UNIT 1

INTEGUMENTARY
SYSTEM

Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.5 Specialized Derivatives of the
Objectives Integument
1.2 Embryonic Origin Nails, Claws, Hooves

1.3 General Features of the Horns and Antlers

Integument
Baleen
Epidermis
Scales
Dermis
Dermal Armor
Functions of Integument
Mucus
1.4 Phylogeny
Colour
Integument of Fishes
1.6 Summary
Integument of Tetrapods
1.7 Terminal Questions
1.8 Answers

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The integument is the outermost covering of an animal. It is a composite organ

that includes the skin and everything derived from or contained in it, forming
an essential and dynamic integumentary system. The surface is the
epidermis, below it is the dermis and between them lies the basement
membrane.

The integument is the largest organ of the human body. In humans it makes
up some 15 per cent of the weight. Epidermis and dermis together form some
of the most varied structures found within vertebrates. The epidermis produces
hair, feather, baleen, claws, nails, horns, beak and some types of scales. The
dermis gives rise to dermal bones and osteoderms of reptiles. Collectively
epidermis and dermis form teeth as well as denticles and skin of fish.

As the critical border between the organism and its environment, the
integument has a variety of specialized functions. It forms part of the 9
 Unit 1 Integumentary System
exoskeleton and thickens to resist mechanical injury. The integument helps
hold the shape of the animal. Osmotic regulation and movement of gases and
ions to and from the circulation are aided by the integument in conjunction with
other systems. Skin gathers needed heat or radiates the excess and houses
sensory receptors. Skin pigments block some of the sunlight, hence protect
the body from harmful UV radiation.
Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

❖ describe the components that make up the structure of integument,

❖ explain the basic functions of the integument,

❖ compare the integument of fishes and tetrapods, and

❖ discuss the specialized derivatives of integument.

1.2 EMBRYONIC ORIGIN

Let us begin by examining the embryonic origin and development of skin.
Neurulation is a stage
in the development of By the end of neurulation in the embryo, most skin precursors are delineated.
vertebrates during The single layered surface ectoderm proliferates to give rise to the
which nervous tissue
multilayered epidermis. The deep layer of the epidermis, the stratum basale
is separated from the
ectoderm which
rests upon the basement membrane. Through active cell division, the
separates the skin basement membrane replenishes the single layer of outer cells called the
tissue. periderm (Fig. 1.1a).

Fig. 1.1: Embryonic development of the skin. (a) Cross section of a

representative vertebrate embryo. (b) The epidermis differentiates into a
stratified layer that has cuticle on the surface.
integument has a variety of specialized functions. It forms part of the 9
Unit 1 Integumentary System
The dermis arises from several sources, principally from the dermatome.
Fundamentally, the integument is composed of two layers, epidermis and A dermatome is the
dermis, separated by the basement membrane. Vascularization and area of the skin of the
innervations are added, along with contributions from the neural crest. human anatomy that
is mainly supplied by
Interaction between epidermis and dermis stimulates specializations such as
branches of a single
teeth, feathers, hair and scales of several varieties (Fig. 1.2). spinal sensory nerve
root.

Fig. 1.2: Skin derivatives. (a) Out of the simple arrangement of epidermis and
dermis, with a basement membrane, a great variety of vertebrate
integuments develop. (b) Interaction of epidermis and dermis gives rise
to feathers in birds. (c & d) Hair and mammary glands in mammals. (e)
teeth in vertebrates. (f) Placoid scales in chondrichthyans and (g, h and
i) Cosmoid, ganoid and ctenoid scales in bony fishes.

1.3 GENERAL FEATURES OF THE INTEGUMENT

Although we do not think of the integument in a vertebrate as an organ, it is
made up of cells and tissue that work together as a single structure to perform
very important functions in the body. The integument is made up of several
layers of cells and can be divided as the outer layer of epithelial tissue forming
the epidermis, below which is the region of tissue called the dermis and a third 11
Unit 1 Integumentary System
region below the dermis called the hypodermis which separates the skin from
deeper tissue.

