UNIT 1: ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

Definition, scope and importance of environment – need for public awareness - concept of an
ecosystem – structure and function of an ecosystem – producers, consumers and decomposers
–energy flow in the ecosystem – ecological succession – food chains, food webs and ecological
pyramids – Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and function of the (a) forest
ecosystem (b) grassland ecosystem (c) desert ecosystem (d) aquatic ecosystems (ponds,
streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries) – Introduction to biodiversity definition: genetic,
species and ecosystem diversity – biogeographical classification of India – value of
biodiversity: consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option values –
Biodiversity at global, national and local levels – India as a mega-diversity nation– hot-spots
of biodiversity – threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man- wildlife
conflicts – endangered and endemic species of India – conservation of biodiversity: In situ and
exsitu conservation of biodiversity. Field study of common plants, insects, birds; Field study
of simple ecosystems – pond, river, hill slopes,etc
INTRODUCTION
The science of Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because it comprises
various branches of studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science, agriculture,
public health, sanitary engineering etc. It is the science of physical phenomena in the
environment. It studies of the sources, reactions, transport, effect and fate of physical a
biological species in the air, water and soil and the effect of from human activity upon these.
Definition, Scope And Importance Of Environment – Need For Public Awareness
Definitions of Environment : Some important definitions of environment are as under:
1. Boring: ‘A person’s environment consists of the sum total of the stimulation which
he receives from his conception until his death.’
• It can be concluded from the above definition that Environment comprises
various types of forces such as physical, intellectual, economic, political,
cultural, social, moral and emotional.
• Environment is the sum total of all the external forces, influences and
conditions, which affect the life,nature, behaviour and the growth,
development and maturation of living organisms.
2. Douglas and Holland: ‘The term environment is used to describe, in the aggregate, all the
external forces, influences and conditions, which affect the life, nature, behaviour and the
growth, development and maturity of living organisms.
Scope of Environment: The environment consists of four segments as under:
Atmosphere:
The atmosphere implies the protective blanket of gases surrounding the earth:
(a) It sustains life on the earth.
(b) It saves it from the hostile environment of outer space.
 (c) It absorbs most of the cosmic rays from outer space and a major portion of the
electromagnetic radiation from the sun.
(d) It transmits only here ultraviolet, visible, near infrared radiation (300 to 2500 (nm)
and radio waves. (0.14 to 40 m) while filtering out tissue-damaging ultraviolate waves below
about 300 nm. The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen and oxygen. Besides, argon, carbon
dioxide, and trace gases.
Hydrosphere:
The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams,
reserviour, polar icecaps, glaciers, and ground water.
(i) Nature 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the oceans,
(ii) About 2% of the water resources is locked in the polar icecaps and glaciers.
(iii) Only about 1% is available as fresh surface water-rivers, lakes streams, and ground
water fit to be used for human consumption and other uses.
Lithosphere:
Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists of minerals occurring in the earth’s
crusts and the soil e.g. minerals, organic matter, air and water
Biosphere:
Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their interactions with environment,
viz atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

Element of Environment
Environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural
elements inter-related in various ways, individually as well as collectively.
(1) Physical elements
Physical elements are as space, landforms, water bodies, climate soils, rocks and minerals.
They determine the variable character of the human habitat, its opportunities as well as
limitations.
(2) Biological elements
Biological elements such as plants, animals, microorganisms and men constitute the
biosphere.
(3) Cultural elements
Cultural elements such as economic, social and political elements are essentially manmade
features, which make cultural milieu.
ENVIRONMENT STUDIES: IMPORTANCE
The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and conservation of
our indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment. At present a great number of
environment issues, have grown in size and complexity day by day, threatening the survival
of mankind on earth. We study about these issues besides and effective suggestions in the
Environment Studies.
i. Environment Issues Being of International Importance
It has been well recognised that environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion,
acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global
issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.
ii. Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development
Development, leads to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Transportation Systems, Agriculture
and Housing etc. However, it resulted in a dirty environment.

