784 - Semiconductor Physics Laboratory Manual - BBS09022
784 - Semiconductor Physics Laboratory Manual - BBS09022
Laboratory Manual
Semiconductor Physics Lab (BBS09022)
_____________________________________________________________________
Table of Contents
Experiment/Lab
Module Page
Exercise/Activity Name of the Experiment/Activity/Exercise
No. Number(s)
No.
Determination of Planck’s constant by Einstein’s photoelectric
I 1 02-04
effect equation. [2H]
Forward bias I-V characteristics of a p-n junction diode and
a 2 05-08
determination of rac and rdc. [4H]
I-V characteristics of Zener diode in reverse bias condition and
II b 3 09-11
determination of rac and rdc. [4H]
To draw the load and line regulation characteristics of a Zener
c 4 12-15
diode and determination of percentage regulation. [4H]
Determination of the numerical aperture of an optical fiber.
a 5 16-18
[2H]
III
b 6 To determine the attenuation coefficient in optical fiber. [2H] 19-22
Students need to write sections 5, 8, 9, 10 and 7 of each experiment in their laboratory note book.
1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To determine the Planck’s constant and work function of the metal by
using Einstein’s photoelectric effect equation.
2. Learning Outcomes: Understand the Planck’s constant, work function of metal and Photoelectric
effect.
3. Prerequisites: Students should have knowledge about Photoelectric effect. They also should know the
actual value of Planck’s constant.
4. Materials/Equipment/Apparatus/Devices/Software required:
Photoelectric effect apparatus:
• Photo Sensitive Device: Vacuum photo tube.
• Light source: Halogen tungsten lamp 12 V/35 W.
• Monochromatic Filters: 635 nm, 570 nm, 540 nm, 500 nm, and 460 nm.
• Accelerating Voltage: Regulated Voltage Power Supply
= 𝜙 + 𝑒𝑉𝑠 … … … (1)
6. Operating Procedure:
(i) Set up a photoelectric apparatus consisting of a vacuum tube with a photosensitive material (such
as a metal) as the cathode and a light source.
(ii) At a certain voltage, the photoelectric current will reach zero. This voltage is known as the stopping
potential. Measure the stopping potential for different incident light frequencies by using different
color filters.
(iii) Make sure to maintain a constant intensity of light while changing the color filters.
(iv) Plot a graph by plotting frequency along the x-axis and stopping potential along the y-axis.
(v) The graph should be a straight line.
(vi) Calculate the slope.
(vii) By measuring the slope from the graph, Planck’s constant, ℎ can be determined by using the
formula ℎ = 𝑒 × slope.
(viii) The minimum energy required to liberate a photoelectron from the metal surface is called the
ℎ𝜈0
work functions of that metal. Work function can be determined by using the formula 𝜙 = 𝑒
(in
eV), where 𝜈0 is the threshold frequency.
8. Observations:
Red
Yellow I
Yellow II
Green
Blue
13. Assessments:
1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To study the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of p-n junction
diode in forward bias.
2. Learning Outcomes: Determination of dynamic (𝑟𝑎𝑐 ) and static (𝑟𝑑𝑐 ) resistances of p-n junction diode
in forward bias.
3. Prerequisites: It is essential to have a basic understanding of how a p-n junction diode works in
forward bias and a basic knowledge of plotting graphs on graph paper.
When a p-side and n-side of a p-n junction diode are connected with the +ve and −ve terminals of a battery,
respectively, then the diode is said to be forward-biased. If the applied forward voltage is 𝑉 volt across the
diode, current flowing through it is given by,
𝑒𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) …………….. (1)
𝜂𝑘𝐵 𝑇
where, 𝐼𝑆 = reverse saturation current,
𝑒 = magnitude of electron’s charge,
𝑘𝐵 = Boltzmann constant,
𝑇 = absolute temperature,
𝜂 = numerical constant depending on the material of the diode (for Ge, 𝜂 = 1 and Si, 𝜂 = 2).
