UNIT 3: SENSORS 2012-2013

Chapter 4) to implement almost all

Sensors and control functions.
 Each of these subsystems requires one
Actuators or more sensors and actuators in order
 The previous chapter introduced two to operate.
critically important components found
in any electronic control system: AUTOMOTIVE CONTROL SYSTEM
sensors and actuators. APPLICATIONS OF SENSORS AND
 This chapter explains the operation of ACTUATORS
the sensors and actuators used  In control system applications, sensors
throughout a modern car. and actuators are in many cases the
 Special emphasis is placed on sensors critical components for determining
and actuators used for power train system performance.
(i.e., engine and transmission)  This is especially true for automotive
applications since these systems control system applications.
normally employ the largest number  The availability of appropriate sensors
of such devices. and actuators dictates the design of the
 However, this chapter will also control system and the type of
discuss sensors found in other function it can perform.
subsystems on modern cars.
 In any control system, sensors provide
measurements of important plant
variables in a format suitable for the
digital microcontroller.
 Similarly, actuators are electrically
operated devices that regulate inputs
to the plant that directly control its
output.
 For example, as we shall see, fuel Figure 6.1 Typical Electronic
injectors are electrically driven Engine Control System
actuators that regulate the flow of fuel
into an engine for engine control  The sensors and actuators that are
applications. available to a control system designer
 Recall from Chapter 2 that are not always what the designer
fundamentally an electronic control wants, because the ideal device may
system uses measurements of the plant not be commercially available at
variable being regulated for feedback acceptable costs.
control.  For this reason, often special signal
 The measured variable is compared processors or interface circuits are
with a desired value for the variable to designed to adapt to an available
produce an error signal. sensor or actuator, or the control
 The electronic controller generates system is designed in a specific way to
output electrical signals that regulate fit available sensors or actuators.
inputs to the plant in such a way as to  However, because of the large
reduce the error to zero. potential production run for
 As will be shown throughout the automotive control systems, it is often
remainder of this book, automotive worthwhile to develop a sensor for a
electronics have many examples of particular application, even though it
electronic control in virtually every may take a long and expensive
subsystem. research project to do so.
 Modern automotive electronic control  Although there are many subsystems
systems use microcontrollers based on on automobiles that operate with
microprocessors (as explained in sensors and actuators, we begin our

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discussion with a survey of the  Nevertheless, it is possible to review a

devices for power train control. superset of possible sensors, which is
 To motivate the discussion of engine done in this chapter, and to present
control sensors and actuators it is representative examples of practical
helpful to review the variables digital control configurations, which is
measured (sensors) and the controlled done in the next chapter.
variables (actuators).
 Figure 6.1 is a representative block The superset of variables sensed in engine
diagram of a typical electronic engine control includes the following:
control system illustrating most of the 1. Mass air flow (MAF) rate
relevant sensors used for engine 2. Exhaust gas oxygen concentration
control. (possibly heated)
 The position of the throttle plate, 3. Throttle plate angular position
sensed by the throttle position sensor 4. Crankshaft angular position/RPM
(TPS), directly regulates the air flow 5. Coolant temperature
into the engine, thereby controlling 6. Intake air temperature
output power. 7. Manifold absolute pressure (MAP)
 A set of fuel injectors (one for each 8. Differential exhaust gas pressure
cylinder) delivers the correct amount 9. Vehicle speed
of fuel to a corresponding cylinder 10. Transmission gear selector
during the intake stroke under control position
of the electronic engine controller.
 A fuel injector is, as will presently be In addition to measurements of the above
shown, one of the important actuators variables, engine control is also based on the
used in automotive electronic status of the vehicle as monitored by a set of
application. switches.
 The ignition control system fires each
spark plug at the appropriate time These switches include the following:
under control of the electronic engine 1. Air conditioner clutch engaged
controller. 2. Brake on/off
 The exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is 3. Wide open throttle
controlled by yet another output from 4. Closed throttle
the engine controller.
 All critical engine control functions 3.1 Exhaust Gas Oxygen Sensor
are based on measurements made by
various sensors connected to the Exhaust Gas Oxygen Sensor
engine in an appropriate way. 1. Recall from Chapter 5 that the amount
 Computations made within the engine of oxygen in the exhaust gas is used as
controller based on these inputs yield an indirect measurement of the air/fuel
output signals to the actuators. ratio.
 We consider inputs (sensors) to the 2. As a result, one of the most significant
control system first, then we will automotive sensors in use today is the
discuss the outputs (actuators). exhaust gas oxygen (EGO) sensor.
3. This sensor is often called a lambda
Variables to Be Measured sensor from the Greek letter lambda
 The set of variables sensed for any (l), which is commonly used to denote
given engine is specific to the the equivalence ratio:
associated engine control
configuration.
 Space limitations for this book
prohibit a complete survey of all
engine control systems and relevant
sensor and actuator selections for all
car models.

