of the the semiconductor as ………
Ω. m/T.

11. Follow-up Questions:


i) What is Hall effect?
Ans: The Hall effect is a fundamental physics phenomenon that occurs when an electric current flows
through a semiconductor placed in a magnetic field. It results in the generation of a voltage perpendicular
to both the direction of the current and the magnetic field. The Hall effect is named after the American
physicist Edwin Hall, who discovered it in 1879.

ii) What is Hall coefficient?


Ans: The Hall coefficient (also known as the Hall constant) is a material-specific parameter that quantifies
the relationship between the induced electric field created by the Hall effect and the external magnetic
field and current applied to a material. The mathematical form of Hall coefficient is:

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𝑉𝐻 𝑡
𝑅𝐻 =
𝐼𝐻 𝐵
where, 𝑉𝐻 is the Hall voltage, 𝑡 is the thickness of the sample, 𝐼𝐻 is the Hall current and 𝐵 is the applied
magnetic field.

iii) What is the significance of Hall coefficient?


Ans: The Hall coefficient has both magnitude and sign, and it provides valuable information about the
type of charge carriers (electrons or holes) in the material and their mobility. The sign of the Hall
coefficient indicates the polarity of the charge carriers. Positive 𝑅𝐻 corresponds to positive charge carriers
(holes), and negative 𝑅𝐻 corresponds to negative charge carriers (electrons).

iv) What is the SI unit of Hall coefficient?


Ans: The SI unit of Hall coefficient is Ω. m/T.

v) What Hall effect experiment signifies?


Ans: 1. determination of types of semiconductors, 2. calculation of carrier concentration, 3. determination
of mobility of the charge carriers, 4. determination of magnetic flux density, etc.

12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable):

13. Assessments:

14. Suggested readings: Textbooks and reference books as per syllabus.

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Experiment 9 : To find the resonant frequency of a series L-C-R circuit and also to
determine its quality factor

1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To find the resonant frequency and quality factor of the series L-C-R
circuit.

2. Learning Outcomes: To understand and analyze the behavior of series L-C-R circuits at the resonant
frequency, as well as to calculate and interpret the quality factor of such circuits in various practical
scenarios.

3. Prerequisites: It is essential to have a basic understanding about inductor (L), capacitor (C), resistor (R)
and resonant frequency and a basic knowledge of plotting graph on a graph paper.

4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus / Devices/Software required: An air-cored or ferrite-cored inductor,


a mica capacitor, a non-inductive resistance box, an electronic ac voltmeter, an audio oscillator with
low output impedance and good amplitude stability.

5. Introduction and Theory:


L C R mA

~
V
Fig: Circuit diagram showing L-C-R series connection

For a series L-C-R circuit, the resonance frequency (𝑓0 ) is given by


1
𝑓0 = … … … … … … … … … . . (1)
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
Plot of current vs frequency (𝐼 vs 𝑓) shows a maximum current 𝐼0 at 𝑓0. If the two half-power
𝐼0
frequencies which corresponds to current is indicated as 𝑓1 and 𝑓2, then the quality factor is given
√2
by
𝑓0
𝑄= … … … … … … … … … (2)
|𝑓1 − 𝑓2 |
The practical value of 𝑄 given by (2) can be compared with theoretical value given as

𝜔0 𝐿 1 𝐿 1 𝐿
𝑄= = = √ ( 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 ) … … … … … (3)
𝑅 √𝐿𝐶 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶

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6. Operating Procedure:
i) Connect the inductor (L), capacitor (C), and resistor (R) in series to form an L-C-R circuit.
ii) Make the circuit connections on the circuit board as shown in the figure.
iii) Ensure proper values for L, C, and R are chosen according to the desired frequency range.
iv) Measure the (ac) current 𝐼 using an ammeter.
v) Start with a lower frequency range that encompasses the expected resonant frequency, 𝑓0.
vi) Gradually increase the frequency, 𝑓 of the signal generator while recording the current, 𝐼.
vii) The resonant frequency, 𝑓0 is the frequency at which 𝐼 reaches its maximum value, 𝐼0 .
viii) Take data in smallest possible steps around the resonance frequency, 𝑓0.
ix) Record the resonant frequency, 𝑓0.
x) Draw the resonance curve by plotting 𝑓 along x-axis and 𝐼 along y-axis.
xi) From the curve find the resonant frequency 𝑓0, the half-power frequencies 𝑓1 (lower half-power
frequency) and 𝑓2 (upper half power frequency). At the half-power frequencies, the current 𝐼 falls
to (1/√2) of its maximum value, 𝐼0 .
0𝑓
xii) Calculate the quality factor 𝑄 using the relation, 𝑄 = 𝑓 −𝑓 .
2 1
xiii) The theoretical value of resonant frequency and quality factor can be calculated by using the
1 1 𝐿
formula 𝑓0 = 2𝜋 and 𝑄 = 𝑅 √𝐶 , respectively.
√𝐿𝐶
xiv) Compare the experimentally obtained values of 𝑓0 and 𝑄 with their respective theoretical values.

7. Precautions and/or Troubleshooting:


I) Connections must be tight.
II) Since inductance and capacitors both possess resistive parts, actual resistance used in
the circuit should be large enough so that the said extra resistive effect can be neglected.
III) Supply voltage may change with frequency and so if it happens one should adjust the supply
voltage so as to keep it constant throughout.

8. Observations:
Used values: 𝐿 = ……. mH, 𝐶 = ……… µF, 𝑅 = …… Ω.

Table 1: Input frequency and corresponding current flowing in the circuit


No. of obs. Frequency (𝑓) in kHz Current (I) in mA
1
2
3
4
.

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9. Calculations & Analysis:


1
The theoretical value of resonant frequency = 𝑓0 = = …….. Hz.
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
1 𝐿
The theoretical value of Quality factor = 𝑄 = 𝑅 √𝐶 = ………..
0 𝑓
The Quality factor Q can be calculated from the graph by using the relation 𝑄 = 𝑓 −𝑓 , where, 𝑓1 is the lower
2 1
half-power frequency and 𝑓2 is the upper half-power frequency.

10. Result & Interpretation:

Table 2: Calculated and experimentally obtained results

Theoretically calculated Experimentally obtained


Theoretical value Theoretical value
1 𝑓0
of 𝑓0 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 1 𝐿 𝑓0 (KHz) 𝑓1 (KHz) 𝑓2 (KHz) 𝑄=
of 𝑄 = 𝑅 √𝐶 𝑓2 − 𝑓1
(KHz)

11. Follow-up Questions:


i) Define resonance.
Ans: When the natural frequency of the system matches with the applied frequency, the system is said to
be under resonance.
ii) Define resonant frequency of LCR series circuit.
Ans: Resonance frequency is defined as the frequency at which the impedance of the LCR circuit
becomes minimum or current in the circuit becomes maximum.
1
Resonance frequency, 𝑓0 = 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶.

iii) What is quality factor of resonance in series LCR circuit?


Ans: The quality factor or 𝑄-factor of a series resonant circuit is defined as the ratio of a voltage developed across
the inductance or capacitance at resonance to the voltage applied across 𝑅.
𝜔0 𝐿
𝑄= .
𝑅

iv) What is inductive and capacitive reactance?


Ans: Inductive reactance and capacitive reactance are terms used to describe the opposition to the flow of
alternating current caused by inductors and capacitors, respectively.
Inductive reactance is the opposition to the flow of ac current through an inductor. It is denoted by 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐿.
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1
Capacitive reactance is the opposition to the flow of ac current through a capacitor. It is denoted by 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 =
1
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
.

v) What is half-power frequency?


Ans: Half-power frequencies for a given LCR are the frequencies for which the power in the circuit is half of the
maximum power in the circuit.

vi) How are the behavior of inductive reactance and capacitive reactance with frequency?
Ans: Inductive reactance 𝑋𝐿 increases with 𝑓 linearly where capacitive reactance 𝑋𝐶 decreases with increasing 𝑓. At
the resonance frequency, 𝑓0, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 .

12. Extension and Follow-up Activities (if applicable):

13. Assessments:

14. Suggested readings: Textbooks and reference books as per syllabus.

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