UNIT - 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

NETWORKS

STRUCTURE

1.0 Learning Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Network definition;

1.3 Network topologies;

1.4 Network classifications;

1.5 Network protocol;

1.6 Layered network architecture;

1.7 Overview of OSI reference model;

1.8 Overview of TCP/IP protocol suite;

1.9 Summary

1.10 Keywords

1.11 Learning Activity

1.12 Unit End Questions

1.13 References

1.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

 Describe computer network and its features

 Understand about the network architecture

 Explain Data and Telecommunication Network

 Differentiate between the various network topologies

3
  Identify the various layers of TCP/IP model

 List the network management goals

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The key technology of the 20th century was the collection, processing and distribution of
information. In the last two decades, many organizations have implemented computer
networks. Technological evolution allows the implementation of distributed systems based on
a client / server architecture associated with efficiency and low cost. PCs and interconnected
workstations are replacing mainframes.

Networks and distributed processing systems are growing and, in fact, becoming vital in the
business world. Within a given organization, the trend is toward larger and more complex
networks that support more applications and more users. As these networks expand in size,
two facts become very obvious:

 The network and its related resources and distributed applications become
indispensable to the organization.

 Many things can go wrong, disable the network, part of the network, or reduce
performance to unacceptable levels.

Given the importance of the network to the organization, there is a need for smooth and
efficient operation. Computer networks are made up of different hardware and software
platforms: multiple protocols, resources, and services. A large-scale network cannot be set up
and managed solely by manpower. The complexity of this system requires automated
network management tools to monitor and manage resource utilization.

This chapter demonstrates necessity of network system and service management in providing
Information Technology services.

Computer Network

A computer network is a group of nodes connected by links. A node can be a computer,

printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving data. The link connecting the
nodes is called a communication channel.

4
computers communicate with each other through digital interconnections using common
communication protocols. These interconnections are composed of telecommunication
network technologies, based on physical wired, optical, and wireless radio frequency
methods, and can be arranged in various network topologies.

Computer networks can be classified according to many standards, including the transmission
medium used to carry signals, bandwidth, communication protocols for organizing network
traffic, network size, topology, flow control mechanisms, and organizational intent. The
computer network supports many applications and services, such as access to the World Wide
Web, digital video, digital audio, application and storage server sharing, printers and fax
machines, and the use of e-mail and instant messaging applications.

1.2 NETWORK DEFINITION

The term Data Communications and Networking (DCN) encloses within it the vast field
related to the understanding of how data is passed from one device or location to the other.
No matter how simple this may sound, it requires deep knowledge of varied concepts.

To define it technically, we would say that Data Communications refers to the manner in
which data is passed between two devices using some form of communication media. This
communication media could be wired or wireless.

Networking on the other hand is the study of how different devices can be connected to each
other using different connection mediums so as to facilitate the sharing of data.

Basically, Data Communication refers to the manner in which data is passed between two
devices using some form of communication media. This communication media could be
wired or wireless. Networking is the study of how different devices can be connected to each
other using different connection mediums so as to facilitate the sharing of data.

Thus as we can read from the definition itself, the two concepts are interlinked with each
other and thus the study of one automatically involves study of the other.

5
 Fig 1.1 Network and Internet

1.3 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Topology means the manner in which the devices and the communication medium are
connected to each other. Given the specified area and the set of resources, it is the work of the
network administrator to design the network in a manner so that the best throughput can be
obtained in the given resources as well as budget.

The different types of topologies are:

1. Mesh: In this type of topology, every device in the network is connected to every
other device in the network as seen in Fig. 1.2. Due to this there is a point to point
connection between each and every system in the network.

Fig. 1.2 Mesh Topology

6
Advantages:

1. Since every system is connected to each other, the data transmission rate is high and
network traffic is negligible.

2. Faults in the network can easily be detected.

3. Failure in one system of the network will not halt the entire network.

Disadvantages:

1. Cabling cost is very high

2. Difficult to install and maintain due to the large number of connections

3. It is not suitable for a large number of computers spread over larger area.

4. Difficult to add or remove a new device to the network.

2. Star: In this topology, all the computers in the network are connected to a central device
which could be a hub or a switch (Fig. 1.3). The data is exchanged from one system to the
other through the central device.