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ZrO2 surface just inside the platinum

electrodes.
19. The platinum plate on the air reference
side of the ZrO2 is exposed to a much
higher concentration of oxygen ions
Figure 6.18 Zirconium Dioxide than the exhaust gas side.
(ZrO2) EGO Sensor 20. The air reference side becomes
electrically more negative than the
4. Whenever the air/fuel ratio is at exhaust gas side; therefore, an electric
stoichiometry, the value for l is 1. field exists across the ZrO2 material
5. When the air–fuel mixture is too lean, and a voltage, Vo, results.
the condition is represented by lambda 21. The polarity of this voltage is positive
greater than one (denoted l > 1). on the exhaust gas side and negative
6. Conversely, when the air–fuel mixture on the air reference side of the ZrO2.
is too rich, the condition is represented 22. The magnitude of this voltage depends
by an equivalence ratio of lambda less on the concentration of oxygen in the
than one (l < 1). exhaust gas and on the sensor
7. The two types of EGO sensors that temperature.
have been used are based on the use of
active oxides of two types of
materials.
8. One uses zirconium dioxide (ZrO2)
and the other uses titanium dioxide
(TiO2).
9. The former is the most commonly
used type today.
10. Figure 6.18 is a photograph of a
typical ZrO2 EGO sensor and Figure
6.19 shows the physical structure.
11. Figure 6.18 indicates that a voltage,
Vo, is generated across the ZrO 2
material.
12. This voltage depends on the exhaust Figure 6.19 EGO Mounting and
gas oxygen concentration, which in Structure
turn depends on the engine air/fuel 23. The quantity of oxygen in the exhaust
ratio. gas is represented by the oxygen
13. In essence, the EGO sensor consists of partial pressure.
a thimble-shaped section of ZrO2 with 24. Basically, this partial pressure is that
thin platinum electrodes on the inside proportion of the total exhaust gas
and outside of the ZrO2. pressure (nearly at atmospheric
14. The inside electrode is exposed to air, pressure) that is due to the quantity of
and the outside electrode is exposed to oxygen.
exhaust gas through a porous 25. The exhaust gas oxygen partial
protective overcoat. pressure for a rich mixture varies over
15. A simplified explanation of EGO the range of 10-16 to 10-32 of
sensor operation is based on the atmospheric pressure.
distribution of oxygen ions. 26. The oxygen partial pressure for a lean
16. An ion is an electrically charged atom. mixture is roughly 10-2 atmosphere.
17. Oxygen ions have two excess 27. Consequently, for a rich mixture there
electrons and each electron has a is a relatively low oxygen
negative charge; thus, oxygen ions are concentration in the exhaust and a
negatively charged. higher EGO sensor output.
18. The ZrO2 has a tendency to attract the 28. Correspondingly, for a lean mixture
oxygen ions, which accumulate on the the exhaust gas oxygen concentration

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is relatively high (meaning that the

difference between exhaust gas and
atmospheric oxygen concentrations is
lower), resulting in a relatively low
EGO sensor output voltage.
29. For a fully warmed EGO sensor the
output voltage is about 1 volt for a
rich mixture and about 0.1 volt for a
lean mixture. Figure 6.20 Ideal EGO Switching
Characteristics
Desirable EGO Characteristics
The EGO sensor characteristics that are
desirable for the type of limit-cycle fuel
control system that was discussed in Chapter 5
are as follows:
1. Abrupt change in voltage at
stoichiometry
2. Rapid switching of output voltage
in response to exhaust gas oxygen
changes
3. Large difference in sensor output Figure 6.21 Typical EGO Sensor
voltage between rich and lean mixture Characteristics
conditions
4. Stable voltages with respect to
exhaust temperature

Switching Characteristics
1. The switching time for the EGO
sensor also must be considered in
control applications.
2. An ideal characteristic for a limit-
cycle controller is shown in Figure
6.20.
3. The actual characteristics of a new
EGO sensor are shown in Figure 6.21.
4. These data were obtained by slowly
varying air/fuel ratios across
stoichiometry.
5. The arrow pointing down indicates the
change in Vo as the air/fuel ratio was Figure 6.22 Typical Voltage
varied from rich to lean. Switching Characteristics of
6. The up arrow indicates the change in EGO Sensor
Vo as the air/fuel ratio was varied from
lean to rich.
7. Note that the sensor output doesn’t
change at exactly the same point for
increasing air/fuel ratio as for
decreasing air/fuel ratio.
8. This phenomenon is called hysteresis.

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19. The EGO sensor should not be used