If the diode current 𝐼 is plotted as a function of the forward voltage 𝑉, the resulting curve is known as the static
characteristics curve. At a specified point 𝑃, the dc and ac resistance of the diode can be determined from I-V
characteristics curve by using the relation at a relevant point (𝑃).
𝑉
𝑟𝑑𝑐 (at 𝑃) =
𝐼
𝜕𝑉
𝑟𝑎𝑐 (at 𝑃) = .
𝜕𝐼
6. Operating Procedure:
(i) Set up the circuit of forward bias of p-n junction diode on the circuit board. Connect the p-side of
the p-n junction diode to the positive terminal of the power supply and n-side of the diode to the
negative terminal of the power supply to make forward biasing of p-n junction diode. Add a series
resistor in line with the diode to limit the current and prevent damage.
(ii) Set the forward bias voltage to a low value and gradually increase the voltage across the diode
using the power supply while noting the corresponding current values from the ammeter.
(iii) Record multiple voltage-current pairs for various forward bias voltage values.
(iv) Plot a graph with voltage on the x-axis and current on the y-axis. This graph will show the forward
bias I-V characteristics of the diode.
Determination of rac and rdc:
(i) For the I-V characteristics of p-n junction diode, observe the slope of the curve around the
operating point 𝑃 (where the diode is operating in the normal conducting region). The dynamic
resistance 𝑟𝑎𝑐 can be approximated as the reciprocal of the slope of the I-V curve at that point:
1 1 𝜕𝑉
𝑟𝑎𝑐 = = = .
slope 𝜕𝐼 𝜕𝐼
𝜕𝑉
(ii) The static resistance 𝑟𝑑𝑐 can be approximated at any specified point 𝑃 on the I-V characteristics
curve by the following formula:
𝑉
𝑟𝑑𝑐 = .
𝐼
8. Observations:
iv) Can you identify the material of the diode by just looking at the I-V characteristics curve?
Ans: The forward current in a diode does not assume a significant value unless the forward voltage exceeds
a certain critical value, known as cut-in voltage. For a Ge diode the cut-in voltage is 0.2 V and for Si the cut-
in voltage is 0.6 V.
𝑉
𝑟𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼
The dynamic resistance is the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when AC voltage is applied. It
is also defined as the ratio of the change in voltage to the change in current.
𝜕𝑉
𝑟𝑎𝑐 =
𝜕𝐼
13. Assessments:
1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To study the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a Zener diode
in reverse bias condition.
2. Learning Outcomes: Determination of dynamic (𝑟𝑎𝑐 ) and static (𝑟𝑑𝑐 ) resistance of Zener diode in
reverse bias condition.
3. Prerequisites: It is essential to have a basic understanding of how a Zener diode works in reverse
bias condition and a basic knowledge of plotting graph on a graph paper.
6. Operating Procedure:
(i) At first identify the anode (p-side) and the cathode (n-side) of the Zener diode and make the
circuit connections as shown in the given figure.
(ii) Keeping the control knob of the power supply to the minimum position switch on the ac mains
operating the power supply.
(iii) Now gradually increase the reverse voltage in small steps and in each step note the reverse current
from the given ammeter.
(iv) Continue the process up to a suitable value of reverse current which must lie well below the
maximum allowable reverse current.
(v) Draw a curve by plotting the reverse voltage (V) in V along the (– ve) x-axis and the corresponding
reverse current (I) in mA along (–ve) y-axis.
(vi) Identify a small portion of the I-V curve in the breakdown region where the current and voltage
variations are small. This is typically a small signal variation around the operating point.
(iii) For the reverse characteristics of Zener diode, observe the slope of the curve around the operating
point 𝑃. The dynamic resistance is approximated as the reciprocal of the slope of the I-V curve at
that point.
1 1 𝜕𝑉
𝑟𝑎𝑐 = = = .
slope 𝜕𝐼 𝜕𝐼
𝜕𝑉
(iv) The static resistance 𝑟𝑑𝑐 can be approximated at any specified point 𝑃 on the I-V characteristics
curve by the following formula:
𝑉
𝑟𝑑𝑐 = .
𝐼
8. Observations:
No. of observation Zener reverse voltage (V) in volt Zener reverse current (I) in mA
1
2
3
4
.