Fig. 1.3 Star Topology

Advantages:

1. Less cabling cost required since every device has to be connected to the central
device.

2. Easy to add new devices to the network.

3. Easy to maintain.

4. Failure of one device will not halt the entire network.

7
 5. Data is transmitted faster.

6. Fault in the network can be easily detected.

Disadvantage:

1. If the central device is halted, the entire network will be down

2. Expensive to use.

3. Tree: In this topology there is a root node and all the other nodes are connected to this root
node to form a hierarchy (Fig. 1.4). It is also called as hierarchical topology. It should have
atleast three levels to the hierarchy.

Fig. 1.4 Tree Topology

Advantages

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.

3. Easily managed and maintained.

4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages

1. Heavily cabled.

2. Costly.

3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.

4. Central hub fails, network fails.

8
Bus Topology

A single communication line connects all the devices in the network(Fig. 1.5). When one
device wants to send data to another device network, it sends it through the single
communication line. The data will be sent along with the address of the receiver. All the
terminals will receive that data but only the terminal whose address matches with that of the
receiver, will retain the data. Others will discard it. This kind of topology is good when the
same message needs to be broadcasted to multiple terminals. Also at the end of the
communication line there are terminators. Once the data reaches the end of the line and no
terminal address matches then the data will be discarded. The data can travel only is a single
direction.

Fig. 1.5 Bus Topology

Advantages:

1. It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect
the other devices.

2. It is unidirectional.

3. Easy to add and remove devices.

Disadvantages:

1. Problem in the communication line can halt entire network.

2. It is a slow network as the data will be passed to each terminal before it reaches the
receiver.

Ring Topology

In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a
circular network structure (Fig. 1.6). When one host tries to communicate or send message to

9
a host which is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. Data flows
only in one direction.

Fig. 1.6 Ring Topology

Advantages:

1. Easy to add or remove devices.

2. Easy to find network faults

3. Less cabling required

Disadvantages:

1. Fault in one device can halt entire network.

2. Unidirectional flow of data.

Hybrid Topology

A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology (Fig. 1.7). Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating
topologies.

10
 Fig. 1.7. Hybrid Topology

1.4 NETWORK CLASSIFICATIONS

A Computer Network is a group of two or more interconnected computer systems that use
common connection protocols for sharing various resources and files. You can establish a
computer network connection using either cable or wireless media. Every network involves
hardware and software that connects computers and tools.

Different Types of Computer Networks

There are various types of Computer Networking options available. The classification of
network in computers can be done according to their size as well as their purpose.

The size of a network should be expressed by the geographic area and number of computers,
which are a part of their networks. It includes devices housed in a single room to millions of
devices spread across the world. Following are the popular types of Computer Network:

Figure 1.8 Different Types of Computer Networks

11
Types of Computer Networks

Some of the most popular computer network types are:

 PAN (Personal Area Network)

 LAN (Local Area Network)

 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

 WAN (Wide Area Network)

Let’s study all of these types of networking in detail.

What is PAN (Personal Area Network)?

PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer network formed around a person. It generally
consists of a computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can be used for establishing
communication among these personal devices for connecting to a digital network and the
internet.

Characteristics of PAN

Below are the main characteristics of PAN:

 It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.

 Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a single

user.

 PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.

 It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.

 Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.

Advantages of PAN

Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:

 PAN networks are relatively secure and safe

 It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters

 Strictly restricted to a small area

12
Disadvantages of PAN

Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:

 It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.

 Distance limits.

What is a LAN (Local Area Network)?

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are
connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building. It is a
widely useful network for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other application.
The simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and a printer in someone’s home
or office. In general, LAN will be used as one type of transmission medium. It is a network
which consists of less than 5000 interconnected devices across several buildings.

Fig. 1.9 LAN

Local Area Network (LAN)

Characteristics of LAN

Here are the important characteristics of a LAN network:

13
  It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.

 LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.

 There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and ethernet.

Advantages of LAN

Here are the pros/benefits of LAN:

 Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local area
networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.

 You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the licensed
software for each client in the network.

 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.

 You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.

 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more secure.