for control at temperatures below
about 300°C because the difference
between rich and lean voltages
decreases rapidly with temperature in
this region.
20. This important property of the sensor
is partly responsible for the
requirement to operate the fuel control
system in the open-loop mode at low
exhaust temperature.
21. Closed-loop operation with the EGO
output voltage used as the error input
cannot begin until the EGO sensor
temperature exceeds about 300°C.
Figure 6.23 Typical Influence of
Heated EGO Sensors
Mixture and Temperature on
1. The increasingly stringent exhaust
EGO Output Voltage emission requirements for automobiles
in the 1990s have forced automakers
9. Temperature affects switching times to shorten the time from engine start to
and output voltage. the point at which the EGO sensor is
10. Switching times at two temperatures at operating temperature.
are shown in Figure 6.22. 2. This requirement has led to the
11. Note that the time per division is twice development of the heated exhaust gas
as much for the display at 350°C as at oxygen (HEGO) sensor.
800°C. 3. This sensor is electrically heated from
12. This means that the switching times start-up until it yields an output signal
are roughly 0.1 second at 350°C, of sufficient magnitude to be useful in
whereas at 800°C they are about 0.05 closed-loop control.
second. This is a 2 : 1 change in 4. The HEGO sensor includes a section
switching times due to changing of resistance material.
temperature. 5. Electrical power from the car battery
13. The temperature dependence of the is applied at start-up, which quickly
EGO sensor output voltage is very warms the sensor to usable
important. temperatures.
14. The graph in Figure 6.23 shows the 6. This heating potentially shortens the
temperature dependence of an EGO time interval until closed-loop
sensor output voltage for lean and rich operation is possible, thereby
mixtures and for two different minimizing the time during warm-up
15. load resistances—5 megohms (5 that the air/fuel ratio deviates from
million ohms) and 0.83 megohm. stoichiometry and correspondingly
16. The EGO sensor output voltage for a reduces undesirable exhaust gas
rich mixture is in the range of about emissions.
0.80 to 1.0 volt for an exhaust
temperature range of 350°C to 800°C. 3.3 ENGINE CRANKSHAFT
17. For a lean mixture, this voltage is
roughly in the range of 0.05 to 0.07 ANGULAR POSITION SENSOR
volt for the same temperature range.
18. Under certain conditions, the fuel ENGINE CRANKSHAFT ANGULAR
control using an EGO sensor will be POSITION SENSOR
operated in open-loop mode and for
other conditions it will be operated in 1. Besides pressure, the position of
closed-loop mode (as will be shafts, valves, and levers must be
explained in Chapter 7). sensed for automotive control systems.

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2. Measurements of the angular position

or velocity of shafts are common in Figure 6.5 Engine Crankshaft
automotive electronics. Angular Position Measurement
3. It is highly desirable that these
measurements be made without any 6. The principles involved in measuring
mechanical contact with the rotating rotating shafts can be illustrated by
shaft. one of the most significant
4. Such noncontacting measurements can applications for engine control: the
be made in a variety of ways, but the measurement of crankshaft angular
commonest of these in automotive position or angular velocity (i.e.,
electronics use magnetic or optical RPM).
phenomena as the physical basis. 7. Imagine the engine as viewed from the
5. Magnetic means of such rear, as shown in Figure 6.5.
measurements are generally preferred 8. On the rear of the crankshaft is a large,
in engine applications since they are heavy, circular steel disk called the
unaffected by oil, dirt, or other flywheel that is connected to and
contaminants. rotates with the crankshaft.
9. Let’s mark a point on the flywheel, as
shown in Figure 6.5, and draw a line
through this point and the axis of
rotation.
10. Let’s draw another line through the
axis of rotation parallel to the
horizontal center line of the engine as
a reference line.
11. The crankshaft angular position is the
angle between the reference line and
the mark on the flywheel.
12. Imagine that the flywheel is rotated so
that the mark is directly on the
reference line.
13. This is an angular position of zero
degrees.
14. For our purposes, assume that this
angular position corresponds to the
No. 1 cylinder at TDC (top dead
center).
15. As the crankshaft rotates, this angle
increases from zero to 360° in one
revolution.
16. However, one full engine cycle from
Figure 6.4 Circuit Diagram for intake through exhaust requires two
MAP Sensor Using Strain complete revolutions of the
Gauges crankshaft.
17. That is, one complete engine cycle
corresponds to the crankshaft angular
position going from zero to 720°.
18. During each cycle, it is important to
measure the crankshaft position with
reference to TDC for each cylinder.
19. This information is used by the
electronic engine controller to set
ignition timing and, in most cases, to
set the fuel injector pulse timing.

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20. In automobiles with electronic engine (using magnetic phenomena) is

control systems, angular position can illustrated in Figure 6.6.
be sensed on the crankshaft directly or 2. This sensor consists of a permanent
on the camshaft. magnet with a coil of wire wound
21. Recall that the piston drives the around it.
crankshaft directly, while the valves 3. A steel disk that is mounted on the
and the distributor for the spark crankshaft (usually in front of the
ignition are driven from the camshaft. engine) has tabs that pass between the
22. The camshaft is driven from the pole pieces of this magnet.
crankshaft through a 1 : 2 reduction 4. In Figure 6.6, the steel disk has four
drive train, which can be gears, belt, protruding tabs, which is appropriate
or chain. for an 8-cylinder engine.
23. Therefore, the camshaft rotational 5. The passage of each tab can
speed is one-half that of the correspond to the TDC position of a
crankshaft, so the camshaft angular cylinder on its power stroke, although
position goes from zero to 360° for other reference positions are also
one complete engine cycle. possible.
24. Either of these sensing locations can 6. This sensor is of the magnetic
be used in electronic control systems. reluctance type and is based on the
25. Although the crankshaft location is concept of a magnetic circuit.
potentially superior for accuracy 7. A magnetic circuit is a closed path
because of torsional and gear backlash through a magnetic material (e.g.,
errors in the camshaft drivetrain, many iron, cobalt, nickel, or synthetic
production systems locate this sensor magnetic material called ferrite).
such that it measures camshaft 8. In the case of the sensor in Figure 6.6,
position. the magnetic circuit is the closed path
26. At the present time, there appears to through the magnet material and
be a trend toward measuring across the gap between the pole
crankshaft position directly rather than pieces.
indirectly via camshaft position.
27. In fact, it is sufficient for engine
control purposes to measure
crankshaft/camshaft position at a
small number of fixed points.
28. The number of such measurements (or
samples) is determined by the number
of cylinders.
29. It is desirable to measure engine
angular position with a noncontacting
sensor to avoid mechanical wear and
corresponding changes in accuracy of Figure 6.6 Magnetic Reluctance
the measurement. Crankshaft Position Sensor
30. The two most common methods for
noncontact coupling to a rotating shaft
employ magnetic fields or optics.
31. Let’s consider the concepts used for
magnetically coupled sensors first.

