EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER

Astronomy – scientific study of celestial objects; stars, planets, comets, and galaxies, and
phenomena that originate outside the Earth’s atmosphere.
 Why is it important to study the Cosmos?
1. History predicts future
2. Human Habitation
3. Chemical Discovered
*Models of the Planetary System:
1. Geocentric Model – the EARTH is the CENTER of the universe
2. Heliocentric Model – the SUN is the CENTER of the planetary system, a.k.a. “Solar System”
 Masters of Greek Thought
1. Plato
2. Socrates
3. Aristotle
Cosmology – branch of astronomy that involves the origin and evolution of the universe (from
big Bang theory)
-According to NASA, Cosmology is the scientific study of the large-scale properties of the
universe as a whole.”
 Non-Scientific Theory
1. The gods of Egypt, Central Africa, and India
2. Monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
3. Creationist Theory

 Scientific Theories:
1. Big Band Theory – the universe has began as a very hot, small, and dense super force
(mixture of 4 fundamental forces), with no stars, atoms, form, or structure called
SINGULARITY.
 George Lamaitre (1894-1966) – Belgian cosmologist, catholic pries and the
FATHER OF THE BIG BAND THEORY.
 Edward Hubble’s detection of the red shift.
 Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) -relic of big bang
(“afterglow” of initial fireball) predicted in late 1940s. Discovered by Penzias &
Wilson in 1965. CMBR is studied by satelites.
2. Steady State Theory – scientists thought that universe was static and its appearance
never changed.
-galaxies aren’t moving away from each other. New stars are being made from energy in
the center of the galaxies.
3. Oscillating Universe Theory – continues to expand and then collapse. Galaxies started
to move away from each other and then after they reach a certain space/distance, they
will collapse and contract back again.

4 SUBSYSTEMS OF THE EARTH

1. Atmosphere – air
2. Hydrosphere – water
3. Geosphere – land
4. Biosphere – life
Atmosphere – layer of gases surrounding the earth. Reaches over 560 km from the surface.
 Absorbs energy from the sun;
 Recycles water and other chemicals;
 Protects us from high-energy radiation and the frigid vacuum of space.
 Protects and supports life.
Air – made of mixture of gases in the atmosphere.
Nitrogen (78%) Oxygen (21%) Argon (0.9%) Carbon Dioxide (0.03%)
Nitrogen Cycle – important in protein of the body tissues of all living things. Cycled through soil
and into plants and finally when living things die and decay.
Atmospheric Pressure – force per unit area exerted into surface weight of air above the
surface. The gas molecules closest to earth surface are packed together. The lower the pressure,
the higher the atmosphere is.
Barometer – measures atmospheric pressure. Mercury were used in it but is poisonous so
aneroid barometers are used today.
 LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
1. Troposphere – lowest and thinnest layer that reaches 16km at equator and 8km at poles.
This is where weather occurs.
 Tropopause – boundary between troposphere and stratosphere.
2. Stratosphere – extends 10km-50km which is less dense and less water vapor. Almost no
weather (temperature increase with altitude. Contains high level of ozone layer.
 Stratopause – upper boundary.
3. Mesosphere – 80km high. Gases are less dense in which the gases absorbs very little UV
radiation. Temperature decreases as altitude increases.
4. Thermosphere – extends 600km. absorbs solar radiation which temperature can go as
high as 1,5000 C and reflects radio waves.
 Ionosphere
 Exosphere – belongs to space and does not have specific outer limit. Where
satellites are.
Satellites – where communication on earth are depended in. It transmit information used to tv
shows, radio broadcasts, data and photos used in weather reports and long distance phone calls.
Acid rain – occurs when sulfur and oxides of nitrogen are emitted into the atmosphere.
 Acidification of bodies of water
 Damage of vegetation
 Damage to building materials, statues, etc.
Greenhouse effect – traps heat by gases in the atmosphere. Naturally occurring greenhouse
effect; Water vapor, Carbon dioxide. Methane nitrousoxide, and ozone. Generated in a variety of
industrial processes; hydrofluorocarbons, per fluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride.

