Lab 4 Physics 130

Wave Phenomena using a ripple tank

A. INTRODUCTION
The ripple tank provides an ideal laboratory context for a first study of wave phenomena.
Wave phenomena are ubiquitous in the natural world and have been as a result been studied
extensively. Two-dimensional waves in water display a more complicated behavior than
acoustic or electromagnetic waves, but they are an accessible system with which various
wave properties can be observed. In the following experiment you will experimentally
investigate reflection, refraction, interference, and diffraction.

Theoretical Background
Water surface waves travel along the boundary between air and water. The restoring forces
of the wave motion are surface tension and gravity. At different water depths these two
forces play different roles. A two-dimensional traveling wave is a disturbance of a medium
(in this case the water air boundary), which can be expressed as a periodic function:

ψ(x,y,t) (1)

Here x and y are position coordinates, while t is time. The wave speed is in simple cases
defined as: where ω is the angular frequency, f is the frequency, λ is the
wavelength, and k is the wave number.
The wave velocity v is technically called phase velocity. A non-dispersive wave has a
constant phase velocity. Dispersion is characterized by a dependence of the phase velocity
on λ. While in general surface water waves can be dispersive, we shall primarily consider
shallow water waves, where gravity provides the restoring force and the phase velocity is
independent of wavelength: 𝑣 = 𝑔𝑑, where d is the water depth.
The Wave Equation
The wave equation provides a concise mathematical description of a wave. In cartesian
coordinates (x,y),

(2)
where ψ is the amplitude of the wave as a function of position and time, and v is the velocity
of the wave.
If we assume a unidimensional wave solution: ψ = Aocos(kx − ωt) and substitute it into the
wave equation, we find that . This is called a dispersion relation.

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The plane waves have this type of simple dispersion relation. These waves are generated by
oscillations of a straight (flat) object whose dimension is much larger than the wavelength
of the generated wave. More complex dispersion relations arise in situations where the
structure of the wave propagation medium is more complex.
For dispersive waves, the speed of propagation is typically a non-trivial function of the
frequency and wavelength. In certain cases waves may be more conveniently represented in
spherical or cylindrical coordinates depending on the geometry of the wave setup. In the
ripple tank, two dimensional spherical wave patterns will be quite common and are
mathematically represented by a wave equation in spherical coordinates (r,θ,φ) reduced to
planar geometry.

Complete wave equation in spherical coordinates is:

(3)

Huygens’ Principle
1) Each point on a wave front is the source of a new spherical wave that spreads out
at the wave speed,
2) At a later time the shape of the original wave front is the tangent to all the secondary
spherical waves.
Huygens’ principle is not a mathematical formulation of wave phenomena, but rather an
intuitive tool useful in understanding the physics of wave propagation. Waves display a
number of phenomena which can be understood using this simple picture.
Wave Reflection
As seen in Figure 1, a finite plane wave of width H approaches a reflective barrier at angle
of incidence θi. The portion of the plane wave which is closest to the barrier will hit first and
we can imagine a new spherical wave spreading out from the barrier at the speed of the
incident wave.
As the wave cannot exist inside the barrier, the wave spreads out as if it was generated by
the barrier. The portion of the wave which was farthest would radiate out with the same
speed and a delay between their respective wave fronts equal to the additional time it took
that portion of the original plane wave to encounter the barrier. If one looks closely at these
expanding plane waves they turn out to add up only in one single direction, a direction
defined as: θi = θr:

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 Figure 1: Huygens’ principle applied to wave reflection
Wave Refraction
Similarly, refraction can easily be understood using Huygens’ Principle. Refraction is the
effect where a wave appears to bend as it crosses a boundary between two mediums. An
example of this effect is when laser light appears to be bent by going through a piece of
glass.
Refraction occurs when a wave crosses a boundary where the speed of propagation is
different. If we consider a plane wave approaching a medium, then as each portion of some
slice of the wave encounters the boundary it will become a new point source for a spherical
wave. These spherical waves expand out at the speed of propagation in the medium which
may be considerably slower (or faster) than the speed of propagation in the original medium.
This results in a bending effect as the parts of the wave which haven’t arrived yet are
travelling more quickly than the portions of the wave in the medium. The result is that the
angle of transmission is modified from the angle of incidence by the ratio of the speed of
propagation in the two media:

(4)

Figure 2: Huygens’ principle applied to wave refraction

Wave Interference
When a wave front passes through two narrow openings in a barrier, each unobstructed point
on the original wave front will act as a secondary source of new spherical waves. These
”new” waves will propagate out expanding at the speed of the wave and will superimpose
onto each other. The superposition of the two secondary waves will lead to a resulting wave
at a distant point P (Figure 3) which can be represented by:

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 (5)

Distances r1 and r2 correspond to Figure 3. The amplitude of the resulting wave depends on
the path difference between the two waves arriving at point P on a distant screen, at the same
time.
According to Figure 3, δ = r2 − r1 = dsinθ. When L >> d, sinθ ≈ θ ≈ L y .
When the path difference is a maximum: dL y = mλ, when δ is a minimum: where
m is an integer and λ is the wavelength.

Figure 3: Double slit wave interference

In Figure 4, interference in a Young experiment can be seen. To the left of the slits there is
a plane light wave with wavelength λ. To the right of the double slit, waves are spherical and
look as if they were generated by the slits.

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 Figure 4: Double slit light interference

Wave Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when a wave ”bends” as it passes around or through an object. Each point
from the opening becomes a secondary source of waves. Only at large distances from the
opening does the wave front become plane again. Huygens’ Principle provides a powerful
way of understanding the origin of diffraction. A condition can be found:

asin(θ) = λ (6)

Here a is the slit opening and θ is the angular spread of the first diffraction maximum.

Figure 5: Wave diffraction past an opening

B. EXPERIMENTAL NOTES
The experimental setup consists of three main parts: the ripple tank and reflector, the light
source, and the ripple generator (see Figure 6).

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 Figure 6: Apparatus

Ripple tank and light reflector

Water should be poured into the ripple tank until it is approximately 1cm deep and the height
of each leg can be adjusted to ensure that the water depth is even. The tank drains into a
bucket through an escape hose which is pinched off. When filling the tank with water first
put a small amount of water in and look to see if it slides in any direction. This will indicate
an uneven surface and should be corrected. Once the tank is even, pour ≈800mL into the
tank. Make sure to press the foam around the edges into the water so it absorbs the water
quickly. Failure to do so will result in a slow change in the height of the water as the foam
slowly absorbs more water. Double check to make sure the hose is pinched shut and that
water is not draining out. It is important to maintain a constant depth throughout the
experiments.
The light source: The light source is turned on using the Pasco 9896 unit. The light setting
should be set to strobe and the difference (delta) between the ripple generator and the
strobe light should be set to zero.

The ripple generator: see figure below. Two fine knobs provide leveling control. There is an
amplitude control which should be set to about 40% of maximum. There is also a frequency
control which should be set to 15-20Hz.

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 Figure 7: Ripple generator

The phase switch should be set so the two shakers move in parallel. It is very important to
make sure the ripple generator is parallel (level). It is also very important that the dippers
barely touch the water, for the plane dipper it is important that there be equal contact with
the surface over its entire length (see Figure 8).

Figure 8: Ripple generator level

Image acquisition

Use the given camera or your phone camera to take an image of the ripple tank and pattern.
Use a known length to calibrate the image, i.e. pixel to mm scaling. There are three different
lines which can be drawn in order to measure distances and angles between wave fronts and

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 other features. Perfectly horizontal or vertical lines can be drawn by holding down the Shift
key. Angles are always measured as if the vectors on the screen were placed tail to tail,
counter-clockwise from the higher numbered to the lower numbered line. It is possible to
zoom in but not out. The print button grabs a screen shot and sends it to the printer so that
your data can be included in your lab report.

C. Investigations:
1: Reflection Straight Barrier

Place the long straight barrier at an angle in the middle of the tank. The water level should
be high enough to rise halfway up the barrier’s height. Position the ripple generator over the
midpoint of one side of the tank; connect the plane wave dipper to the ripple arms. Adjust
the height until the bottom of the plane dipper is barely in contact with the surface of the
water. Set the frequency to approximately 20Hz and the amplitude to less than half full.
Adjust the light source intensity to get the best possible viewing on the screen. Set the light
source to STROBE. Adjust the amplitude of the ripple generator to get a clear pattern of
plane waves.

Take measurements of incidence and reflection angles, verify equation: θi = θr.

Curved Barrier
Remove the long straight barrier and replace it with a curved barrier positioned so that it
curves towards the plane wave generator. Record the reflected wave pattern. Estimate the
focal distance and radius of the curved barrier. Turn the barrier around 180 degrees and
repeat the measurements.

2: Wave speed Wave speed and frequency

Using the same setup as in Exercise 1, without any barrier, set the frequency to 5Hz and
amplitude to less than half of maximum. Measure and record the wavelength 5 times.
Calculate the average wavelength and the standard deviation. Repeat the measurements for
4-5 other frequencies and graph the average wavelength vs. frequency. Using equation:
, calculate the velocity of the wave in each case and discuss the sources of error.

3: Refraction
Place the trapezoidal refractor in the middle of the tank so the triangular end points parallel
to the plane wave dipper. Adjust the amount of water in the tank so that water level covers
the refractor by approximately 2mm. Set the light source to STROBE and adjust the
frequency to 15Hz or less. Adjust the amplitude to get a clear pattern. Capture the refraction
pattern. Explain how and why refraction appears in the ripple tank with the barrier in place.
Measure the angles of incidence and refraction and using the result of your previous
measurements (speed as a function of water depth) verify equation (4).

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 4: Diffraction
Set up the ripple tank with the plane wave dipper and two straight barriers arranged to form
a 3cm “slit”. Set the generator to approximately 20Hz and amplitude to half maximum. Set
the light source to STROBE. Vary the amplitude to get a clear pattern. Capture the
diffraction pattern on the far side of the “slit”. Determine the angular spread of the circular
waves past the slit. Repeat for 4-5 different slit openings and verify the relation in equation
(6).

5: Interference
Turn off the ripple generator. Replace the plane wave dipper with two standard dippers.
Adjust the generator so that the two standard dippers barely touch the surface of the water.
Adjust the generator to 20Hz and set the light to strobe. Vary the amplitude until the
interference pattern is visible.

Consider the two circular dippers to be point sources which generate expanding circular
waves which overlap and interfere. The intersections of the wave fronts appear as dark and
bright regions. In the far field consider a line parallel to the standard dippers along which to
examine the interference pattern. On this line at the point equidistant between the two
standard dippers there ought to be a point of constructive interference. This is the zeroth
order point of constructive interference and it occurs because the two circular wave fronts
have travelled the same distance to arrive at this point. On either side there will be a point
of destructive interference. Measure the angles between the first and second points of
constructive and destructive interference. Also measure the wavelength five times and find
the average wavelength. Using the results of your measurements, find the separation
between your dippers and confirm that it is 3cm. Repeat the measurement while varying the
distance between the two point dippers. Discuss sources of error. Explain how the
interference pattern changes as a function of the distance between the dippers. On the ripple
generator set the dippers to be out of phase with each other. Explain the pattern and
reformulate equation (5) and condition: r1 − r2 = dsin(θm) = mλ.

This lab was modified from Univ Toronto Waves Lab