3.4 Magnetic Reluctance Position

Sensor

Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor

1. One engine sensor configuration that
measures crankshaft position directly

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Figure 6.7 Magnetic Circuit of permeability of the material along the

the Reluctance Sensor path.
19. The magnetic permeability of steel is a
few thousand times larger than air;
therefore, the reluctance of steel is
much lower than air.
20. Note that when one of the tabs of the
steel disk is located between the pole
pieces of the magnet, a large part of
the gap between the pole pieces is
filled by the steel.
21. Since the steel has a lower reluctance
than air, the “flow” of magnetic flux
increases to a relatively large value.
22. On the other hand, when a tab is not
between the magnet pole pieces, the
gap is filled by air only.
Figure 6.8 Output Voltage 23. This creates a high-reluctance circuit
Waveform from the Magnetic for which the magnetic flux is
Reluctance Crankshaft Position relatively small.
Sensor Coil 24. Thus, the magnitude of the magnetic
flux that “flows” through the magnetic
9. The magnetic field in a magnetic circuit depends on the position of the
circuit is described by a pair of field tab, which, in turn, depends on the
quantities that can be compared to the crankshaft angular position.
voltage and current of an ordinary 25. The magnetic flux is least when none
electric circuit. of the tabs is near the magnet pole
10. One of these quantities is called the pieces.
magnetic field intensity. 26. As a tab begins to pass through the
11. It exerts a force similar to the voltage gap, the magnetic flux increases.
of a battery. 27. It reaches a maximum when the tab is
12. The response of the magnetic circuit exactly between the pole pieces, and
to the magnetic field intensity is then decreases as the tab passes out of
described by the second quantity, the pole piece region.
which is called magnetic flux. 28. In most control systems, the position
13. A line of constant magnetic flux is a of maximum magnetic flux has a fixed
closed path through the magnetic relationship to TDC for one of the
material. cylinders.
14. The magnetic flux is similar to the 29. The change in magnetic flux induces a
current that flows when a resistor is voltage, Vo, in the sensing coil that is
connected across a battery to form a proportional to the rate of change of
closed electrical circuit. the magnetic flux.
15. As we shall see, the voltage generated 30. Since the magnetic flux must be
by the reluctance sensor is determined changing to induce a voltage in the
by the strength of this magnetic flux. sensing coil, its output voltage is zero
16. The strength of the magnetic flux is, in whenever the engine is not running,
turn, determined by the reluctance of regardless of the position of the
the magnetic circuit. Reluctance is to a crankshaft.
magnetic circuit what resistance is to 31. This is a serious disadvantage for this
an electrical circuit. type of sensor because the engine
17. The path for the magnetic flux of the timing cannot be set statically.
reluctance sensor is illustrated in 32. As shown in Figure 6.8, the coil
Figure 6.7. voltage, Vo, begins to increase from
18. The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is zero as a tab begins to pass between
inversely proportional to the magnetic the pole pieces, reaches a maximum,

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then falls to zero when the tab is 8. In many cases, the actual RPM sensor
exactly between the pole pieces (see disk is mounted near the flywheel and
Figure 6.8a). has many more than four tabs; in such
33. (Note that although the value of cases, the counter does not actually
magnetic flux is maximum at this count for a full minute before the
point, the rate of change of magnetic speed is calculated, but the results are
flux is zero; therefore, the induced the same.
voltage in the sensing coil is zero.)
34. Then it increases with the opposite 3.6 Timing Sensor for Ignition and
polarity, reaches a maximum, and falls
to zero as the tab passes out of the gap
Fuel Delivery
between the pole pieces.
35. The coil voltage waveform shown in Timing Sensor for Ignition and Fuel
Figure 6.8b occurs each time one of Delivery
the cylinders reaches TDC on its 1. In electronic engine control it is often
power stroke. desirable to measure the angular
36. It should be noted that if the disk is position of the engine relative to a
mounted on the crankshaft, then the specific point in the cycle.
number of tabs for this crankshaft 2. For such measurement it is normally
position sensor always will be half the necessary to measure the position of
number of cylinders because it takes the camshaft.
two crankshaft rotations for a 3. The measurement of engine position
complete engine cycle. via crankshaft and camshaft position
sensors (as well as its use in timing
3.5 Engine Speed Sensor fuel delivery and ignition) is described
in Chapter 7.
4. Normally it is sufficient to measure
Engine Speed Sensor camshaft position at a fixed point.
1. An engine speed sensor is needed to 5. Such a sample of camshaft position is
provide an input for the electronic readily achieved by a magnetic sensor
controller for several functions. similar to that described above for the
2. The position sensor discussed crankshaft position measurement.
previously can be used to measure
engine speed.
3. The reluctance sensor is used in this
case as an example; however, any of
the other position sensor techniques
could be used as well. Refer to Figure
6.6 and notice that the four tabs will
pass through the sensing coil once for
each crankshaft revolution.
4. Therefore, if we count the pulses of
voltage from the sensing coil in one
minute and divide by four, we will Figure 6.9 Crankshaft Position
know the engine speed in revolutions Sensor
per minute (RPM).
5. This is easy to do with digital circuits. 6. This sensor detects a reference point
6. Precise timing circuits such as those on the angular position of the
used in digital watches can start a camshaft that defines a beginning to a
counter circuit that will count pulses complete engine cycle (e.g., power
until the timing circuit stops it. stroke for all cylinders).
7. The counter can have the divide-by- 7. Once this reference point has been
four function included in it, or a detected, crankshaft position
separate divider circuit may be used. measurements (as described above)
provide sufficient information for