Hydrosphere – 71% water, 29% land.

- Distinguishes our blue planet from others in the solar system.
Water – universal solvent and the basis of all life on our planet.
Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle
 Sun – provides water cycle’s energy
 Evaporation - water on the surface absorbs heat and evaporates which entering the
atmosphere.
 Transpiration – process by which plants lose water out of their leaves (sweating).
 Condensation – water vapor changes back into liquid.
 Precipitation – clouds become heavy and water falls to earth.
 Collection – the water falls back to earth as precipitation, it may fall back in the oceans,
lakes or rivers.
  LAYERS OF THE EARTH
1. Crust – outermost and thinnest layer (light and brittle) where most earthquakes occur. 25
miles thick beneath continents and 6.5 miles beneath oceans.
 Lithosphere – made up of crust and mohorovicic.
 Mohorovicic discontinuity – dividing line between the crust and mantle.
-broken into many pieces called plates.
 2 Types of Crust:
i. Oceanic Crust – very dense, made of basalt
ii. Continental Crust – less dense, made of granite
2. Mantle – largest layer and divided into 2 regions; Upper and Lower mantle. Element
compositions are magnesium, silicon, oxygen, and iron. The convection currents happen in
the middle mantle that causes change in earth’s surface.
 Asthenosphere – outer layer of mantle.
 2 regions of mantle:
i. Upper Mantle – where magma stored and molten rocks in the asthenosphere is
rigid.
ii. Lower Mantle – middle and very thick layer. Molten rocks are fluid and moving
tin in a circular motion called CONVECTION CURRENT.
3. Core – mostly made of iron and is very hot. Consist of fluid outer core and solid outer core.
 2 Parts:
i. Outer Core – liquid, very dense, made up of iron, and is a ball of a very hot
metals.
ii. Inner Core – solid and has a temperature and pressure which causes to be
squeezed together the metals and not able to move. Mostly made of iron and
nickel.

 TEMPERATURE, DENSITY AND PRESSURE INCREASES AS DEPTH INCREASES!

 Ecological Pyramid Models

Pyramid – illustrates the structure of the tropic levels in a food chain.
3 Types of Ecological Pyramids:
i. Pyramid of Numbers – compares the number of organisms at each trophic level in
a food chain. Largest number of organisms at the producer level.
ii. Biomass Pyramid – shows the amount of living matter in a food chain. Mass/area…
ex: g/m2
iii. Energy Pyramid – amount of energy that moves from one feeding level to another
in a food chain or web.
Food Chain – one path of the flow of energy in an ecosystem (linear pathway). Less adaptive
and one individual occupies one trophic level only.
 Sun – energy source
 Producer
 1st level consumer, 2nd level consumer
 Decomposer
Food Web – energy flow through different organisms in an ecosystem. Consist of many
overlapping food chains. More adaptive and more complex food webs increase the stability of
ecological community.

 MINERALS
Mineral – earth’s solid part and provides valuable resources. 4,000 different minerals on earth.
Common minerals; halite (salt), graphite (pencil), and gold & quartz (jewelry).
 5 requirements to be classified as mineral
i. Naturally occurring
ii. Inorganic
iii. Solid
iv. Definite chemical composition
v. Ordered crystal structure
Mineralogy – study of minerals and their properties (chemical and physical).
Mineralogist – scientist who are trained in mineralogy – person who studies mineral.
 Physical Properties of Minerals:
1. Color – base on the impurities present in the mineral.
2. Crystal form or habit – the morphology of the crystal growth.
3. Hardness – measure of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion.
- Hardness Scale (Mohs Scale of Hardness) – designed by Friedrich Mohs (1892), a
German geologist/mineralogist.
4. Streak – color displayed in finely powdered form left behind when rubbed on a rough
surface and is definite.
5. Cleavage – how smoothly minerals break. Fracture – breaks like a piece of glass with
uneven, jagged edges.
6. Luster – the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the mineral.
 Metallic Luster – opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar to a polished metal.
 Non-Metallic Luster – glassy, diamond like, silky, earthy or dull, resinous, etc.
7. Specific Gravity – sp gr=mass of object/mass of water
8. Magnetism, Odor, Taste, and Reaction to Acid