.
From the I-V characteristics, the obtained value of 𝑟𝑑𝑐 (at 𝑃) =_______Ω and 𝑟𝑎𝑐 (at 𝑃) = _______Ω.
Zener Breakdown is obtained (From graph) at ~________ V.
13. Assessments:
1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To study the load and line regulation characteristics of a Zener diode and
hence to determine the percentage regulation.
3. Prerequisites: It is essential to have a basic understanding of how a Zener diode works in reverse bias
conditions and a basic knowledge of plotting graphs on graph paper.
The voltage across a Zener diode in the breakdown region is almost constant. This property enables the
application of the Zener diode as a voltage regulator.
a) Line regulation: In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed. Only the input
voltage is varied. The output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is maintained above a
minimum value.
∆𝑉𝑜
Percentage of Line Regulation (𝑆𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 ) = × 100%
∆𝑉𝑖
where 𝑉0 is the output voltage and 𝑉𝑖 is the input voltage. ∆𝑉0 is the change in the output voltage for a
particular change in the input voltage, ∆𝑉𝑖.
b) Load regulation: In this regulation, the input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is varied. The output
voltage remains the same as long as the load resistance is maintained above a minimum value.
𝑉𝑁𝐿 − 𝑉𝐹𝐿
Percentage of Load Regulation (𝑆𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 ) = × 100%
𝑉𝐹𝐿
where 𝑉𝑁𝐿 is the no-load voltage – the output voltage corresponding to zero load current, i.e., infinite load
resistance (open-load condition) and 𝑉𝐹𝐿 is the full-load voltage – the output voltage corresponding to the
maximum load (current), i.e., the minimum load resistance.
Rs IL Rs IL
- + -
+
Vi Vi
+ RL Vo - + RL Vo
-
(a) (b)
Fig: Circuit diagram of (a) line regulation & (b) load regulation
6. Operating Procedure:
Line Regulation:
(i) To study the line regulation set the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 to a suitable low value such that the voltage
across the Zener diode does not go below 𝑉𝑧 .
(ii) Adjust the load current IL to a suitable fixed value by changing 𝑅𝐿 .
(iii) Note the input (𝑉𝑖 ) and the output (𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑜 ) voltages from the connected two voltmeters
respectively.
(iv) Now increase the input voltage in small steps and at each step note 𝑉𝑖 and 𝑉𝐿 (= 𝑉𝑜 ).
(v) Check the constancy of the load current at each step and if necessary, adjust it to the chosen
fixed value by changing 𝑅𝐿 .
Load Regulation:
(i) To study the performance of the Zener diode as a voltage regulator, make the circuit
connections as shown in the figure.
(ii) Keep the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 fixed at a value much higher than 𝑉𝑧 , Zener voltage.
(iii) Disconnect 𝑅𝐿 (load Resistance). This makes 𝐼𝐿 = 0. Note the output voltage from the
voltmeter which is connected across RL. This voltage is 𝑉𝑁𝐿 .
(iv) Insert suitable high load resistance 𝑅𝐿 to get a minimum load current 𝐼𝐿 .
(v) Note this value of 𝐼𝐿 from the given ammeter and the corresponding output load voltage 𝑉𝐿
from the voltmeter.
(vi) Increase the load current 𝐼𝐿 in small steps and at each step note the readings for 𝐼𝐿 and 𝑉𝐿 .
(vii) Check the constancy of the input at every step and if necessary, adjust it.
(viii) Make sure that 𝑅𝐿 is not short-circuited in any case.
8. Observations:
Line Regulation:
Fixed load current = …………. mA
Load Regulation:
iv) What is the difference between p-n diode and Zener diode?
Ans:
Basis for comparison P-N diode Zener diode
Definition It is a diode which conducts This diode allows the current to
only in one direction, i.e. in flow in both forward and
forward direction. reverse direction.
Doping Level Low High
Applications Rectification Voltage regulator
v) In a voltage regulation circuit using a Zener diode, what role does the series resistor play?