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timing fuel injection pulses and path as the tabs pass between the
ignition. magnet pole pieces.
8. In one scheme a variable-reluctance
sensor is located near a ferromagnetic
disk on the camshaft.
9. This disk has a notch cut (or it can
have a protruding tab), as shown in
Figure 6.9.
10. The disk provides a low-reluctance
path (yielding high magnetic flux)
except when the notch aligns with the
sensor axis.
11. Whenever the notch aligns with the
sensor axis, the reluctance of this
magnetic path is increased because the
permeability of air in the notch is very Figure 6.10 Hall-Effect Position Sensor
much lower than the permeability of
the disk. The Hall Effect
12. This relatively high reluctance through 1. The Hall element is a small, thin, flat
the notch causes the magnetic flux to slab of semiconductor material.
decrease and produces a change in 2. When a current, I, is passed through
sensor output voltage. this slab by means of an external
13. As the camshaft rotates, the notch circuit as shown in Figure 6.11a, a
passes under the sensor once for every voltage is developed across the slab
two crankshaft revolutions. perpendicular to the direction of
14. The magnetic flux abruptly decreases, current flow and perpendicular to the
then increases as the notch passes the direction of magnetic flux.
sensor. 3. This voltage is proportional to both
15. This generates a voltage pulse that can the current and magnetic flux density
be used in electronic control systems that flows through the slab.
for timing purposes. 4. This effect—the generation of a
voltage that is dependent on a
3.7 Hall-Effect Position Sensor magnetic field—is called the Hall
effect.
Hall-Effect Position Sensor 5. In Figure 6.11b, the current, I, is
1. As mentioned previously, one of the represented by electrons, e, which
main disadvantages of the magnetic have negative charge, flowing from
reluctance sensor is its lack of output left to right.
when the engine isn’t running. 6. The magnetic flux flows along the
2. A crankshaft position sensor that legs of the magnet as indicated and is
avoids this problem is the Hall-effect generally perpendicular to the face of
position sensor. the semiconductor Hall element.
3. This sensor can be used to measure 7. Whenever an electron moves through
either camshaft position or crankshaft a magnetic field, a force (called the
position. Lorentz force) that is proportional to
4. A Hall-effect position sensor is shown the electron velocity and the strength
in Figure 6.10. of the magnetic flux is exerted on the
5. This sensor is similar to the reluctance electron.
sensor in that it employs a steel disk 8. The direction of this force is
having protruding tabs and a magnet perpendicular to the direction in which
for coupling the disk to the sensing the electron is moving.
element. 9. In Figure 6.11b, the Lorentz force
6. Another similarity is that the steel disk direction is such that the electrons are
varies the reluctance of the magnetic

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deflected toward the lower sense TDC of a cylinder).

electrode. If the disk is driven by the camshaft,
10. Thus, this electrode is more negative then the disk must have as many tabs
than the upper electrode and a voltage as the engine has cylinders.
exists between the electrodes, having 5. Therefore, the disk shown would be
the polarity shown in Figure 6.11b. for a 4-cylinder engine.
11. As the strength of the magnetic flux 6. It is important to realize that voltage
density increases, more of the output versus crankshaft angle is
electrons are deflected downward. independent of engine speed.
12. If the current, I, is held constant, then 7. Thus, this sensor can be used for
the voltage, Vo, is proportional to the setting the engine timing when the
strength of the magnetic flux density, engine is not running (e.g., when it is
which, in turn, is determined by the being motored at the end of an
position of the tabs. assembly line).
13. This voltage tends to be relatively
weak so it is amplified, as shown in
Figure 6.10.