iii. Explosively Increase in Pollution

World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planet lives in India. This
accounts for 16 percent of the world's population and only 2.4 percent of its land area, So
there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural experts have
recognized soils health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and organic matter, soil
salinity and damage of soil structure.
iv. Need for An Alternative Solution
It is essential, specially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an alternative
goal. We need a goal as under:
(1) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally
sound and sustainable development.
(2) A goal common to all citizens of our earth.
(3) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-
consuming wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
v. Need To Save Humanity From Extinction
It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from exinction. Consequent to our activities
constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development.
vi. Need For Wise Planning of Development
Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the product
have all to by synchronised with the ecological cycles in any plan of development our actions
should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and development.
Misra’s Report
Misra (1991) recognized four basic principles of ecology, as under:
(i) Holism
(ii) Ecosystem
(iii) Succession
(iv) Conversation.
Holism has been considered as the real base of ecology. In hierarchical levels at which
interacting units of ecology are discussed, are as under:
Individual<population<community<ecosystem<biome<biosphere.
Misra (1991) has recognised four basic requirements of environmental management as under:
(i) Impact of human activities on the environment,
(ii) Value system,
(iii) Plan and design for sustainable development,
(iv) Environment education.

NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

It is essential to make the public aware of the consequences of the Environmental
Degradation, if not changed and reformative measures taken would result in the extinction of
life. We are facing various environmental challenges. It is essential to get the country used
with these challenges so that their acts may be eco-friendly. Some of these challenges are as
under
1. Growing Population
A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent every year. Over 17
million people are added each year. It puts pressure on its natural resources and reduces the
gains of development. Hence, the greatest challenge before us is to limit the population
growth. Although population control does automatically lead to development, yet the
development leads to a decrease in population growth rates. For this development of the
women is essential.
2. Poverty
India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and environmental
degradation have a connection between them. The vast majority of our people are directly
dependent on the nature resources of the country for their basic needs of food, fuel shelter
and fodder. About 40% of our people are still below the poverty line. Environment
degradation has adversely affected the poor who depend upon the resources of their
immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the challenge environment
degradation are two sides of the same challenge. The population growth is essentially a
function of poverty. Because, to the very poor, every child is an earner and helper and global
concerns have little relevance for him.
3. Agricultural Growth
The people are familiar with the methods to sustain and increase agricultural growth with
damaging the environment. High yielding varities have caused soil salinity and damage to
physical structure of soil.
4. Need to Ground water
It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater. Factors like community wastes,
industrial effluents and chemical fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface water and
affected quality of the groundwater. It is essential to restore the water quality of our rivers
and other water bodies as lakes is an important challenge. It so finding our suitable strategies
for consecration of water, provision of safe drinking water and keeping water bodies clean
which are difficult challenges is essential.
5. Development And Forests
Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand of water, plan to harness
the mighty river through large irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these would
submerge forests; displace local people, damage flora and fauna. As such, the dams on the
river Narmada, Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of political and scientific debate.
Forests in India have been shrinking for several centuries owing to pressures of
agriculture and other uses. Vast areas that were once green, stand today as wastelands. These
areas are to be brought back under vegetative cover. The tribal communities inhabiting
forests respects the trees and birds and animal that gives them sustenance.
6. Degradation of Land
At present out of the total 329 mha of land, only 266 mha possess any potential for
production. Of this, 143 mha is agricultural land nearly and 85 suffers from varying degrees
of soil degradation. Of the remaining 123 mha, 40 are completely unproductive. The
remaining 83 mha is classified as forest land, of which over half is denuded to various
degrees. Nearly 406 million head of livestock have to be supported on 13 mha, or less than 4
per cent of the land classified as pasture land, most of which is overgrazed. Thus, our of 226
mha, about 175 mha or 66 per cent is degraded to varying degrees. Water and wind erosion
causes further degradation of almost 150 mha This degradation is to be avoided.
7. Reorientation of Institutions
The people should be roused to orient institutions, attitudes and infrastructures, to suit
conditions and needs today. The change has to be brought in keeping in view India’s
traditions for resources use managements and education etc. Change should be brought in
education, in attitudes, in administrative procedures and in institutions. Because it affects way
people view technology resources and development.
8. Reduction of Genetic Diversity
Proper measures to conserve genetic diversity need to be taken. At present most wild genetic
stocks have been disappearing from nature. Wilding including the Asiatic Lion are facing
problem of loss of genetic diversity. The protected areas network like sanctuaries, national
parks, biosphere reserves are isolating populations. So, they are decreasing changes of one
group breeding with another. Remedial steps are to be taken to check decreasing genetic
diversity
 9. Evil Consequences of Urbanisation
Nearly 27 per cent Indians live in urban areas. Urbanisation and industrialisation has given
birth to a great number of environmental problem that need urgent attention. Over 30 percent
of urban Indians live in slums. Out of India’s 3,245 towns and cities, only 21 have partial or
full sewerage and treatment facilities. Hence, coping with rapid urbanization is a major
challenge
10. Air and water Pollution
Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated and population technologies and
makeshift facilities devoid of any provision of treating their wastes. A great number of cities
and industrial areas that have been identified as the worst in terms of air and water pollution.
Acts are enforced in the country, but their implement is not so easy. The reason is their
implementation needs great resources, technical expertise, political and social will. Again the
people are to be made aware of these rules. Their support is indispensable to implement these
rules.
Concept Of An Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms
interact with each other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a
chain of interactions between organisms and their environment. The term “Ecosystem” was
first coined by A.G.Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.