Ans: In a voltage regulation circuit using a Zener diode, the series resistor plays a crucial role in limiting the
current through the Zener diode and ensuring stable operation of the voltage regulator.
13. Assessments:
1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To find the numerical aperture of a given optic fiber and hence to find
its acceptance angle.
Fig.: Schematic ray diagram of optical fiber indicating the acceptance angle.
Let 𝑑 be the diameter of the circular spot on the screen at a distance 𝐿 from the fiber end, then
we can write
𝑑
2 𝑑
N. A. = sin 𝜃0 = = …………. (3)
√𝐿2 +𝑑
2 √(4𝐿2 +𝑑 2 )
4
Thus, measuring 𝑑 and 𝐿, N. A. can be calculated.
6. Operating Procedure:
i) The measurement of numerical aperture step by step procedure is as follows:
ii) First switch on the power supply of the numerical aperture kit. Red light should appear at the end
of the optical fiber.
iii) Hold a white screen (paper/graph paper) at a fixed distance from the optical fiber.
iv) Measure the distance L from the optical fiber to the screen and also the diameter (d) of the laser
spot on the paper.
v) Substitute the measured values of 𝐿 and 𝑑 in the N.A. formula
𝑑
2 𝑑
vi) N. A. = sin 𝜃0 = = .
𝑑2 √4𝐿2 +𝑑2
√𝐿2 +
4
vii) Repeat the experiment by increasing the distance between the paper screen and the optical fiber.
8. Observations:
𝑑
9. Calculations & Analysis: N. A. = sin 𝜃0 = .
√4𝐿2 +𝑑2
𝐿 is the distance from the optical fiber to the screen and 𝑑 is the diameter of the laser spot on the paper.
iii) What is the principle on the basis of which optical fibers work?
Ans: Optical fibers works on the principle of total internal reflection of light. When light ray strikes at the
internal surface of optical fiber called core such that incidence angle is greater than critical angle, then
incident light ray reflects in the same medium and this phenomenon repeats. In this way light signal travels
from one end of the cable to another end.
iv) Write down the numerical aperture of optical fiber in terms of refractive index of material of optical
fiber.
Ans: The numerical aperture in terms of the refractive indices of the core and cladding becomes N. A. =
√𝑛12 − 𝑛22 where, 𝑛1 is the refractive index of the core and 𝑛2 is the refractive index of the cladding.
v) What are the uses of optical fibers?
Ans: Optical fibers have a wide range of applications across various fields due to their ability to transmit light
signals over long distances with minimal signal loss. Some key applications of optical fibers are
telecommunications, internet connectivity, cable television, medical imaging, laser delivery etc.
13. Assessments:
where ‘z’ is the length of the fiber in meter, α is the attenuation coefficient in dB/m,
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 is the power to the input of the fiber i.e. at z = 0 and Poutput is the power at the output end i.e.
at
z = z0.
Let us consider two fibers of lengths L1 and L2 (L2 > L1), both being fed by same input ( Pinput). Let the
respective outputs be P2 and P1.Accordingly, from (1) we can write
−𝛼𝐿1
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 10 10 ………………….. (2)
−𝛼𝐿2
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 10 10 …………………... (3)
𝑃1 −𝛼
(𝐿 )
= 10 10 1 −𝐿2
𝑃2
𝑃 𝛼
or, log10 𝑃1 = − 10 (𝐿1 − 𝐿2 )
2
10 𝑃
or, 𝛼 = (𝐿 )
log10 1 …………………. (4)
1 −𝐿2 𝑃2
α in dB/m.
6. Operating Procedure
The schematic diagram of the Optical Fiber loss measurement is shown in figure
Step 1 :
Connect one end of the ‘1’ Meter Optical Fiber PatchCord to LED ( P0 ) of the THP-FOEK10 and the
another end to the ‘Pin’ of the THP-FOEK’10 ( i.e. launching output power of a FO LED at 660 nm into OF
cable and output of OF cable is launching into power meter module ). Check out the Fiber is free of all
twists and strains.