Output Waveform
1. It was shown in the discussion of the
reluctance crankshaft position sensor
that the magnetic flux density for this
configuration depends on the position
of the tab. Figure 6.12 Waveform of Hall Element
Output Voltage for Position Sensor of
Figure 6.10

Figure 6.13 Hall-Effect Position Sensor

That Shields the Magnetic Circuit
Figure 6.11 The Hall Effect
3.8 Shielded-Field Sensor
2. Recall that the magnetic flux is largest
when one of the tabs is positioned
symmetrically between the magnet Shielded-Field Sensor
pole pieces and that this position 1. Figure 6.13a shows another concept
normally corresponds closely to TDC that uses the Hall-effect element in a
of one of the cylinders. way different from that just discussed.
3. The voltage waveform Vo that is 2. In this method, the Hall element is
produced by the Hall element in the normally exposed to a magnetic field
position sensor of Figure 6.10 is and produces an output voltage.
illustrated in Figure 6.12. 3. When one of the tabs passes between
4. Since Vo is proportional to the the magnet and the sensor element, the
magnetic flux density, it reaches low reluctance of the tab and disk
maximum when any of the tabs is provides a path for the magnetic flux
symmetrically located between the that bypasses the Hall-effect sensor
magnet pole pieces (corresponding to element, and the sensor output drops
to near zero.

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4. Note in Figure 6.13b that the 9. The output pulse level can very easily
waveform is just the opposite of the be standard transistor logic levels of
one in Figure 6.12. +2.4 V for the high level and +0.8 V
for the low level.
3.9 Optical Crankshaft Position 10. Used as pulses, the signals provide
Sensor time-referenced pulses that can be
signal processed easily with digital
integrated circuits.
Optical Crankshaft Position Sensor 11. One of the problems with optical
1. In a sufficiently clean environment a sensors is that they must be protected
shaft position can also be sensed using from dirt and oil; otherwise, they will
optical techniques. not work properly.
2. Figure 6.14 illustrates such a system. 12. They have the advantages that they
3. Again, as with the magnetic system, a can sense position without the engine
disk is directly coupled to the running and that the pulse amplitude is
crankshaft. constant with variation in speed.
4. This time, the disk has holes in it that
correspond to the number of tabs on 3.10 MANIFOLD ABSOLUTE
the disks of the magnetic systems.
5. Mounted on each side of the disk are PRESSURE
fiber-optic light pipes.
6. The hole in the disk allows Indirect Measurement of Mass Air Flow
transmission of light through the light 1. Recall that Chapter 5 presented an
pipes from the light-emitting diode alternative to direct mass air flow
(LED) source to the phototransistor measurement in the form of the so-
used as a light sensor. called speed-density method.
7. Light would not be transmitted from 2. This method computes an estimate of
source to sensor when there is no hole mass air flow from measurements of
because the solid disk blocks the light. manifold absolute pressure (MAP),
8. As shown in Figure 6.14, the pulse of RPM, and inlet air temperature.
light is detected by the phototransistor 3. We consider first sensors for
and coupled to an amplifier to obtain a measuring manifold absolute pressure.
satisfactory signal level. 4. MAP Sensor Concepts Several MAP
sensor configurations have been used
in automotive applications.
5. The earliest sensors were derived from
aerospace instrumentation concepts,
but these proved more expensive than
desirable for automotive applications
and have been replaced with more
cost-effective designs.
6. It is interesting to note that none of the
MAP sensors in use measures
manifold pressure directly, but instead
measure the displacement of a
diaphragm that is deflected by
manifold pressure.
7. The details of the diaphragm
displacement and the measurement of
this displacement vary from one
configuration to another.
Figure 6.14 Optical Position
Sensor Strain Gauge MAP Sensor
1. One relatively inexpensive MAP
sensor configuration is the silicon

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diaphragm diffused strain gauge manifold pressure by a phenomenon

sensor shown in Figure 6.3. that is known as piezoresistivity.
2. This sensor uses a silicon chip that is 11. Piezoresistivity occurs in certain
approximately 3 millimeters square. semiconductors so that the actual
3. Along the outer edges, the chip is resistivity (a property of the material)
approximately 250 micrometers (1 changes in proportion to the strain
micrometer = 1 millionth of a meter) (fractional change in length).
thick, but the center area is only 25 12. The strain induced in each resistor is
micrometers thick and forms a proportional to the diaphragm
diaphragm. deflection, which, in turn, is
4. The edge of the chip is sealed to a proportional to the pressure on the
Pyrex plate under vacuum, thereby outside surface of the diaphragm.
forming a vacuum chamber between 13. This pressure is the manifold pressure.
the plate and the center area of the 14. A pressure sensor having the
silicon chip. configuration of Figure 6.3 is also
used for measuring absolute
atmospheric pressure.
15. It will be shown in Chapter 7 that this
absolute pressure can be used in
engine control applications, as can the
manifold pressure.
16. An electrical signal that is
proportional to the manifold pressure
is obtained by connecting the resistors
in a circuit called a Wheatstone
bridge, as shown in the schematic of
Figure 6.4a.
17. Note the similarity in the Wheatstone
bridge of Figure 6.4a with that
employed in the MAF sensor of
Figure 6.2.
18. The voltage regulator holds a constant
dc voltage across the bridge.
19. The resistors diffused into the
Figure 6.3 Typical Silicon- diaphragm are denoted R1, R2, R3, and
Diaphragm Strain Gauge MAP R4 in Figure 6.4a.
Sensor 20. When there is no strain on the
diaphragm, all four resistances are
5. A set of sensing resistors is formed equal, the bridge is balanced, and the
around the edge of this chamber, as voltage between points A and B is
indicated in Figure 6.3. zero.
6. The resistors are formed by diffusing a 21. When manifold pressure changes, it
doping impurity into the silicon. causes these resistances to change in
7. External connections to these resistors such a way that R1 and R3 increase by
are made through wires connected to an amount that is proportional to
the metal bonding pads. pressure; at the same time, R2 and R4
8. This entire assembly is placed in a decrease by an identical amount.
sealed housing that is connected to the 22. This unbalances the bridge and a net
intake manifold by a small diameter difference voltage is present between
tube. points A and B.
9. Manifold pressure applied to the 23. The differential amplifier generates an
diaphragm causes it to deflect. output voltage proportional to the
10. The resistance of the sensing resistors difference between the two input
changes in proportion to the applied voltages (which is, in turn,