1.3.1 Epidermis

The epidermis in most animals is multilayered but thin. In many vertebrates it

produces mucus to moisten the surface of the skin. In fishes, mucus seems to
afford some protection from bacterial infection and helps ensure the laminar
flow of water across the body surface. In amphibians, mucus probably serves
similar roles and additionally keeps the skin from drying during the animal's
sorties onto land.

In terrestrial vertebrates the epidermis covering the body often forms an outer
keratinized or cornified layer, the stratum corneum. This layer is composed
of mostly differentiated dead cells. New epidermal cells are formed by mitotic
division, primarily in the deep epidermal layer stratum basale. These cells
push more superficial ones towards the surface, where they tend to self
destruct in an orderly fashion. During this process, various protein products
accumulate and collectively form keratin (a water insoluble protein) in a
process called keratinization. Keratin helps the skin to maintain a barrier
against bacteria and gives some protection against injury.
Keratinisation and formation of stratum corneum also occur when friction or
direct mechanical abrasion insult the epithelium. The stratum corneum may be
differentiated into hair, hooves, horn sheaths or other specialized confined
structures. Other epidermal cells may produce glands or they may be isolated
glandular cells.
Scales form within the integument of many aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates.
Scales are basically folds in the integument. If dermal contributions
predominate, the fold is called a dermal scale. An epidermal fold produces an
epidermal scale.

1.3.2 Dermis

The most conspicuous component of dermis is the fibrous connective tissue

composed mostly of collagen fibres. The upper layer lies directly below the
basal membrane that separates it from epidermis. It is composed of loosely
packed cells. The layer below it has more tightly packed cells and is called
stratum compactum. The dermis attaches the skin to the musculature lying
below. It also includes nerves, blood vessels and pigment cells, bases of
feathers, hair and its erector muscles and other associated structures. The
dermis of many vertebrates produces plates of bone directly through
intramembranous ossification. Because of their embryonic source and initial
position within the dermis, these bones are called dermal bones. They are
prominent in ostracoderm fishes but appear secondarily even in derived
groups, such as in some species of mammals.

1.3.3 Functions of Integument

The integument is the first surface of the organism that comes in contact with
the environment:
• It protects the internal soft tissue and organs from damage, microbes
and abrasions. It is the first defence in the immune system against
infections for instance, in our skin there are tiny oil glands that enhance
the epidermis, below which is the region of tissue called the dermis and a third 11
Unit 1 Integumentary System
• It receives and conducts external stimuli like touch, chemicals and
temperature to the nervous system.

• Regulates the temperature of the body in most vertebrates. For instance

the skin regulates the internal body temperature in most mammals by
sweating.

• Protects against dehydration and water loss in terrestrial vertebrates.

• It helps in respiration in many aquatic vertebrates, may be the only

respiratory organ in some aquatic vertebrates.

• Imparts colour which may be protective or for camouflage.

Let us now learn about the different forms of integument seen in the various
groups of vertebrates. Though the fundamental pattern is the same, the skin is
modified according to the environment in which they live.

1.4 PHYLOGENY

1.4.1 Integument of Fishes

With few exceptions, the skin of most living fishes is non-keratinized and
covered instead by mucus. Exceptions include keratinized specializations in a
few groups. The "teeth” lining the oral disc of lampreys, the jaw coverings of
some herbivorous minnows, and the friction surface on belly skin of some
semi terrestrial fish are all keratinized derivatives. However, in most living
fishes, the epidermis is alive and active on the body surface, and there is no
prominent superficial layer of dead, keratinized cells.

Two types of cells occur within the epidermis of fishes: epidermal cells and
specialized unicellular glands. In living fishes, including cyclostomes, prevalent
epidermal cells make up the stratified epidermis. Epidermal cells are tightly
connected through cell junctions and contain numerous secretary vesicles that
are released to the surface where they contribute to the mucous cuticle.

Unicellular glands are single, specialized and interspersed among the

epidermal cell population. There are several types of unicellular glands. The
club cell is an elongate, sometimes binucleate unicellular gland (Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3: Section of fish skin. 13

Unit 1 Integumentary System

Fig. 1.3: Section of fish skin. 13

Unit 1 Integumentary System
Collagen within the stratum compactum is regularly organized into plies that
spiral around the body of the fish, allowing the skin to bend without wrinkling.
In some fishes, the dermis has elastic properties. When a swimming fish
bends its body, the skin on the stretched side stores energy that helps unbent
the body. The fish dermis often gives rise to dermal bone, and dermal bone
gives rise to dermal scales. In addition, the surface of fish scales is sometimes
coated with a hard, acellular enamel of epidermal origin and a deeper
dentinelayer of dermal origin.

Primitive Fishes

In ostracoderms and placoderms, the integument produced prominent body

plates of dermal armor that encased their bodies in an exoskeleton. Dermal
bones of the cranial region were large, forming the head shields, but more
posterierly along the body, the dermal bones tended to be broken up into
smaller pieces, the dermal scales. The surface of these scales was often
ornamented with tiny, mushroom shaped tubercles. These tubercles consisted
of a surface layer of enamel or an enamel like substance over an inner layer of
dentine.

Agnatha

The skin of living hagfishes and lampreys departs considerably from that of
primitive fossil fishes. Dermal bone is lost, and the skin surface is smooth and
without scales (Fig. 1.4). The epidermis is composed of stacked layers of
numerous living epidermal cells throughout. Interspersed among them are
unicellular glands, namely, the large granular cells and elongate club cells. In
addition, the skin of hagfishes includes thread cells that discharge thick cords
of mucus to the skin surface when the fish is irritated. The dermis is highly
organized into regular layers of fibrous connective tissue. Hagfishes also
possess multicellular slime glands that release their products through ducts to
the surface.

Fig. 1.3: Section of fish skin. 13

Unit 1 Integumentary System
Chondrichthyes

In cartilagenous fishes, dermal bone is absent, but surface denticles, termed

placoid scales, persist. These scales give the rough feel to the surface of the
skin (Fig. 1.5 a).

Recent evidence suggests that these tiny placoid scales favourably affect the
water flowing across the skin as the fish swim forward to reduce friction drag.
Numerous secondary cells are present in the epidermis as well as stratified
epidermal cells. The dermis is composed of fibrous connective tissue,
especially elastic and collagen fibres, whose regular arrangement forms a
fabric like warp and weft in the dermis. This gives the skin strength and
prevents wrinkling during swimming.

The placoid scale develops in the dermis but projects through the epidermis to
reach the surface. A cap of enamel forms the tip, dentine lies beneath and
pulp cavity resides within (Fig. 1.5 a, b).

Fig. 1.5: Shark skin. (a) Surface view of the skin showing regular arrangement of
projecting placoid scales. (b) Section through a placoid scale of shark.

Bony Fishes

The dermis of bony fish is subdivided into a superficial layer of loose

connective tissue and a deeper layer of dense fibrous connective tissue
Chromatophores are found within the dermis. The most important structural
product of the dermis is the scale. In bony fishes, dermal scales do not
actually pierce the epidermis, but they are so close to the surface they give the
impression that the skin is hard (Fig. 1.6 a, b). These scales grow at the
margins and over the lower surface which are lines of growth and represent
the number of seasons the fish have lived. The dermis is vascular and
permeable and in some small fish participates in gas exchange. The epidermis
(Fig.1.6 b) contains many mucous glands; mucous helped reduce friction and
prevent bacterial and fungal infections. Some fishes have poison glands, or
granular glands that secrete poisonous/ irritating alkaloids. Some bony fishes
have photophores and most have chromatophores that help in attracting prey
or defence. 15
Unit 1 Integumentary System

Fig. 1.6: Bony fish skin. (a) Arrangement of dermal scales within the skin of
teleost fish. (b) Enlargement of epidermis.

On the basis of their appearance, several types of scales are recognized

among bony fishes. The cosmoid scale, seen in primitive sarcopterygians
resides upon a double layer of bone, one layer of which is vascular and the
other lamellar. On the outer surface of this bone is a layer that is now
recognized as dentine and spread superficially on the dentine is a layer now
recognized as enamel.

The ganoid scale is characterized by the prevalence of a thick surface coat of

enamel, without an underlying layer of dentine. Dermal bone forms the
foundation of the ganoid scale, appearing as a double layer of vascular and
lamellar bone or single layer of lamellar bone. Ganoid scales are shiny,
overlapping and interlocking.

The teleost scale lacks enamel; dentine and vascular bone layer. Only
lamellar bone remains, which is acellular and mostly non-calcified. Two kinds
of teleost scales are recognized. One is cycloid scale, composed of circuli.
The other is ctenoid scale with a fringe of projections along the posterior
or defence. 15
Unit 1 Integumentary System

Fig. 1.7: Different types of dermal scales found in fishes. Lower row shows parts
of skin with numerous scales. Upper row shows single scales.

SAQ 1
a) Which type of scales are present in cartilaginous fishes?

b) Bony fishes are characterised by which type of scales?

1.4.2 Integument of Tetrapods

Keratinization is a major feature of integument among terrestrial vertebrates.

Extensive keratinization produces a prominent outer cornified layer, the
stratum corneum, that resists mechanical abrasion. Lipids are often added
during the process of keratinization or spread across the surface from
specialized glands. The cornified layer along with these lipids increases the
resistance of the tetrapod skin to desiccation. Multicellular glands are more
common in the skin of tetrapods than in the skin of fishes. In fishes, the
mucous cuticle and secretion of the unicellular gland at or near the surface of
the skin. In contrast, among tetrapods, multicellular glands usually reside in
the dermis and reach the surface through common ducts that pierce the
cornified layer.

Amphibians

Amphibians are of special interest because during their lives they usually
metamorphose from an aquatic form to a terrestrial form. Phylogenetically,
amphibians are also transitional between aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates.
The epidermis is composed of several layers of cells and amphibians are the
first among the vertebrates to have a dead layer of cells, the stratum corneum.
This layer is best developed in amphibians that spend most of their time on
land. The dermis is thin, composed of two layers, the outer is loose stratum 17
Unit 1 Integumentary System
spongiosum and the inner more compact stratum compactum. Blood vessels,
nerves and glands are located in the stratum compactum. In most modern
amphibians, the skin is also specialized as a respiratory surface across which
gas exchange occurs with the capillary beds in the lower epidermis and
deeper dermis. In fact, some salamanders lack lungs and depend entirely on
cutaneous respiration to meet their metabolic needs.

The most primitive amphibians had scales like the fishes from which they
arose. Dermal scales are present only as vestiges in some species of tropical
caecilians. Frogs and salmanders lack all traces of dermal scales (Fig. 1.8 a).
In salamanders, the skin of the aquatic larvae includes a dermis of fibrous
connective tissue. Scattered throughout are large Leydig cells to secrete
substances that resist entry of bacteria or viruses. In terrestrial adults, the
dermis is similarly composed of fibrous connective tissue. During the breeding
season nuptial pads may form on digits of limbs of male salamanders or
frogs. Nuptial pads are raised calluses of cornified epidermis that help the
male hold the female during mating.

Generally, the skin of frogs and salamanders includes two types of

multicellular glands, mucus and poison glands (Fig. 1.8 b). Chromatophores
may occasionally be found in amphibian epidermis but most reside in the
dermis.

Box 1.1: Poison Arrows and Poison Frogs

The skin of most amphibians contains glands that secrete products that are
distasteful or even toxic to predators. In tropical region of the New World live a
group of frogs, the poison arrow frogs, with especially toxic secretions. Native
people of the region will often gather these frogs, hold them on sticks over a fire to
stimulate release of these secretions and then collect the secretions on the tips of
their arrows. Game shot with these toxin-laced arrows are quickly tranquilized or
killed.

Fig. 1.8: Amphibian skin. a) Section through an adult frog skin. A basal stratum
basale and a thin, stratum corneum are present. b) Diagrammatic view
of amphibian skin showing mucous and poison glands that empty their
land. The dermis is thin, composed of two layers, the outer is loose stratum 17
Unit 1 Integumentary System
Reptiles
The skin of reptiles reflects their greater commitment to a terrestrial existence.
The epidermis has a well developed stratum corneum. Keratinization is much
more extensive, with very few skin glands which is an adaptation to prevent
loss of moisture. Horny scales are present, but these are fundamentally
different from the dermal scales of fishes, which are built around bone of
dermal origin. The reptilian scale usually lacks the bony undersupport or any
significant structural contribution from the dermis. Instead it is a fold in the
stratum corneum, hence it is an epidermal scale (Fig. 1. 9 a). If the epidermal
scale is large and platelike, it is termed scute. Additionally, epidermal scales
may be modified into crests, spines or hornlike processes.

Dermal bone is present in many reptiles. Where dermal bones support the
epidermis, they are called osteoderms; plates of dermal bone located under
the epidermal scales. Osteoderms are found in crocodilians, and some lizards.
The dermis of reptilian skin is composed of fibrous connective tissue. In turtles
and crocodiles, sloughing of skin is modest, in comparison to birds and
mammals, in whom small flakes fall off at irregular intervals. But in lizards and
in snakes, shedding of cornified layer, termed molting or ecdysis results in
removal of extensive sections of epidermis (Fig. 1.9 b).

lntegumental glands of reptiles are restricted to certain areas of the body.

Many lizards possess rows of femoral glands along the underside of the hind
limb in the thigh region. Crocodiles and turtles have scent glands. Most
integumental glands of reptiles play a role in reproductive behavior.

Fig. 1.9: Reptile skin. a) Epidermal skin scales. Extent of projection and overlap
of epidermal scales varies among reptiles and even along the body of
same individual. b) Section through epidermis of reptilian skin showing
ecdysis. 19
Unit 1 Integumentary System
Birds

The feathers of birds have been referred to as „nothing more than reptilian
scales‟. This oversimplifies the homology, but probably not much. The dermis
of bird skin, especially near the feather follicles, is richly supplied with blood
vessels and sensory nerve endings. During brooding the dermis in the breast
of some birds becomes vascularized, forming a brood patch in which warm
blood can come in close association with incubating eggs.

The epidermis comprises the stratum basale and stratum corneum. Between
them is the transitional layer of cells that gets transformed into the keratinized
surface of stratum corneum (Fig. 1.10 a, b).

At least one bird has

feathers and skin
lightly coated with a
toxin thought to deter
predators. The
brightly coloured bird,
called a hooded
pitohui, lives in New
Guinea and is about
the size of a blue jay.
The poison works by
repelling snakes,
hawks, or other
predators tasting one
of the feathers. The
bright plumage of the
Fig. 1.10: Bird skin. (a) Growth of a feather follicle. The feather forms within a
pitohui may represent
a warning colouration sheath, that is a keratinised derivative of epidermis. (b) Section of skin
to predators. showing the stratum basale and keratinized surface layer, stratum
corneum.

Bird skin is devoid of glands except the uropygial gland, located at the base
of the tail (Fig. 1.11 b) secretes a lipid and protein product that birds collect on
the sides of their beak and then smear on their feathers. The other gland
located on the head of some birds, salt gland, is well developed in marine
birds. Salt glands eject excess salt obtained when these birds ingest marine
ecdysis. 19
Unit 1 Integumentary System
Feathers distinguish birds from all other vertebrates. Feathers can be
structurally elaborate and come in a variety of forms. Yet feathers are
nonvascular and non-nervous products of the skin, principally of the epidermis
and the keratinizing system. They are laid out along distinctive tracts, termed
pterylae, on the surface of the body (Fig. 1.11 b). Feathers develop
embryologically from feather follicles, invaginations of the epidermis that dip
into the underlying dermis.

The feather itself grows outward in the sheathed case. Within the sheath, the
central axis is divided into a distal rachis that bears barbs with interlocking
connections, termed barbules and a proximal calamus that attaches to the
body.

There are several types of feathers (Fig. 1.11 b). Contour feathers lie close to
skin as thermal insulation. Filopumes are often specialized for display and
flight feathers constitute the major aerodynamic surface.

Flight feathers are characterised by a long rachis and prominent vane (Fig.
1.11 c). Their primary function is locomotion. Most feathers receive sensory
stimuli and carry colours for display during courtship. Chromatophores are
absent in birds, instead they have only one kind of pigment cells the
melanocytes, just like mammals. These occur within the epidermis, and their
pigments are carried into the feathers to give them colour.

Fig. 1.11: Epidermal derivatives in the bird. (a) Epidermal scales are present on
the feet and leg on birds. (b) Feathers arise along specific pteiylae
tracts. (c) Feather types. 21
Unit 1 Integumentary System
Mammals

As in other vertebrates, the two main layers of mammalian skin are epidermis
and dermis which join and interface through the basement membrane.
Beneath the dermis lies the hypodermis, composed of connective tissue and
fat.

Epidermis

The epidermis may be locally specialized as hair, nails or glands. It is made up

of stratified squamous epithelial tissue and has no blood vessels. Normal „thin
skin‟ has 4-5 layers of epithelial cells. From deep to superficial the layers are:
stratum basale (also known as stratum germinativum) stratum spinosum,
stratum granulosum and stratum corneum (Fig. 1.12). Epithelial cells of the
epidermis are keratinocytes except the cells of stratum basale and belong to
the keratinizing system that forms the dead superficial cornified layer of the
skin. The surface kerantinized cells are replaced by cells arising primarily from
the stratum basale cells. Cells within the basale divide mitotically. As they are
displaced to higher levels, they pass through keratinization stages.

Fig. 1.12: Mammalian skin. The epidermis is differentiated into distinct layers.
As in all other vertebrates, the deepest is stratum basale. The dermis
pokes up dermal papillae that give the overlying epidermis an
undulating appearance. Sweat glands, hair follicles and sensory
tracts. (c) Feather types. 21
Unit 1 Integumentary System
The process of keratinization is most distinct in the regions of the body where
the skin is thickest: as in the soles of the feet and palms. Elsewhere, these
layers may be less apparent. Stratum corneum protects the delicate
underlying cells of the epidermis from microbes, abrasions and water loss.

Though keratinocytes are the most prominent cell types of the epidermis, other
cells are recognised although their functions are less clearly known. The
Langerhans Cells are stellate cells dispersed throughout the upper part of
stratum spinosum. These cells play a role in cell mediated action of immune
system. The Merkel cells, originating from neural crest and associated with
nearby sensory nerves, respond to stimulation that the brain perceives as
touch. Merkel cells are more abundant in hands and feet. Melanocytes arise
from embryonic neural crest cells. These secrete granules of the pigment
melanin, which are passed directly to epithelial cells. Melanin imparts hair and
skin its colour (Skin colour arises from a combination of yellow stratum
corneum, the red underlying blood vessels and dark pigment granules
secreted by melanocytes).

Dermis
The mammalian dermis is double layered. The outer papillary layer pushes
finger like projections, called dermal papillae into the overlying epidermis.
Dermal papillae increase the strength of the epidermis-dermis connection they
also contain blood vessels, receptors, some adipocytes and phagocytes. The
deeper reticular layer includes irregularly arranged fibres, connective tissue,
blood vessels; nerves and smooth muscles occupy the dermis but do not
reach the epidermis. The mammalian dermis produces dermal bones, but
these contribute to the skull and pectoral girdle and rarely form dermal scales
in the skin.

Hair follicles and glands project inward from the epidermis (Fig. 1. 12). The
dermis is usually composed of irregularly arranged fibrous connective tissue
that is often impregnated with elastic fibres to give it some stretch but return it
to its original shape. As a person ages, this elasticity is lost and the skin sags.

Hypodermis
Mammalian skin has another layer below the dermis; the hypodermis. It is
made up of loose connective tissue, adipose tissue and skeletal muscles. The
adipose tissue stores fat which gives a cushion for the internal organs. The
skeletal muscles move the skin to some extent.

Hair
Hair are slender, keratinous filaments. The base of a hair is the root. Its
remaining length, constitutes the shaft. The outer surface of the shaft often
forms a cuticle. Beneath this is the hair cortex and at its core is the hair
medulla (Fig. 1.12).

The hair shaft projects above the surface of the skin but it is produced within
an epidermal hair follicle rooted in the dermis.
At its expanded base the follicle receives a small tuft of the dermis, hair
papilla. Melanocytes in the follicle contribute pigment granules to the hair shaft
to give it further colour. The arrector pili muscle, a thin band of smooth muscle 23
Unit 1 Integumentary System
anchored in the dermis, is attached to the follicle and makes the hair stand
erect in response to cold, fear or anger.

Some hair are specialized. Sensitive nerves are associated with the roots of
vibrissae or whiskers around the snouts of many mammals. These are
common in nocturnal mammals and in mammals that live in burrows with
limited light. The quills of porcupines are stiff, coarse hairs specialized for
defense.

Glands
Principally, there are two main types of glands in mammals, sebaceous and
sweat glands. Derived from them are scent and mammary glands.

The sebaceous glands are present all over the body and produce an oily
secretion sebum, that is released on the skin and mostly into hair follicles in
order to condition and help waterproof fur. Sebaceous glands are absent from
the palms of hands and soles of feet, but they are present without associated
hair, at the angle of the mouth, on the penis, near vagina and next to
mammary nipples The wax glands of outer ear canal, which secrete ear wax
and Meibomian glands of the eye lid, which secrete on oily film over the
surface of the eye ball are modified sebaceous glands.

The sweat glands produce a watery product called perspiration or sweat. Two
types are usually recognized by the viscosity of their secretion (viscous or
thin), by their association (with or without hair follicles) and by their functional
onset (at puberty or before). One type called eccrine sweat gland produces
thin sweat, and is found all over the body and more abundant on the palms,
feet and forehead. It is not associated with hair follicles. It is a coiled gland
present deep in the dermis and its mouth opens on the surface of epidermis.
Its products are mostly water with some salt, antibodies, antimicrobial peptides
and traces of metabolic waste; function in regulation of body temperature. The
other apocrine sweat gland produces viscous sweat, is associated with hair
follicles, and begins functioning at puberty. Apart from water and salt it
secretes organic compounds that are decomposed by bacteria and this is
responsible for body odor.

Sweat glands are not found in all mammals, and their distribution varies.
Chimpanzees and human have the greatest number of sweat glands, including
some on the palms and soles. In the duckbill platypus, sweat glands are
limited to the snout. In deer, they are present at the base of tail. In elephants,
sweat and sebaceous glands are absent entirely.

The scent glands are derived from sweat glands and produce secretions that
play a part in social communication. Secretions of these glands are used to
mark territory, identify the individual and communicate during courtship.

The mammary glands are also thought to be derived from sweat glands or
perhaps from sebaceous glands. Functional only in the female, they produce
milk and watery mixture of fats, carbohydrates and proteins that nourish the
young. The number of mammary glands varies among species. Release of
milk to suckling is lactation. Mammary glands consist of numerous lobules.
Each lobule is a cluster of secretary alveoli in which milk is produced. The
alveoli open into a common duct that, in turn, opens to the surface through a
raised epidermal papilla or nipple. The nipple is surrounded by circular
to give it further colour. The arrector pili muscle, a thin band of smooth muscle 23
Unit 1 Integumentary System

chamber or cistern within a long collar of epidermis called teat

(1.13 a, c). Adipose tissue can build up beneath the mammary
glands to produce breasts.

Fig. 1.13: Mammary glands. a) In monotremes, the mammary

glands open to the unspecialized skin surface, and the
young press their snout to skin where these glands
open. b) In some marsupials, the mammary ducts open
through specializations of the integument, c) The
nipple is a raised epidermal papilla around which the
supple lips of the infant fit to drink the milk.

In monotremes, nipples and teats are absent and breasts do

not form. Milk is released from ducts into the flattened milk
patch or aerola on the surface of the skin (Fig. 1.14 a). The
point of infant's snout is shaped to fit the surface, permitting
vigorous sucking. At sexual maturity adipose tissue builds up
under the mammary glands to produce breast from which milk
is released. In common language, this is termed let down.

to give it further colour. The arrector pili muscle, a thin band of smooth muscle 23