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Chapter 16
Endocrine System

Endocrine System: Overview

• Endocrine system consists of endocrine glands and their products
(hormones)
• It influences metabolic activities of cells by means of hormones
• Major Endocrine glands are – pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal,
pineal, thymus, pancreas and gonads
• The pancreas and gonads produce both hormones and exocrine products
• The hypothalamus has both neural functions and releases hormones
• Other tissues and organs that produce hormones – adipose cells, pockets
of cells in the walls of the small intestine, stomach, kidneys, and heart
Hormones
• Hormones are chemical substances secreted by cells into the body fluids
• Hormones regulate the metabolic function of other cells
• Some hormones have quicker actions than others (e.g., epinephrine vs
insulin)
• The endocrine glands secrete their products into the internal environment
(body fluid) – and then Body fluid (mostly blood) carries these products
to the target cells.
• These products are the hormones
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• The paracrine glands also secrete their products into the body fluid
(tissue fluid) – these products affects only the surrounding cells, e.g.
prostaglandins
• The autocrine glands secretion affects only the secreted cells, e.g. some
interleukins
• The exocrine glands secrete their products into a duct – ducts transport
the secreted products, e.g. sweat glands
• Paracrine and autocrine secretions are considered to be endocrine
secretion that produce local hormones
• Hormones help regulate various metabolic processes
• Chemically, hormones are:
o Steroid (or steroid like substances) hormones
o Non-steroid hormones
▪ Amines
▪ Peptides
▪ Proteins
▪ Glycoproteins
• Steroid hormones
o Complex lipid substances
o Derive from cholesterol
o These are lipid soluble compounds
o Easily diffuse through the cell membrane
o Combine with the receptors inside the nucleus and activate specific
genes to synthesize specific proteins
o Such proteins produce special effects or functions – which are the
hormonal functions
o Vitamin – D is a modified steroid that can be converted into a
hormone (Dihydroxycholecalceferol) to promote absorption of
calcium and phosphorus in the gut
o Other examples are: Androgen, Estrogen, etc.

• Hormones alter cell activity by one of two mechanisms

o Direct gene activation (for fat soluble/steroid hormones)
o Through regulatory G proteins (for water soluble non-steroid
hormones)
• Steroid hormones
o fat soluble hormones
o Hormone passes through the cell membrane → passes through the
cytoplasm → passes through the nuclear membrane → binds to a
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hormone receptor → binds to the DNA → activates gene →

protein synthesis → Protein action is the hormonal action
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• Non-steroid hormones
o Water soluble hormones
o Hormones bind to the receptors on the cell membrane and activate
a protein (G – protein) (hormone is the first messenger) → Inside
the cell, G – protein then activates an enzyme (Adenylate Cyclase)
→ Adelylate Cyclase converts ATP into c-AMP (Cyclic
Adenosine Monophosphate) (c-AMP is the 2nd messenger) → c-
AMP activates a set of enzymes (Protein Kinases) → Protein
Kinases activate the protein substrates in the cell that change
metabolic processes. Or Protein Kinases may trigger release of
Ca2+ → (Ca2+ is the 3rd messenger) that alters cellular responses
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• Amines
o Derive from amino acids
o Also produced from the adrenal medulla form the amino acid
tyrosine
o e.g. Triiodothyronine (T-3), Thyroxine (T-4) etc.

• Peptide hormones
o Short chain of amino acids
o Mostly produced from the hypothalamus and posterior part of the
pituitary gland
o e.g. Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH)

• Protein hormones
o Long chain of amino acids
o Mostly produced from anterior part of the pituitary gland and the
parathyroid gland
o e.g. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
• Glycoprotein hormones
o Consist of protein and carbohydrate
o e.g. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
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• Prostaglandins
o These are paracrine secretions
o These are lipids
o Produced by the cells in the liver, kidney, heart, lungs, thymus,
pancreas, brain, reproductive organs, etc.
o Secretions regulate surrounding cells