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proportional to the pressure), as shown 8. The sensor output voltage, VT, is given
in Figure 6.4b. by the following equation:

3.11 ENGINE COOLANT

TEMPERATURE(ECT) SENSOR 9. The sensor output voltage varies
inversely with temperature; that is, the
TEMPERATURE SENSORS output voltage decreases as the
1. Temperature is an important temperature increases.
parameter throughout the automotive
system.
2. In operation of an electronic fuel
control system it is vital to know the
temperature of the coolant, the
temperature of the inlet air, and the
temperature of the exhaust gas oxygen
sensor (a sensor to be discussed in the
next section).
3. Several sensor configurations are Figure 6.16 Coolant Temperature
available for measuring these Sensor
temperatures, but we can illustrate the
basic operation of most of the
temperature sensors by explaining the
operation of a typical coolant sensor.

3.12 IAT (INTAKE AIR

TEMPERATURE) SENSOR
Figure 6.17 Typical Coolant
Typical Coolant Sensor Temperature Sensor Circuit
1. A typical coolant sensor, shown in
Figure 6.16, consists of a thermistor
3.13 Knock Sensors
mounted in a housing that is designed
to be inserted in the coolant stream. Knock Sensors
2. This housing is typically threaded with 1. Another sensor having applications in
pipe threads that seal the assembly closed-loop engine control is the so-
against coolant leakage. called knock sensor.
3. A thermistor is made of 2. As explained in Chapter 7, this sensor
semiconductor material whose is employed in closed-loop ignition
resistance varies inversely with timing to prevent undesirable knock.
temperature. 3. Although a more detailed explanation
4. For example, at -40°C a typical of knock is given in Chapter 7, for the
coolant sensor has a resistance of purposes of this chapter it can be
100,000 ohms. described generally as a rapid rise in
5. The resistance decreases to about cylinder pressure during combustion.
70,000 ohms at 130°C. 4. It does not occur normally, but only
6. The sensor is typically connected in an under special conditions.
electrical circuit like that shown in 5. It occurs most commonly with high
Figure 6.17, in which the coolant manifold pressure and excessive spark
temperature sensor resistance is advance.
denoted RT. 6. It is important to detect knock and
7. This resistance is connected to a avoid excessive knock; otherwise,
reference voltage through a fixed there may be damage to the engine.
resistance R.

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2. The majority of cars produced since

the early 1990s use a relatively simple
and inexpensive mass air flow rate
(MAF) sensor.
3. This is normally mounted as part of
the air cleaner assembly, where it
measures air flow into the intake
manifold.
4. It is a ruggedly packaged, single-unit
Figure 6.24 Knock Sensor sensor that includes solid-state
electronic signal processing.
7. One way of controlling knocking is to 5. In operation, the MAF sensor
sense when knocking begins and then generates a continuous signal that
retard the ignition until the knocking varies nearly linearly with true mass
stops. air flow Rm.
8. A key to the control loop for this
method is a knock sensor.
9. A knock sensor using magnetostrictive
techniques is shown in Figure 6.24.
10. Magnetostriction is a phenomenon
whereby the magnetic properties of a
material depend on stress (due to an
applied force).
11. When sensing knock, the
magnetostrictive rods, which are in a
magnetic field, change the flux field in
the coil due to knock-induced forces.
This change in flux produces a voltage
change in the coil.
12. This voltage is used to sense
excessive knock (see Chapter 7).
13. Other sensors use piezoelectric
crystals or the piezoresistance of a
doped silicon semiconductor. Figure 6.2 Mass Air Flow Sensor
14. Whichever type of sensor is used, it
forms a closed-loop system that
6. The MAF sensor is a variation of a
retards the ignition to reduce the
classic air flow sensor that was known
knock detected at the cylinders.
as a hot wire anemometer and was
15. Systems using knock sensors are
used, for example, to measure wind
explained in Chapter 7.
velocity for weather forecasting.
16. The problem of detecting knock is
7. In the MAF, the hot-wire, or sensing,
complicated by the presence of other
element is replaced by a hot-film
vibrations and noises in the engine.
structure mounted on a substrate.
8. On the air inlet side is mounted a
3.14 AIR FLOW RATE SENSOR honeycomb flow straightener that
“smooths” the air flow (causing
AIR FLOW RATE SENSOR nominally laminar air flow over the
1. In Chapter 5 we showed that the film element).
correct operation of an electronically 9. At the lower portion of the structure is
controlled engine operating with the signal processing circuitry.
government-regulated exhaust 10. The film element is electrically heated
emissions requires a measurement of to a constant temperature above that of
the mass flow rate of air (Rm) into the the inlet air.
engine.