 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all
the LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN

Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:

 LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial cost
of installing Local Area Networks is quite high.

 The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer
good privacy.

 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is
not able to secure centralized data repository.

 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues
related to software setup and hardware failures

What is WAN (Wide Area Network)?

WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which is spread
across a large geographical area. WAN network system could be a connection of a LAN

14
which connects with other LAN’s using telephone lines and radio waves. It is mostly limited
to an enterprise or an organization.

Fig 1.10 WAN

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Characteristics of WAN

Below are the characteristics of WAN:

 The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to the
latest files.

15
  Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.

Advantages of WAN

Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:

 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices
situated at longer distances can easily communicate.

 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.

 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client
devices.

Disadvantages of WAN

Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:

 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and
network administrators.

 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different
technologies.

 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired
and wireless technologies.

 Offers lower security compared to other types of network in computer.

What is MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)?

A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network across an

entire city, college campus, or a small region. This type of network is large than a LAN,
which is mostly limited to a single building or site. Depending upon the type of
configuration, this type of network allows you to cover an area from several miles to tens of
miles.

16
 Fig 1.11 MAN

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Characteristics of MAN

Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:

 It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range

 Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables

 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN

Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:

 It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.

 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to
WANs.

 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions
concurrently.

 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

17
Disadvantages of MAN

Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:

 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.

 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

Other Types of Computer Networks

Apart from above mentioned computer networks, here are some other important types of
networks:

 WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)

 Storage Area Network

 System Area Network

 Home Area Network

 POLAN- Passive Optical LAN

 Enterprise private network

 Campus Area Network

 Virtual Area Network

Let’s see all these different types of networks in detail:

1) WLAN

WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) helps you to link single or multiple devices using
wireless communication within a limited area like home, school, or office building. It gives
users an ability to move around within a local coverage area which may be connected to the
network. Today most modern day’s WLAN systems are based on IEEE 802.11 standards.

2) Storage-Area Network (SAN)

A Storage Area Network is a type of network which allows consolidated, block-level data
storage. It is mainly used to make storage devices, like disk arrays, optical jukeboxes, and
tape libraries.

18
3) System-Area Network

System Area Network is used for a local network. It offers high-speed connection in server-
to-server and processor-to-processor applications. The computers connected on a SAN
network operate as a single system at quite high speed.

4) Passive Optical Local Area Network

POLAN is a networking technology which helps you to integrate into structured cabling. It
allows you to resolve the issues of supporting Ethernet protocols and network apps.

POLAN allows you to use optical splitter which helps you to separate an optical signal from a
single-mode optical fiber. It converts this single signal into multiple signals.

5) Home Area Network (HAN):

A Home Area Network is always built using two or more interconnected computers to form a
local area network (LAN) within the home. For example, in the United States, about 15
million homes have more than one computer.

These types of network connections help computer owners to interconnect with multiple
computers. This network allows sharing files, programs, printers, and other peripherals.

6) Enterprise Private Network :

Enterprise private network (EPN) networks are build and owned by businesses that want to
securely connect numerous locations in order to share various computer resources.

7) Campus Area Network (CAN):

A Campus Area Network is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a specific

geographical area. For example, a university campus can be linked with a variety of campus
buildings to connect all the academic departments.

8) Virtual Private Network:

A VPN is a private network which uses a public network to connect remote sites or users
together. The VPN network uses “virtual” connections routed through the internet from the
enterprise’s private network or a third-party VPN service to the remote site.

It is a free or paid service that keeps your web browsing secure and private over public WiFi
hotspots.

19
1.5 NETWORK PROTOCOL

Network protocols are a set of pre-defined rules and guidelines that computer-related devices
follow to enable network communication. These standard rules framework in the Internet
protocol suite include identifying and establishing connections among devices. Moreover,
they also define how the transfer of data can occur to and from different devices in the same
network.

Created according to the industry standards by networking and technology organizations such
as IEEE, W3Consortium, ISO (International Standards Organization), and others, network
protocols are essential for seamless communication between devices. Additionally, two or
more devices based on different infrastructural devices or standards can also communicate
through standard network protocols. These protocols include guidelines that monitor access
methods, cabling type, data transfer speed etc.

This article explains the use of network protocols, how they work, and a few of their common
types.