Step 2 :
Connect DMM test leads to ‘Pout’ red lead to red socket and black lead to black socket respectively and
set the DMM to 2000 mV range. Now, Power Meter is ready to function.
Step 3 :
Connect Power Adapter plug to THP-FOEK10 socket ‘Vin’ and Plug the adapter to 230 VAC line. Switch on
ON/OFF switch of THP-FOEK10.
Step 4:
Adjust the ‘SET Po /If ‘ knob to set output power of the FO LED to the value, -13.5 dB m i.e. DMM reading
will be -135 mV.
Step 5:
Remove the ‘1’ Meter OF PatchCord from THP-FOEK10 and connect ‘5’ Meter OF PatchCord as given in
Step 1.Do not disturb ‘SET Po /If’ ,note the DMM Reading/10 as P02 .
Step 6:
Remove the one end of the ‘5’ Meter PatchCord at ‘Pin’ then connect this to one side of the provided
SMA Mating Sleeve. Another side of SMA Mating Sleeve connect with the one end of the ‘1’ Meter
PatchCord connect to the ‘Pin’ of THP-FOEK10. Note DMM reading/10 as Po3 .
( Po2 - Po3) gives loss in ‘1’ Meter OF Cable plus due to the SMA Mating Sleeve. ( Po1 - Po3) gives loss in the
‘5’ Meter OF Cable plus loss due to the SMA Mating Sleeve. Here, it is assumed that 4.8 dB is the loss in
the SMA Mating Sleeve.
I. Attenuation in fiber means loss of optical power in the fiber itself. This loss may arisedue
to many aspects, some of which are as follows a) Material absorption/scattering losses, b)
micro-bending /macro-bending, c) leakage from core, d) splice/joint losses, e) Inverse square
law losses.
II. The attenuation is also a function of wavelength to be studied. Loss increases considerably
when the operating wavelength is beyond 1550 nm.
III. The attenuation for silica fiber is as small as 0.154 dB/km at operating wavelength 1550 nm.
But the attenuation can go up to 10 dB/m for fiber plastic.
8. Observations
ii) What are the main factors that contribute to attenuation in optical fibers?
Ans: Attenuation in optical fibers refers to the reduction in the intensity of an optical signal as it travels
along the length of the fiber. Overall, a combination of absorption, scattering, bending losses, and other
factors contribute to attenuation in optical fibers.
iii) What are the units of the attenuation coefficient in optical fibers?
Ans: The attenuation coefficient in optical fibers is typically measured in decibels per unit length (dB/m).
This unit is commonly used in the field of fiber optics because it provides a logarithmic representation of
how much signal strength is lost per unit length of the fiber.
v) Why the refractive index of the core is higher than cladding in optical fiber?
Ans: The refractive index of the core in an optical fiber is intentionally made higher than that of the
cladding to achieve a phenomenon called total internal reflection. This phenomenon of total internal
reflection allows the light signal to bounce back and forth within the core, effectively traveling along the
length of the fiber. The core's higher refractive index creates a situation where light remains confined
within the core, resulting in minimal loss of signal strength due to leakage or scattering.
13. Assessments:
2. Learning Outcomes: Understand the basic knowledge of the band gap of a semiconductor.
𝑉
Again, 𝜌0 = 2𝜋𝑆 …………………... (5)
𝐼
6. Operating Procedure
(i) Switch on the mains supply of four probe set up and put the digital panel meter in the current
measuring mode through the selector switch. In this position LED facing mA would glow. Adjust
the current to a desired value (low).
(ii) Now put the digital panel meter in voltage measuring mode. In this position LED facing mA would
glow and the meter would read the voltage between the probes.
(iii) Switch on the temperature controller and adjust the set temperature.
(iv) The LED would light up indicating the oven is ‘ON’ and the temperature would start rising.
(v) Keeping the current constant increase the temperature of the oven in suitable steps and in each
step note the temperature and the potential difference (𝑉) across the specimen and calculate the
𝜋𝑊
resistivity by using the formula 𝜌 = (𝐼 ln 2) 𝑉 (see the theory part).
