MOTIVATION

Motivation Power, and affiliation are three important

needs that help explain motivation
➢ The processes that account for an
individual’s intensity, direction, and
persistence of effort toward attaining a
goal.

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

➢ Abraham Maslow's best-known theory,

which hypothesizes that within every
human being there is a hierarchy of five
needs.
A. Physiological
➢ Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and
other bodily needs Self-Determination Theory
B. Safety-security ➢ A theory of motivation that is concerned
➢ Security and protection from physical and with the beneficial effects of intrinsic
emotional harm motivation and the harmful effects of
C. Social belongingness extrinsic motivation.
➢ Affection, belongingness, acceptance, and
friendship Cognitive Evaluation Theory
D. Esteem
➢ A version of self-determination theory that
➢ Internal factors such as self-respect,
holds that allocating extrinsic rewards for
autonomy, and achievement, external
behavior that had been previously
factors such as status, recognition, and
intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease
attention
the overall level of motivation if the rewards
E. Self-actualization
are seen as controlling.
➢ Drive to become what we can become;
includes growth, achieving our potential, Self-Concordance
and self-fulfillment
➢ The degree to which people’s reasons for
Two-Factor Theory pursuing goals are consistent with their
interests and core values
Frederick Herzberg
Goal-Setting Theory
➢ Motivation-hygiene theory, a theory that
relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction ➢ A theory that says that specific and difficult
and associates goals, with feedback, lead to higher
➢ Extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction. performance.
➢ "satisfaction" - "no satisfaction"
3 Personal Factors that Influences the Goals-
➢ "dissatisfaction" - "no dissatisfaction"
Performance Relationships:
Hygiene Factors
➢ Goal Commitment
➢ When these factors are adequate, people ➢ Occur when goals are made public, when
will not be dissatisfied. the individual has an internal locus of
control, when the goals are self-set rather
Mcclelland’s Theory of Needs
than assigned, and when they are based at
➢ Developed by David mcclelland and his least partially on individual ability
associates ➢ Task Characteristics
➢ A theory that states achievement, ➢ Are simple rather than complex, well
learned rather than novel, independent
 rather than interdependent, and on the high 4. Reinforcement theory
end of achievable. ➢ A theory that says that behavior is a
➢ National Culture function of its consequences
➢ In collectivistic and high-power-distance ➢ Reinforcement theory ignores the
cultures, achievable moderate goals can inner state of the individual and
be more motivating than difficult ones. concentrates solely on what
happens when he or she takes
Promotion Focus
some action.
➢ A self-regulation strategy that involves
RELEVANT COMPONENT OF
striving for goals through advancement and
REINFORCEMENT THEORY FOR
accomplishment.
MANAGEMENT
Prevention Focus
1. Operant Conditioning/Behaviorism and
➢ A self-regulation strategy that involves Reinforcement
striving for goals by fulfilling duties and ➢ -argues that people learn to behave
obligations. to get something they want or to
avoid something they don’t want.
Management by Objectives (MBO) ➢ The concept of operant
➢ A program that encompasses specific conditioning was part of Skinner’s
goals, participatively set, for an explicit time broader concept of behaviorism,
period, with feedback on goal progress. which argues that behavior follows
stimuli in a relatively unthinking
Other Contemporary Theories of Motivation manner
1. Self-Efficacy Theory 2. Social-Learning Theory and
➢ Also known as social cognitive theory or Reinforcement
social learning theory, refers to an ➢ -The view that we can learn through
individual’s belief that he or she is capable both observation and direct
of performing a task. experience.
2. Influencing Self-Efficacy in Others ➢ Although social-learning theory is