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11. The latter air temperature is sensed 26. One scheme for converting the analog
using a solid-state temperature sensor output voltage to a digital signal uses a
(explained later in this chapter). device that is known as a voltage-to-
12. The hot-film element is incorporated frequency (v/f ) converter.
in a Wheatstone bridge circuit (Figure 27. This circuit is a variable-frequency
6.2a). oscillator whose frequency f is
13. The power supply for the bridge proportional to the input voltage (in
circuit comes from an amplifier. this case, the amplifier output
14. The Wheatstone bridge consists of voltage).
three fixed resistors R1, R2, and R3 and 28. The variable-frequency output voltage
a hot-film element having resistance (vf ) is applied through an electronic
RHW. gate, which is essentially an
15. With no air flow the resistors R1, R2, electrically operated switch.
and R3 are chosen such that voltage va 29. Control circuitry (also part of the
and vb are equal (i.e., the bridge is said sensor solid-state electronics)
to be balanced). repeatedly closes the switch for a
16. As air flows across the hot film, heat fixed interval t.
is carried away from the film by the 30. Then it opens it for another fixed
moving air. interval.
17. The amount of heat carried away 31. During the first interval the variable-
varies in proportion to the mass flow frequency signal from the v/f circuit is
rate of the air. connected to the binary counter (BC)
18. The heat lost by the film to the air (see Chapter 3).
tends to cause the resistance of the 32. The BC counts (in binary) at the
film to vary, which unbalances the instantaneous frequency of the v/f,
bridge circuit, thereby producing an which is proportional to the amplifier
input voltage to the amplifier. output voltage vf , which in turn varies
19. The output of the amplifier is with mass air flow rate.
connected to the bridge circuit and 33. During each cycle of the electronic
provides the power for this circuit. gate, the BC contains a binary number
20. The amplified voltage changes the given by the product of the v/f
resistance in such a way as to maintain frequency and the time interval.
a fixed hot-film temperature relative to 34. For example, if the mass air flow were
the inlet temperature. such that the v/f frequency were 1,000
21. The amplifier output voltage vc varies cycles/sec and the switch were closed
with MAF and serves as a measure of for 0.1 sec, then the BC would contain
Rm. the binary equivalent of decimal 100
22. Typically the conversion of MAF to (i.e., 1,000 ¥ 0.1 = 100).
voltage is slightly nonlinear, as 35. If the mass air flow increased such
indicated by the calibration curve that the v/f frequency were 1,500
depicted in Figure 6.2b. cycles/sec, then the BC count would
23. Fortunately, a modern digital engine be the binary equivalent of 150.
controller can convert the analog 36. In mathematical terms, the BC count B
bridge output voltage directly to mass is given by the binary equivalent of
air flow by simple computation. B=ft
24. As will be shown in Chapter 7, in Where,
which digital engine control is B = BC count
discussed, it is advantageous to f = frequency of v/f
convert analog sensor voltages to a t = duration of closure of electronic
digital format within the solid-state gate
electronics associated with the sensor. 37. After the engine controller reads the
25. This conversion is convenient since it count, the BC is reset to zero to be
eliminates the need for an analog-to- ready for the next sample.
digital converter, which can be 38. In actual operation, repeated
relatively expensive (see Chapter 4). measurements of frequency f are made

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under control of the digital engine Figure 6.15 Throttle Angle Sensor: A
control module (see Chapter 7). Potentiometer
39. This conversion of voltage to 7. A section of resistance material is
frequency is advantageous in digital placed in an arc around the pivot axis
engine control applications because for the movable contact.
the frequency is readily converted to 8. One end of the resistor is connected to
digital format without requiring an ground, the other to a fixed voltage V
analog-to-digital converter. (e.g., 5 volts).
9. The voltage at the contact point of the
movable contact is proportional to the
angle (a) from the ground contact to
3.15 THROTTLE ANGLE the movable contact.
SENSOR 10. Thus,

THROTTLE ANGLE SENSOR

1. Still another variable that must be where v(a) is the voltage at the contact
measured for electronic engine control point, k is a constant, and a is the
is the throttle plate angular position. angle of the contact point from the
2. As explained in Chapter 1, the throttle ground connection.
plate is linked mechanically to the 11. This potentiometer can be used to
accelerator pedal. measure any angular rotation.
3. When the driver depresses the 12. In particular, it is well suited for
accelerator pedal, this linkage causes measuring throttle angle.
the throttle plate angle to increase, 13. The only disadvantage to the
allowing more air to enter the engine potentiometer for automotive
and thereby increasing engine power. applications is its analog output.
4. Measurement of the instantaneous 14. For digital engine control, the voltage
throttle angle is important for control v(a) must be converted to digital
purposes, as will be explained in format using an analog-to-digital
Chapter 7. converter.
5. Most throttle angle sensors are
essentially potentiometers.
6. A potentiometer consists of a resistor
with a movable contact, as illustrated
in Figure 6.15.

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