(vi) Decrease the temperature of the oven in similar steps, allow sufficient time in each step to attain
steady state, and then note the temperature and the potential difference (𝑉) across the specimen
and current 𝐼. Hence obtain the value of 𝜌 at different temperatures.
(vii) Obtain the mean of the two values of ρ for each temperature.
1
(viii) For each temperature calculate the value of in 𝐾 −1 and the value of ln 𝜌.
𝑇
1
(ix) Draw a curve by plotting in 𝐾 −1 along the x-axis and ln ρ along the y-axis.
𝑇
(x) From the curve find the slope and then calculate 𝐸𝑔 in eV by following the formula 𝐸𝑔 =
2𝑘𝐵 × slope.
8. Observations
Fixed current (𝐼) = ………… mA.
Temperature, 𝜋𝑊
No. of Temperature, 𝑡 𝑇 = 𝑡 + 273 −1 −1 𝜌=( )𝑉
Voltage (mV) 𝑇 (K ) 𝐼 ln 2 ln 𝜌
obs. (0C) (K)
(Ω. cm)
10. Result & Interpretation: Standard value of bandgap 𝐸𝑔 is 0.7 eV (in the case of Ge semiconductor).
Experimentally we have determined the band gap as _________ eV.
i) What is bandgap?
Ans: It is the minimum energy gap between the valance band and the conduction band. It is also called the
forbidden energy gap.
ii) What are the valance band and the conduction band?
Ans: The outermost energy band which is completely filled up is called the valance band. The band just above
the valance band is called the conduction band.
iv) Distinguish between conductor, semiconductor, and insulator in terms of energy bandgap.
Ans: For conductor energy band gap is 𝐸𝑔 = 0 eV. For semiconductor: 0 eV < 𝐸𝑔 < 3 eV and for insulator
𝐸𝑔 > 3 eV.
13. Assessments:
1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To determine the Hall voltage developed across a given
semiconductor material and to calculate the Hall coefficient.
2. Learning Outcomes: Understand the basic knowledge of the Hall effect and its applications in
semiconductor.
3. Prerequisites: Students should have knowledge about Hall effect and semiconductor devices.
5. Introduction and Theory: We know the static magnetic field has no effect on the charges unless they are
in motion. When charges flow, a magnetic field directed perpendicular to the direction of flux produces a
mutually perpendicular force on the charges. When this happens, electrons and holes will be separated by
opposite forces. They will in turn produce an electric field (𝐸⃗ ) which depends on the cross product of
⃗ ) and the current density (𝐽):
magnetic field (𝐵
𝐸⃗ = 𝑅𝐻 (𝐽 × 𝐵
⃗) … … … (1)
where 𝑅𝐻 is called the Hall coefficient. Now we consider a bar semiconductor with its dimensions along
⃗ along the z-axis, then 𝐸⃗ will be along the y-
the x-, y-, and z-axes. Let 𝐽 be directed along the x-axis and 𝐵
axis.
In general, Hall voltage is not a linear function of the applied magnetic field. Thus, the Hall coefficient is not
generally a constant, but a function of the applied magnetic field.
𝑉 𝑡
The working formula is: 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐼 𝐻𝐵 … … … (2)
𝐻
where, 𝐼𝐻 is current flowing through the semiconductor,
𝑡 is the thickness of the semiconductor = 0.5 mm (supplied)
𝑉𝐻 is the Hall voltage.
6. Operating Procedure:
(i) Switch on the constant current source and measure the magnetic field by the gaussmeter by
placing the gauss probe between the electromagnet by gradually increasing the current.
(ii) Plot a calibration curve by plotting current along the x-axis and magnetic field along the y-axis.
(iii) Switch on the Hall effect set up and adjust the current.
(iv) Place the semiconductor (Hall probe) between the poles of the electromagnet.
(v) Switch over the display to voltage side.
(vi) Switch on the electromagnet power supply and adjust the current to a fixed value so that the
magnetic field is fixed.
(vii) Rotate the semiconductor (Hall probe) till it become perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage
will be maximum in this adjustment.
(viii) Measure Hall voltage for different current at constant magnetic field.