➢ The best way for a manager to use verbal an extension of operant
persuasion is through the Pygmalion effect, conditioning, it assumes behavior is
a term based on a Greek myth about a a function of consequences—it also
sculptor (Pygmalion) who fell in love with a acknowledges the effects of
statue he carved. The Pygmalion effect is a observational learning and
form of self-fulfilling prophecy in which perception.
believing something can make it true. Models are central to the social-learning viewpoint.
3. Increasing Self-Efficacy in Yourself Four processes determine their influence on an
The researcher who developed self-efficacy individual:
theory, Albert Bandura, proposes four ways 1. Attentional processes- People learn from
self-efficacy can be increased a model only when they recognize and pay
➢ Enactive mastery-gaining relevant attention to its critical features. We tend to
experience with the task or job. be most influenced by models that are
➢ Vicarious modeling-becoming more attractive, repeatedly available, important
confident because you see someone else to us, or similar to us (in our estimation).
doing the task. 2. Retention processes-A model’s influence
➢ Verbal persuasion-we become more depends on how well the individual
confident when someone convinces us we remembers the model’s action after the
have the skills necessary to be successful. model is no longer readily available
➢ Arousal- leads to an energized state, so 3. Motor reproduction processes- After a
we get “psyched up,” feel up to the task, person has seen a new behavior by
and perform better. observing the model, watching must be
 converted to doing. This process • Interpersonal justice- The perceived
demonstrates that the individual can fairness in the way individuals perceived in
perform the modeled activities. the way individuals are treated by others.
4. Reinforcement processes- Individuals
Justice Outcomes
are motivated to exhibit the modeled
behavior if positive incentives or rewards ➢ When employees feel fairly treated, they
are provided. Positively reinforced demonstrate higher task performance,
behaviors are given more attention, engage in positive citizenship behaviors
learned better, and performed more often. like helping coworkers, and exhibit fewer
counterproductive actions, such as
Equity Theory/Organizational Justice
neglecting duties. Distributive and
➢ A theory that says that individuals compare procedural justice are closely tied to task
their job inputs and outcomes with those of performance, while informational and
others and then respond to eliminate any interpersonal justice more strongly
inequities. influence citizenship behaviors.
Other Contemporary Theories of Motivation Ensuring Justice
Based on equity theory, employees who perceive ➢ Organizations influence managers'
inequity will make one of six choices: fairness based on their motivations. Rule-
driven managers act fairly to gain
1. Change inputs- (exert less effort if
compliance or establish fairness norms,
underpaid or more if overpaid).
while emotion-driven managers act fairly
2. Change outcomes- (individuals paid on a
when they feel positive or have low
piece-rate basis can increase their pay by
negativity. Strong guidelines promote
producing a higher quantity of units of lower
fairness for rule-driven managers but may
quality)
limit fairness for those who thrive with more
3. Distort perceptions of self- (“I used to
discretion.
think I worked at a moderate pace, but now
I realize I work a lot harder than everyone Culture and Justice
else”).
➢ Justice perceptions vary across cultures.
4. Distort perceptions of others -(“Mike’s
Individualistic cultures prefer performance-
job isn’t as desirable as I thought”).
based rewards, while uncertainty-avoidant
5. Choose a different referent- (“I may not
cultures favor fixed pay. Relational cultures
make as much as my brother-in-law but I’m
value social recognition, and materialistic
doing a lot better than my Dad did when he
ones prioritize cash rewards. Managers
was my age”).
must adapt justice practices to align with
6. Leave the field- (quit the job)
cultural values.
Organizational Justice

An overall perception of what is fair in the

workplace, composed of:

• Distributive justice-Perceived fairness of

the amount and allocation of rewards
among individuals
Expectancy Theory
• Procedural justice-The perceived
fairness of the process used to determine ➢ A theory that says that the strength of a
the distribution of rewards, procedural tendency to act in a certain way depends
justice examines how on the strength of an expectation that the
• Informational justice -The degree to act will be followed by a given outcome and
which employees are provided truthful on the attractiveness of that outcome to the
explanations for decisions. individual.
 ➢ One of the most widely accepted work and in determining the
explanations of motivation is Victor procedures to be used in carrying it
Vroom’s expectancy theory. out
➢ FEEDBACK
THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL
➢ The degree to which carrying out
1. Effort–performance relationship the work activities required by a job
➢ The probability perceived by the result in the individual obtaining
individual that exerting a given direct and clear information about
amount of effort will lead to the effectiveness of his or her
performance. performance
2. Performance-reward relationship
Motivating Potential Score (MPS)
➢ The degree to which the individual
believes performing at a particular A predictive index that suggests the motivating
level will lead to the attainment of a potential in a job and calculated as follows:
desired outcome
➢ MPS= Skill variety + Task
3. Rewards–personal goals relationship
Identity + Task Significance / 3 x
➢ The degree to which organizational
Autonomy x Feedback
rewards satisfy an individual’s
personal goals or needs and the JOB REDESIGN
attractiveness of those potential
rewards for the individual. ➢ Job redesign is the process of
restructuring a job to make it more
Job Engagement satisfying and motivating for the
employee.
➢ The investment of an employee’s
physical, cognitive, and emotional JOB ROTATION
energies into job performance
➢ The periodic shifting of an
Motivation: From Concepts and Application employee from one task to another
Motivating by Job Design RELATIONAL JOB DESIGNS
a. Job Design ➢ Constructing jobs so employees
➢ Suggests that the way in a job is see the positive difference they can
organized make in the lives of others directly
b. Job Characteristics Model (JCM) through their work.
➢ Model that proposes that any job
can be described in terms of five ALTERNATIVE WORK ARRANGEMENTS
core job dimensions. ➢ Explain how specific alternative
THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL work arrangements can motivate
employees.
➢ SKILL VARIETY ➢ FLEXTIME - flexible work hours.
➢ The degree to which a job requires
a variety of different activities. JOB SHARING
➢ TASK IDENTITY ➢ An arrangement that allows two or more
➢ The degree to which a job requires individuals to split a traditional 40 hour a
completion of a whole and week job
identifiable piece of work
➢ TASK SIGNIFICANCE TELECOMMUTING
➢ You can describe the topic of the ➢ Working from home at least 2 days a week
section right here on a computer that is linked to the
➢ AUTONOMY employer's office.
➢ The degree to which a job provides
substantial freedom and discretion
to the individual in scheduling the
Employee Involvement and Participation (EIP) e. Profit-Sharing Plan
➢ An organization wide
➢ A participative process that uses the input
program that distributes
of employees to increase employee
compensation based on
commitment to organizational success.
some established formula
EXAMPLES OF EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT designed around a
PROGRAMS company’s profitability
f. Employee Stock Ownership Plan
PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT (ESOP)
➢ A process in which subordinates share a ➢ A company-established
significant degree of decision-making benefits plan in which
power with their immediate superiors. employees acquire stock,
often at below-market
REPRESENTATIVE PARTICIPATION prices, as part of their
➢ A system in which workers participate in benefits.
organizational decision-making through a g. Evaluation of Variable Pay
small group of representative employees ➢ Increase motivation and
productivity but that doesn’t
What to Pay: Establishing a Pay Structure mean everyone is equally
motivated by them.
Internal equity
Flexible Benefits: Developing a Benefits
➢ The worth of the job to the organization
Package
(usually established through a technical
process called job evaluation), Flexible Benefits
External equity ➢ A benefit plan that allows each employee to
put together a benefits package individually
➢ The competitiveness of an organization’s
tailored to his or her own needs and situation.
pay relative to pay in its industry (usually
established through pay surveys) Employee Recognition Program
How to Pay: Rewarding Individual Employees ➢ A plan to encourage specific employee
through Variable-Pay Programs behaviors by formality appreciating specific
employee contributions.
a. Variable-Pay Program
➢ A pay plan that bases a portion of an
employee’s pay on some individual and/or
organizational measure of performance.
➢ Pay-for-performance
b. Piece-Rate Pay Plan
➢ A pay plan in which workers
are paid a fixed sum for
each unit of production
completed.
c. Merit-Based Pay Plan
➢ A pay plan based on
performance appraisal
ratings.
d. Bonus
➢ A pay plan that rewards
employees for recent
performance rather than
historical performance.
.