 ROCK CYCLE
James Hutton – attributes the concept of rock cycle (1726-1797). 18 th century founder of
geology.
Geology – study of solid features of any terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as moon.
Rock Cycle – basic concept of geology, transitions through geologic time.
 3 Types of Rock:
1. Igneous Rock – aka magmatic rock, was formed through cooling and solidification of
magma or lava.
 Intrusive – cools BELOW the earth’s surface. Magma!
 Extrusive – cools AT the earth’s surface. Lava!
 2. Sedimentary Rock – sediment is deposited out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows
carrying the particles in suspension.
 Clastic – sediments are lithified. Process of compacting and cementing.
 Non-Clastic
i. Organic (bioclastic) – from living things
ii. Chemical (crystalline) – from evaporation or precipitation of sea water.

3. Metamorphic Rock – transformation of existing rock types in a process called

METAMORPHISM (change in form). Changed due to extreme heat and pressure. DO NOT
MELT (recrystallized).
 Banded – consist of alternating thin layers
 Foliated – platy or sheet-like structure that reflects the direction of pressure.
 Non-Foliated – pressure if uniform, pressure is very low
 Regional Metamorphism – large areas of rock are changed, deep below the
surface where crystal plates collide.
 Contact Metamorphism – liquid rock comes into a contact with other rocks.
Monomineralic – 1 mineral
Polymineralic – more than 1 mineral
Melting – becoming liquefied by heat (lava and magma)
Cooling – removal of heat (lava turns to a rock)
Weathering and Erosion – rocks and sediments are picked up and moved to another place by
ice, water, wind pr gravity is called EROSION.
Compaction – sediments are squeezed
Cementation – sediments are glued together by minerals that are deposited by water.
Heat – compressive force of gravity, friction between tectonic plates or radioactivity.
Pressure – builds as rock is buried and more rock piles on top of it.
  ORE MINERALS
Rock Seam or Ore – natural rock or sediment containing one or more valuable mineral. An
aggregate of metalliferous minerals and gangue.
Mineral Deposit – “geologic term,” designates a natural occurrence of a useful mineral.
Ore Deposit – mineral deposit of sufficient extent and concentration to invite exploitation.
Mineral Exploration – complete sequence of activities to discover deposits of minerals and
rocks that can be used to meet the resource needs of society.
 Project Design – initial stage of formulating a project.
 Field Exploration – physical activities in selected project area. 3 phases; Regional
Reconnaissance, Detailed Exploration, and Prospect Evaluation.
 Pre-production Feasibility Study – validates the accuracy of all data collected from
different stages.

Flint – first mineral used.

Mining – process of mineral extraction from a rock seam or ore.
 TYPES OF MINING:
i. Surface Mining – ore minerals that are close to earth surface.
 One-pit Mining – big hole in is created by blasting or drilling used to mine
grave.
 Dredging – mining in bottom of bodies of water like oceans, lake, rivers, etc.
 Strip Mining – removal of thin strop of overburden soil.
 Placer Mining – steam bed deposits for minerals. Pagsasala
ii. Underground Mining – extract ore minerals from the orebody is that deep under the
earth’s surface.
Milling or Mineral Processing – art of treating crude ores and mineral products in order to
separate the valuable minerals from waste minerals.
 Steps in processing minerals
1. Sampling
2. Analysis
3. Comminution
4. Concentration
5. Dewatering
 Examples of milling:
1. Heavy Media Separation
2. Magnetic Separation
3. Flotation
4. Cyanide Heap Leaching