(ix) Plot a graph by plotting the Hall current (𝐼𝐻 ) along the x-axis and the Hall voltage (𝑉𝐻 ) along the y-
axis.
(x) Calculate the slope from the 𝑉𝐻 vs 𝐼𝐻 plot.
(xi) Calculate the fixed magnetic field from the calibration curve.
𝑉𝐻 𝑡
(xii) Finally, calculate the Hall coefficient 𝑅𝐻 by using the formula 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐼𝐻 𝐵
(see the theory part), 𝑡 is
the thickness of the semiconductor.
8. Observations:
𝑉𝐻′ =______________
𝐼𝐻′ = ______________
𝑉𝐻′ 𝑡
Therefore, 𝑅𝐻 = ′ 𝐵′ =_________________
𝐼𝐻
𝑉𝐻 𝑡
𝑅𝐻 =
𝐼𝐻 𝐵
where, 𝑉𝐻 is the Hall voltage, 𝑡 is the thickness of the sample, 𝐼𝐻 is the Hall current and 𝐵 is the applied
magnetic field.
13. Assessments:
Experiment 9 : To find the resonant frequency of a series L-C-R circuit and also to
determine its quality factor
1. Aim/Purpose of the Experiment: To find the resonant frequency and quality factor of the series L-C-R
circuit.
2. Learning Outcomes: To understand and analyze the behavior of series L-C-R circuits at the resonant
frequency, as well as to calculate and interpret the quality factor of such circuits in various practical
scenarios.
3. Prerequisites: It is essential to have a basic understanding about inductor (L), capacitor (C), resistor (R)
and resonant frequency and a basic knowledge of plotting graph on a graph paper.
~
V
Fig: Circuit diagram showing L-C-R series connection
𝜔0 𝐿 1 𝐿 1 𝐿
𝑄= = = √ ( 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0 ) … … … … … (3)
𝑅 √𝐿𝐶 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶
6. Operating Procedure:
i) Connect the inductor (L), capacitor (C), and resistor (R) in series to form an L-C-R circuit.
ii) Make the circuit connections on the circuit board as shown in the figure.
iii) Ensure proper values for L, C, and R are chosen according to the desired frequency range.
iv) Measure the (ac) current 𝐼 using an ammeter.
v) Start with a lower frequency range that encompasses the expected resonant frequency, 𝑓0.
vi) Gradually increase the frequency, 𝑓 of the signal generator while recording the current, 𝐼.
vii) The resonant frequency, 𝑓0 is the frequency at which 𝐼 reaches its maximum value, 𝐼0 .
viii) Take data in smallest possible steps around the resonance frequency, 𝑓0.
ix) Record the resonant frequency, 𝑓0.
x) Draw the resonance curve by plotting 𝑓 along x-axis and 𝐼 along y-axis.
xi) From the curve find the resonant frequency 𝑓0, the half-power frequencies 𝑓1 (lower half-power
frequency) and 𝑓2 (upper half power frequency). At the half-power frequencies, the current 𝐼 falls
to (1/√2) of its maximum value, 𝐼0 .
0𝑓
xii) Calculate the quality factor 𝑄 using the relation, 𝑄 = 𝑓 −𝑓 .
2 1
xiii) The theoretical value of resonant frequency and quality factor can be calculated by using the
1 1 𝐿
formula 𝑓0 = 2𝜋 and 𝑄 = 𝑅 √𝐶 , respectively.
√𝐿𝐶
xiv) Compare the experimentally obtained values of 𝑓0 and 𝑄 with their respective theoretical values.
8. Observations:
Used values: 𝐿 = ……. mH, 𝐶 = ……… µF, 𝑅 = …… Ω.
1
Capacitive reactance is the opposition to the flow of ac current through a capacitor. It is denoted by 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 =
1
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
.
vi) How are the behavior of inductive reactance and capacitive reactance with frequency?
Ans: Inductive reactance 𝑋𝐿 increases with 𝑓 linearly where capacitive reactance 𝑋𝐶 decreases with increasing 𝑓. At
the resonance frequency, 𝑓0, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 .
13. Assessments: