1.2.

Logical Connectives and Truth Tables 1

1.2. Logical Connectives and Truth Tables

Note. In this section we introduce the idea of negation of a statement, the logical
connectives of disjunction, conjunction, and exclusive conjunction (“xor”). We
translate verbal statements into symbolic statements and develop truth tables for
the symbolic statements.

Definition. The negation of a statement is formed be using the logical term “not”
in modifying the statement. If P is a statement, then the negation of P is denoted
∼ P (read as “not P ”).

Note. Gerstein gives a few examples of the negation of statements. If P is the

statement “Rosco is smiling” then ∼ P is the statement “Rosco is not smiling.”
If P involves numerical information, then the negation can be trickier. If P is the
statement “No man is an island” then ∼ P is (for example) “At least one man is
an island.” Equalities are easy to negate. If P is 2 − 7 = 4 then ∼ P is 2 − 7 6= 4.

Definition. A truth table is a list statements and negations or combinations of

statements (to be defined below) which presents all possible truth values of the
statements and the resulting truth values of the negations or combinations of state-
ments.
1.2. Logical Connectives and Truth Tables 2

Note. As an example of a truth table, consider the statement P and its negation
∼ P:

P ∼P
F T
T F

Definition. Two statements P and Q can be joined together with the logical
connective “and” to make a new statement “P and Q,” denoted P ∧ Q. This is the
conjunction of P and Q. P ∧ Q is true when both P and Q are true, and is false
otherwise.

Note. The truth table for P ∧ Q requires four rows (for the four possible cases of
truth values of P and Q) and is:

P Q P ∧Q
F F F
F T F
T F F
T T T

Note. Expressions that become statements when the letters of the expressions
(called statement letters or sentential variables) are replaced with explicit state-
ments are statement forms or sentential forms.
1.2. Logical Connectives and Truth Tables 3

Example 1.6. We can use negation and conjunction, along with parentheses, the
create several statement forms based on statement letters P , Q, and R:

(P ∧ (∼ Q)) ∧ R, ∼ (∼ Q), ∼ P ((∼ Q(∧R), Q ∧ (∼ (∼ (∼ (∼ P )))).

Of course the syntax of statements requires that meaningful statements are created.
For example, ∧ ∧ P ∧ and P ∼ Q are not statements. Notice that a truth table for
statements based on statement variables P , Q, and R requires 23 = 8 rows in order
to cover all possible cases of truth values for the 3 variables. In general, a truth table
for statements based on n statement variables requires 2n rows. Gerstein presents
the rows by starting with all variables having a truth value of F, concluding with
all variables having a truth value of T, and walking through the cases in an order
corresponding to binary counting from 0 to 2n − 1 with 0 represented by F and 1
represented by T. 

Definition. Two statements P and Q can be joined together with the logical
connective “or” to make a new statement “P or Q,” denoted P ∨ Q. This is the
disjunction of P and Q. P ∨ Q is true when either P or Q are true, and is false
otherwise.

Note. The truth table for P ∨ Q is:

P Q P ∨Q
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T T
1.2. Logical Connectives and Truth Tables 4

Note 1.2.A. Notice that disjunction is an “inclusive” version of the idea of “or.”
The “exclusive” version (sometimes referred to as xor in various programming
languages; it will be denoted ∨ in Section 1.6. Application: A Brief Introduction
to Switching Circuits) is true when exactly one of P and Q is true, and is false
otherwise so that the truth table is:

P Q P xor Q
F F F
F T T
T F T
T T F

Example 1.10. Consider the statement: “I will go to the movies on Monday or

Tuesday, but not on both says.” Represent it by a sentential form.

Solution. Introduce the statement letters (or “sentential variables”)

P : I will go to the movies on Monday.
Q: I will go to the movies on Tuesday.
Then “I will go to the movies on Monday or Tuesday” becomes the sentential form
P ∨Q. Also, “but not on both days” (or “I will not go to the movies on both Monday
and Tuesday”) becomes ∼ (P ∧ Q). We translate the term “but” into something
like “and” (conjunction) so that the given statement becomes (P ∨ Q)∧ ∼ (P ∧ Q).
In fact, this could be given by the exclusive or simply as: P xor Q. 
1.2. Logical Connectives and Truth Tables 5

Example 1.11. Let K be the following sentential form:

∼ (P ∧ Q) ∧ (P ∧ (∼ Q ∨ (∼ P ∨ Q))) .
| {z }
J

Under what truth values for Propositions P and Q is the proposition represented
by K true?

Solution. We construct a truth table, but introduce several new statements so

that in each column we are simply negative, conjuncting, or disjuncting previously
known statements:

P Q P ∧ Q ∼ Q ∼ P ∼ P ∨ Q ∼ Q ∨ (∼ P ∨ Q) J ∼ (P ∧ Q) K
F F F T T T T F T F
F T F F T T T F T F
T F F T F F T T T T
T T T F F T T T F F

We have that K is true when P is true and Q is false, and is negative otherwise.
In fact, this is the same truth values of the statement P ∧ ∼ Q.

Revised: 12/25/2021