Use of Network Protocols

Network protocols can be used for digital and analog communications. Furthermore, these
standard communication protocols can check for authorization and detect errors in the
communication channel. Network communication is carried out through wireless network
protocols, wired network protocols, Internet protocols etc.

Network protocols are used for accessing the Internet, transferring files among devices,
automating processes on the network, and sending messages across the internet network.

The Internet protocol suite ensures that the network operates seamlessly and maintains
connections among devices. Apart from this, network protocols help network administrators
to locate and fix errors. Specific security-based protocols are responsible for securing data
transmission, authenticating users on a network, not allowing unauthorized users to bypass
the network and spoof the data passed on the network.

Several types of protocols are in use today for enabling communication between devices
across the network. Let’s understand a few types of network protocols in use today.

20
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a network communication protocol that allows

applications and devices to communicate over a network. TCP integrates with Internet
Protocol (IP) for data and communication transmission; therefore, the Internet protocol suite
is also known as TCP/IP.

Additionally, it ensures that the data packets sent over the web are delivered from source to
destination securely. TCP enables a smooth end-to-end delivery of messages and information.
Further, it establishes a connection between source and destination and breaks the data into
smaller chunks of packets while maintaining data integrity. Protocols such as FTP, SSH, and
Telnet use TCP to transmit data.

Advantages:

 Ensures data reaches the destination node

 Timely delivery of data

2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for transmitting files between devices or applications
across TCP/IP connections. To facilitate FTP exchange, the computer (local host) and the
server (remote host) should be connected through a network and configured. A standard
communication protocol built on a client-server framework, FTP enables file transfer
between server and client.

FTP allows users to download and transfer files from one device to another with an
established Internet connection. It also will enable systems to move files that are stored
remotely on the cloud. FTP functions when a client requests a file supplied by a server. A
data channel is established for clients to request files and download, copy, or edit the files.
Additionally, FTP enables private file sharing.

Advantages:

 Allows sharing large files

 Enables recovery of lost data

3. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol or SMTP, as it is popularly known, is another example of a

standard communication protocol that enables email transmission over the Internet.

21
Even though it can send and receive emails, it is primarily used to send text messages.
Moreover, it can also work or integrate with POP3 (Post Office Protocol) and IMAP (Internet
Message Access Protocol) to retrieve emails on the destination end, while SMTP serves to
send emails from the source.

Apart from this, its primary function is to establish and facilitate communication rules
between servers for messaging.

Advantages:

 Flexible with existing systems

 Dedicated server for outgoing emails

4. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a network layer protocol that enables data transfer
from a web server to a web client. Besides, it is one of the most widely used protocols to set
up communication between the browser and server. It lets users communicate data on the
world wide web. Furthermore, it transmits hypertext between clients and servers to interact
with web browsers and HTML files. HTTP uses task-oriented methods to request a specific
source, add content messages, modify existing web resources, or delete a particular resource.
Additionally, it establishes a single connection to share files and allows you to send files from
one host to another.

Advantages:

 Provides accessibility by storing content into the cache memory

 Allows multiple connections to download the same file simultaneously

Implementing Network Protocols

Network protocols are built on one another. However, they are merely a set of established
rules and guidelines and not codes or software pieces.

The network protocols are implemented as services on a system. The system follows the
defined set of standard rules while operating over a network and interacting with an
application or system. The system hardware works by reading streams of bits and implements
the protocols according to the flow of layers in the OSI model. Some network protocols are
implemented on hardware (physical layer), while others are programmed in software as part
of an operating system or application.

22
Internet or network protocols govern client-server communications and are the foundation for
enabling digital communications. They also set up secure and high-performance network
communication. While Internet infrastructure would be crippled without these pre-defined
rules and standard frameworks, ensuring network security is also crucial. Massive volumes of
data or information are shared over a network, which makes it prone to intrusion. Hence, to
defend your network, you need to have a thorough understanding of the application layer
protocols and how devices and processes work together. This is where credible programs like
Certified Network Defender (C|ND) can help you further your knowledge and skills.

1.6 LAYERED NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

A systematic strategy is necessary for data transmission to occur for two or more users to
send data from one to the other. This method allows people to converse and send data in an
efficient and orderly manner. It is implemented in computer networks using models, which
are referred to as computer network models.

Computer network models are in charge of creating a link between the sender and receiver as
well as delivering data in a seamless manner.

Importance of Computer Network Layered Architecture:

 The layered architecture’s major goal is to split the design into tiny parts.

 Each lower layer contributes its services to the top layer, resulting in a complete
collection of services for managing communications and running applications.

 It provides modularity and explicit interfaces, allowing subsystems to interact with

one another.

 It ensures layer independence by offering services from the lowest to the highest layer
without specifying how the services are implemented. As a result, any changes made
to one layer have no effect on the other levels.

 The number of levels, functions, and contents of each layer will differ from one
network to the next. However, the objective of each layer is to offer the service from a
lower to a higher layer while masking the specifics of how the services are performed
from the layers.

23
 Fig 1.12 Layered architecture

Fundamental Components of Layered Architecture:

Services, protocols, and interfaces are the fundamental components of layered architecture.

1. Service:

A collection of activities provided by a layer to a higher layer.

2. Protocol:

It is a collection of rules that a layer employs to share data with a peer entity.
These rules primarily address the contents and order of the messages used.

3. Interface:

The interface is the means through which a message is transmitted from one layer to another.

In a layer n architecture, layer n on one computer communicates with layer n on another

machine, and the rules employed in the interaction are referred to as a layer-n protocol.

24
Features of Layered Architecture:

 In the case of layered architecture, no data is transmitted from one machine’s layer n
to another machine’s layer n. Instead, until the lowest layer is reached, each layer
transmits the data to the one directly below it.

 The physical channel via which real communication takes place is located underneath
layer 1.

 Unmanageable activities are split into smaller, more manageable jobs in a layered
architecture.

 Data is sent from the upper layer to the bottom layer via an interface. A layered
design provides a clear interface so that only the most important information is
communicated across levels. It also assures that one layer’s implementation may be
readily changed by another.

1.7 OVERVIEW OF OSI REFERENCE MODEL;

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection and is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application on one computer is moved to a software application
on another computer through a physical medium.

OSI consists of seven layers, each of which performs specific network functions.

OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984 and is now considered an architectural model for computer-to-computer
communication. The Model OSI divides the entire task into seven smaller, easier-to-manage
tasks. Each layer is assigned a specific task.

Each layer is self -contained, so the tasks assigned to each layer can be executed
independently.

Functions of the OSI Layers

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. The seven layers are given
below:

1. Physical Layer

2. Data-Link Layer

25
 3. Network Layer

4. Transport Layer

5. Session Layer

6. Presentation Layer

7. Application Layer

The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.

 The upper layer of the OSI model generally deals with the application related issues,
and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is the one that is
closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the
software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.

 The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link
layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical
layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The
physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical
medium.

The physical layer, data link layer and the network layer are the network support layers. The
layers manage a physical transfer of data from one device to another. Session layer,
presentation layer, and application layer are the user support layers. These layers allow
communication among unrelated software in dissimilar environments. Transport layer links
the two groups

Physical layer

The main function of the physical layer is to transmit a single bit from one node to another. It
is the lowest level of the OSI model. It establishs, maintains and activates physical
connections. It specifies mechanical, electrical, and program network interface specifications.

Functions of the physical layer:

Line configuration: It defines the way two or more devices can be physically connected.

Data transmission: It defines whether the transmission mode between two devices on the
network is simple, half duplex or full duplex.

Topology:It defines the layout of network devices.

26
Signal: It determines the type of signal used to transmit information.

Data-Link Layer

This layer is responsible for the error-free transmission of data frames. It defines the data
format on the network. It provides reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices and is primarily responsible for uniquely identifying each device that resides on the
local network. It contains two sub-layers:

1. Logical link control layer : It is in charge of transmitting the data packets to the network
layer of the receiver. It identifies the network layer protocol address of the header. It also
provides flow control.

2. Media Access Control Layer : A media access control layer is the link between the
logical link control layer and the physical layer of the network. It is used to transmit data
packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

Framing: The data link layer converts the physical raw bit stream into data packets called
frames. The data link layer adds a header and a tail to the frame. The header added to the
frame contains the source and destination addresses of the hardware.

Physical addressing: The data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains the
destination address. The frame is transferred to the destination address mentioned in the
header.

Flow Control: It is a technology that keeps the data rate constant on both sides so as not to
damage the data. It ensures that the sending station is like a server with a higher processing
speed, and does not exceed the receiving station with a lower processing speed.

Error control: Error control is achieved by adding a CRC (cyclic redundancy check)
calculation value, which is placed at the end of the data link layer, and this value is added to
the message frame before being sent to the physical layer middle. If an error occurs, the
receiver sends an acknowledgment of the retransmission of the damaged frame.

Access control: When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, the data link layer protocol is used to determine which device has control over the
link at any given time.

27
Network Layer

It is the third layer that manages the addressing of devices, tracking the location of devices on
the network. It also specifies the best path to move data from source to destination based on
factors such as network conditions and service priority. Routers are specified in this layer and
are used to provide routing services within the Internet. The protocol used to route network
traffic is called the network layer protocol. Some examples of protocols are IP and IPv6.

The role of the network layer:

Internetworking: The main responsibility of the network layer is interconnection and

providing a logical connection between different devices.

Address: The network layer adds the source and destination addresses to the frame header.
Addressing is used to identify devices on the Internet.

Routing: Routing is the main component of the network layer, which determines the best
route between multiple routes from source to destination.

Packetizing: The network layer receives packets from the upper layer and converts them into
packets. This process is called packaging. It is implemented through the Internet Protocol
(IP).

Transport Layer

The transport layer is the fourth layer, which ensures that messages are transmitted in the
order they are sent and that there is no duplicate data. The main responsibility of the transport
layer is to transmit the data completely. It receives data from the upper layer and converts it
into smaller units called chunks. This layer can be called an end-to-end layer because it
provides a point-to-point connection between source and destination to reliably transfer data.

Function of Transport Layer:

Point of Service Addressing: The computer runs multiple programs at the same time, and the
transmission of data from source to destination is not only from one computer to another, but
also from one computer to another or one process to another process. The transport layer adds
a header that contains an address called a service point address or port address. The
responsibility of the network layer is to transfer data from one computer to another, and the
responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer messages to the correct process.

28
Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives a message from the upper
layer, it splits the message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned a sequence
number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the message arrives at the destination,
the transport layer reassembles the message according to its sequence number.

Connection control: The transport layer provides two services: connection-oriented services
and connectionless services. Offline services treat each segment as a separate package, and
they all travel on different routes to reach their destination. The connection-oriented service
establishes a connection to the transport layer on the target machine before transmitting the
data packet. In connection-oriented services, all data packets are transmitted on one route.

Flow Control: The transport layer is also responsible for flow control, but it is done end-to-
end, rather than across a single link.

Error handling: The transport layer is also responsible for error handling. Error handling is
done end-to-end, not over a single link. The sender's transport layer ensures that the message
reaches the destination without errors.

Session Layer

The session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronize the interaction between
communication devices.

Session layer functions:

Dialogue control: The session layer acts as a dialogue controller, creating a dialogue
between two processes, or we can say that it allows communication between two processes,
which can be half-duplex or full-duplex.

Synchronization-The session layer adds some checkpoints by transferring data in the stream.
If any error occurs during data transmission, the transmission will be re-transmitted from the
control point. This process is called synchronization and recovery.

Presentation Layer

The presentation layer deals mainly with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between the two systems. It acts as a data converter for the network. This layer is
part of the operating system, it converts data from one presentation format to another. The
presentation layer is also called the syntax layer.

29
Presentation layer functions:

Translation: The processes in the two systems exchange information in the form of strings
and numbers. Different computers use different encoding methods and the presentation layer
handles interoperability between different encoding methods. Converts the data from the
related format of the sender to a common format and converts the common format to the
related format of the receiver at the receiving end.

Encryption : Encryption is required to maintain privacy. Encryption is the process of

converting the information transmitted by the sender to another form and sending the
resulting message over the network.

Compression: Data compression is the process of compressing data, that is, reducing the
number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia such as
text, audio, and video.

Application Layer

The application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network services. It addresses issues such as network transparency and resource allocation.
The application layer is not an application, but performs application layer functions. This
layer provides network services for end users.

Application Layer Functions:

File Transfer, Access and Management (FTAM): The application layer allows users to access
files on remote computers, retrieve files from computers, and manage files on remote
computers.

Mail service: The application layer provides the ability to forward and store emails.

Directory service: The application provides a distributed database source and is used to
provide global information about various objects.

1.8 OVERVIEW OF TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE;

It was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s. It stands
for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

30
TCP is a communication standard that enables applications and computing devices to
exchange messages on the network. Its purpose is to send data packets over the Internet and
to ensure the successful delivery of data and information on the network.

TCP is one of the basic standards that define the rules of the Internet and is included in the
standards defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). It is one of the most used
protocols in digital network communication, which guarantees the transmission of data from
one end to the other. TCP organizes the data so that it can be transmitted between the server
and the client.

Each device has an IP address, which is used to uniquely identify it and allow it to
communicate and exchange data with other devices connected to the Internet.

IP is responsible for defining how applications and devices exchange data packets with each
other. It is the main communication protocol responsible for exchanging data and message
formats and rules between computers on a single network or on multiple networks connected
to the Internet. It does so through the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP), a set of
communication protocols is divided into four layers of abstraction. The TCP/IP model of

TCP/IP model consists of five layers: application layer, transport layer, network layer,
data link layer and physical layer.

Fig. 1.13 TCP/IP model

31
Each layer of TCP/IP provides specific functions.

Physical layer: It is the lowest layer of the TCP / IP model. It defines how data should be
physically sent over the network. This layer is primarily responsible for the transmission of
data between two devices on the same network. The protocols used in this layer are Ethernet,
Token Ring etc.

Data link layer: The function performed by this layer is to encapsulate IP datagrams into
frames for network transmission and to map IP addresses to physical addresses. The protocols
used in this layer are FDDI, X.25, and Frame Relay etc..

Internet layer: The main responsibility of the Internet layer is to send data packets from any
network, no matter what route they use, they will reach the destination.

The protocols used in this layer are as follows:

IP protocol: The IP protocol used in this layer is the most important part of the entire TCP/IP
suite. This protocol implements logical host addresses called IP addresses. The Internet and
higher layers use IP addresses to identify devices and provide routing between networks.

Address Resolution Protocol: ARP is a network layer protocol used to find physical addresses
from IP addresses. These two terms are mainly related to the ARP protocol:

ARP request: When the sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it sends an
ARP request to the network.

ARP response: All devices connected to the network will accept the ARP request and process
the request, but only the receiver will recognize the IP address and return its physical address
as an ARP response. The receiver adds the physical address to its cache and data header.

ICMP Protocol : ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is a mechanism used
by hosts or routers to send notifications about datagram problems to the sender. The
datagram is transmitted from one router to another until it reaches the destination. If the
router is unable to route data due to some abnormal conditions (such as disabled links, device
fires, or network congestion), the ICMP protocol is used to notify the sender that the
datagram cannot be delivered. The

ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:

ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the target is accessible.

ICMP Response: The ICMP Response is used to check if the target device has a response.

32
The primary responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report problems, not correct them. The
responsibility for the correction rests with the sender.

Transport Layer :This layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correctness
of data sent over the network. The two protocols used by the transport layer are the User
Datagram Protocol and the Transmission Control Protocol.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) :It provides connectionless services and end-to-end
transmission delivery. This is an unreliable protocol because it found an error but did not
specify an error. The user datagram protocol found an error, and the ICMP protocol notified
the sender of the error that the user datagram was corrupted.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):It provides comprehensive transport layer services for
applications. A virtual circuit is created between the sender and receiver and is active during
transmission.

TCP is a reliable protocol because it detects errors and retransmits damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures that all segments must be received and confirmed before the transfer is
considered complete and the virtual circuit is discarded.

Application Layer: The application layer is the top layer in the TCP/IP model. This layer
allows users to interact with applications. When an application layer protocol wants to
communicate with another application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer. There
is an ambiguity in the application layer. Except for the applications that interact with the
communication system, all applications cannot be placed in the application layer. For
example: text editors cannot be considered at the application layer, and web browsers use
HTTP protocol to interact with the network, where HTTP protocol is an application layer
protocol.

The main protocols used by the application layer are as follows:

HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. This protocol allows us to access data
through the World Wide Web. It transmits data in the form of plain text, audio, and video. It
is called the Hypertext Transfer Protocol because it has the efficiency to be used in a
hypertext environment that quickly jumps from one document to another.

SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework for
managing devices on the Internet using the TCP/IP protocol suite.

33
SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. The TCP/IP protocol supported by
e-mail is called the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. This protocol is used to send data to
another email address.

DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. The IP address is used to uniquely identify the
connection between the host and the Internet. However, people prefer to use names rather
than addresses. Therefore, the system that maps names to addresses is called the domain
name system.

TELNET: Abbreviation for terminal network. Establishes a connection between the local
computer and the remote computer, making the local terminal look like a terminal on the
remote system.

FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard Internet protocol used to
transfer files from one computer to another.

1.9 SUMMARY

 A computer network is a group of nodes connected by links. A node can be a

computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving data. The link
connecting the nodes is called a communication channel.

 Computer network architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of

software, hardware, protocols, and data transmission media.

 DCE (Distributed Computing Environment) is an architecture defined by the Open

Software Foundation (OSF), which aims to provide an open system platform to meet
the challenges of distributed computing.

 TCP is a communication standard that enables applications and computing devices to

exchange messages on the network.

 Network management refers to the processes, tools, and applications used to manage,
operate, and maintain network infrastructure.

The goal of any NOC is to maintain optimal network performance and availability, and to
ensure continued uptime.

34
1.10 KEYWORDS

 Topology : structure of network of how all components are connected to each other.

 Network provisioning : the process of configuring a network so that authorized

users, devices, and servers can access it.

 Network management software : software that is used to provision, discover,

monitor and maintain computer networks.

 Bandwidth : maximum amount of data transmitted over an Internet connection in a

given time.

 Latency : the time it takes for a data packet to reach the destination on the network

 Firewall: acts as a barrier between untrusted external networks and trusted internal
networks

1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITY

1. Define computer network architecture.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. Mention the five main function of network management.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

1.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS

A. Descriptive Questions

Short Questions

1. Explain computer network alongwith its features.

2. Differentiate between Internet and Intranet.

3. Explain the goals of network management.

35
4. Describe distributed computing environment.

5. Discuss the challenges faced by network managers.

Long Questions

1. Describe any four network topologies.

2. Explain the client server and peer to peer architecture alongwith their advantages.

3. Discuss the objective of Network operation center.

4. Explain in detail the various layers of TCP/IP model.

5. Explain any five protocols used in network.

B. Multiple choice Question

1. Link that connects the node is called

a. bandwidth

b. latency

c. protocol

d. communication channel

2. It protects organization from malicious software

a. topology

b. Link

c. Antivirus

d. Packets

3. Identifying characteristic of computer is called

a. Node

b. IP address

c. Protocol

d. Packet

36
 4. When a packet is discarded during network transmission it is called

a. Packet loss

b. Malware

c. Bandwidth

d. Link

5. When the path between the source and destination is overloaded while sending a
packet is called

a. Network issue

b. Congestion

c. Packet loss

d. Security issue

Answers:

1- d, 2-c , 3-b , 4-a , 5-b

1.13 REFERENCES

TextBooks

 Mani Subrahmanian, “Network Management Principles and Practice”, 2nd Edition,

Pearson Education, 2010.

 Morris, “Network management”, 1st Edition, Pearson Education, 2008.

 Mark Burges, “Principles of Network System Administration”, 1st Edition, Wiley

DreamTech, 2008.

 James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross, “Computer Networking,” Addison-Wesley,

6thedition, 2013

 Douglas Comer, “Automated network management systems current and future

capabilities,” Pearson Prentice-Hall, 2007.

 Tanenbaum , “Computer Networks”

37
Website

 https://www.manageengine.com/network-monitoring/network-management.html

 https://www.javatpoint.com/computer-network-architecture

 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/basics-computer-networking

 https://www.britannica.com/technology/computer-network

38