• Actions of hormones
o Hormones function by altering metabolic processes
o Hormones may reach various different cells in the body, but only
binds to the receptors of the target cells
o These receptors are protein and glycoprotein molecules

• Control of hormonal secretion

o Hormone secretion is preciously regulated
o Hormones are continuously excreted in the urine
o Liver breaks down hormones into various enzymes
o Control of hormone secretion may occur in several ways:
• Secretion in response to nerve impulse: Such as secretion of
epinephrine and nor-epinephrine from adrenal glands
• Secretion in response to hypothalamic secretion:
Hypothalamus controls the secretion of anterior pituitary
hormones (tropic hormones) that stimulate other endocrine
glands
• Secretion in response to chemical changes: Endocrine glands
can respond to changes in blood chemical compositions –
e.g. when blood glucose level drops, pancreas produce
glucagons, and when blood glucose level riges, pancreas
produce insulin
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• Negative feedback system

o GLAND – A → hormone A → BLOOD → GLAND – B →
hormone B → BLOOD → TARGET ORGAN (hormone B
inhibits GLAND – B)

o For example: HYPOTHALAMUS → Growth Hormone Releasing

Hormone (GHRH) → ANTERIOR PITUITARY → GROWTH
HORMONE (GH) → BODY/ORGANS (growth hormone
inhibits hypothalamus function)
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• Hormone Concentrations in the Blood

o Concentrations of circulating hormone reflect:
▪ Rate of release
▪ Rate of removal from the body
▪ Hormones are removed from the blood by: degrading
enzymes (mostly liver enzymes) and the kidneys.

• Some Clinical Aspects

o Insufficient secretion of Growth Hormone (GH) from the anterior
pituitary during childhood causes dwarfism
o Over secretion of GH will cause gigantism – over secretion can be
associated with pituitary tumor
o Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH) helps kidney tubules to reabsorb
water from kidney filtrate. Inadequate ADH receptors (or
defective receptors) of kidney tubule cells cause excessive urine
production – a condition called Diabetes Insipidus
o Overactive thyroid functions can cause Hyperthyroidism (grave
disease) – causing high metabolic rate, hyperactivity, weight loss,
heat sensitivity, goiter, etc.
o Under active thyroid functions can cause Hypothyroidism –
causing low metabolic rate, hypoactivity or sluggishness, mental
dullness, weight gain, cold sensitivity, etc.
o Simple Goiter occurs due to an iodine deficiency
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▪ Low iodine reduces thyroid hormones → more production of

TSH by pituitary gland → over stimulation of thyroid gland
→ enlarged thyroid
o Diabetes Mellitus
▪ Type I
• Also called Juvenile-onset Diabetes or Insulin
Dependent Diabetes
• Appears before age 20
• Caused by low insulin production
• Treatment by insulin supplement
▪ Type II
• Non-insulin dependent
• Milder form
• Typically appears after age 40
• Cells lose insulin receptors thus can not respond to
insulin
• Treatment: exercise, avoid carbohydrate, etc.

▪ During diabetes, glycogen formation reduces

▪ That increases blood glucose concentration
▪ At high glucose level, kidneys will excrete more water
▪ Cells use proteins as the source of energy (as they can not
use glucose due to insufficient insulin receptors)
▪ Also protein synthesis decreases
▪ This reduces body weight

Major Endocrine Glands and Their Secretions

Hypothalamus
• Located under the thalamus (lower middle part if the brain)
• Produces several hormones
• Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
o Controls ACTH secretion
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) (Luteinizing hormone
releasing hormone (LHRH))
o Stimulates FSH and LH production
• Somatostatin (SS) (Growth hormone release-inhibiting hormone (GIH))
o Controls GH secretion
• Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
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o Controls GH secretion
• Prolactin release-inhibiting hormone (PIH)
o Controls PRL secretion
• Prolactin-releasing factor (PRF)
o Stimulates PRL secretion
• Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
o Controls TSH Secretion
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Anterior Pituitary
• Pituitary gland is located under the hypothalamus
• It has two lobes anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary
• Anterior pituitary produces several hormones
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)/(Corticotropin)
o Controls hormone secretion from adrenal cortex
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)/ (Follitropin)
o Egg development, stimulation of follicular cells to produce
estrogen
• Growth hormone (GH)/(Somatotropin (STH))
o Cell Growth & Division
• Luteinizing hormone (LH) (Lurtopin, Intestinal cell-stimulating hormone
(ICSH))
o Necessary for androgens (male hormones) production
• Prolactin (PRL)
o Breast development
o Milk production
o Decreases LH secretion males
• Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)/(Thyrotropin)
o controls hormone secretion from the thyroid gland
• Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
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o Stimulates melanin synthesis

Posterior Pituitary
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)/(Vasopressin)
o Kindey water reabsorption
o Vasoconstriction
• Oxytocin (OT)
o Antidiuretic
o Uterine contraction
o Contraction of cells that produce and eject milk
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Thyroid Gland
• The largest endocrine gland located in the anterior neck
• Consists of two lateral lobes connected by a median tissue mass called
the isthmus
• Produces calcitonin, thyroxine and triiodothyronine
• Calcitonin
o Lowers blood calcium and phosphate levels
• Thyroxin (T-4)
o Helps normal development of the nervous system
o Increases metabolism
o Increases protein synthesis and lipid breakdown
• Triiodothyronine (T-3)
o Same as T-4

Parathyroid Gland
• Located on thyroid gland
• Produces parathyroid hormones and norepinephrine
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH)/(Parathormone)
o Increases blood calcium
o Decreases blood phosphate
o Phosphate excretion and calcium retention by kidney
o Calcium absorption gut (indirectly)
• Norepinephrine (NE)/(Noradrenalin)
o Same as epinephrine

Adrenal Cortex
• Adrenal glands are located on top of kidneys
• Adrenal cortex produces aldosterone, cortisol and adrenal sex hormones
• Aldosterone
o Excretion of potassium
o Conservation of sodium and water by kidney to maintain blood
pressure
• Cortisol (Hydrocortisone)
o Protein synthesis inhibition
o Formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate
• Adrenal sex hormones
o Supplement the hormones produced by the gonads (males and
females)
• Adrenal Medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine
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o Both cause vasoconstriction, increased heart rate and elevated

blood pressure
o Epinephrine is the more potent stimulator of the heart and
metabolic activities
o Norepinephrine is more influential on peripheral vasoconstriction
and blood pressure

Pancreas
• A triangular gland located near the stomach
• Produces insulin, glucagon and somatostatin
• Glucagon
o Stimulates the liver to produce glucose
o Increases blood glucose
o Breaks down fats
• Insulin
o Movement of glucose
o through cell membrane
o Glucose and fat storage
o Promotes protein synthesis
• Somatostatin
o Inhibits insulin and glucagon release

Pineal gland
• Located in the 3rd ventricle of the brain
• Produces melatonin the sleep hormone
• Melatonin
o Regulates day/night cycle

Thymus
• Lobulated gland located deep inside the upper thoracic cavity
• Produces thymosin
• Thymosin
o Helps maturation of T-cells

Ovaries
• Located in the abdominopelvic cavity
• Produces estrogen and progesterone
• Estrogens
o Development of secondary sexual Characteristics
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o For fertilization, embryo implantation and growth

• Progesterone
o Controls cyclical changes in the uterus and the breast

Placenta
• Produces estrogen, progesterone and gonadotropins
• Estrogens
• Progesterone
• Gonadotropins (Gonadotropins are the FSH and LH)

Testes
• Located in the scrotum
• Produces Testosterone
o Most common androgen needed for the development of male
reproductive organs
o Secondary sexual characteristics in male
o Increased metabolism
o Increased RBC production
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* Gonadotropins are the FSH and LH
* Heart, Kidneys, stomach and intestine may also produce hormones

(Note: Illustrations included in this document are produced with the permission from McGraw Hill)