The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:
1. Biotic Components
2. Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system
where the energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.

Biotic Components
Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic
components can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or
decomposers).
1. Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they
can produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other
organisms higher up on the food chain rely on producers for food. Producers are
organisms that make their own food by absorbing sunlight and using this energy to
thrive
 2. Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and
tertiary consumers. Consumers are animals that eat living things as a means of energy.
Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food.
Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either
be carnivores or omnivores.
Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for food.
Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores.
Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey
on tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain
as they have no natural predators.
3. Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on
the dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem
as they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants. Decomposers break down
dead plants and animals.

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water,
soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.
So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work together in
an ecosystem are:
I. Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.
II. Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one
trophic level to another. The energy captured from the sun flows from producers to
consumers and then to decomposers and finally back to the environment.
III. Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-soil
is the major site for decomposition.
IV. Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back in
various forms for the utilisation by various organisms.
Functions of Ecosystem

The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and
renders stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
 5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that
involve the exchange of energy.
Energy Flow
The chemical energy of food is the main source of energy required by all living organisms.
This energy is transmitted to different trophic levels along the food chain. This energy flow is
based on two different laws of thermodynamics:
First law of thermodynamics, that states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it
can only change from one form to another.
Second law of thermodynamics, that states that as energy is transferred more and more of it
is wasted.
Energy Flow in Ecosystem
The energy flow in the ecosystem is one of the major factors that support the survival
of such a great number of organisms. For almost all organisms on earth, the primary source of
energy is solar energy. It is amusing to find that we receive less than 50 per cent of the sun’s
effective radiation on earth. When we say effective radiation, we mean the radiation, which can
be used by plants to carry out photosynthesis. Most of the sun’s radiation that falls on the earth
is usually reflected back into space by the earth’s atmosphere. This effective radiation is termed
as the Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR).
Overall, we receive about 40 to 50 percent of the energy having Photosynthetically
Active Radiation and only around 2-10 percent of it is used by plants for the process of
photosynthesis. Thus, this percent of PAR supports the entire world as plants are the producers
in the ecosystem and all the other organisms are either directly or indirectly dependent on them
for their survival.
The energy flow takes place via the food chain and food web. During the process of
energy flow in the ecosystem, plants being the producers absorb sunlight with the help of the
chloroplasts and a part of it is transformed into chemical energy in the process of
photosynthesis.
This energy is stored in various organic products in the plants and passed on to the
primary consumers in the food chain when the herbivores consume (primary consumers) the
plants as food. Then conversion of chemical energy stored in plant products into kinetic energy
occurs, degradation of energy will occur through its conversion into heat.
Then followed by the secondary consumers. When these herbivores are ingested by
carnivores of the first order (secondary consumers) further degradation will occur. Finally,
when tertiary consumers consume the carnivores, energy will again be degraded. Thus, the
energy flow is unidirectional in nature.
Moreover, in a food chain, the energy flow follows the 10 percent law. According to
this law, only 10 percent of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the other; rest is lost
into the atmosphere. This is clearly explained in the following figure and is represented as an
energy pyramid.
Trophic level
The producers and consumers in the ecosystem can be arranged into different feeding groups
and are known as trophic level or the feeding level.
• The producers (plants) represent the first trophic level.
• Herbivores (primary consumers) present the second trophic level.
• Primary carnivores (secondary consumers) represent the third trophic level
• Top carnivores (tertiary consumers) represent the last level.
An ecosystem is divided into various levels called trophic levels. Various trophic levels are
as follows:
First trophic level: This level is occupied by the producers which include the plants.
Second trophic level: It is occupied by the primary consumers that consume plants. For
example herbivores such as cows, goats, etc.
Third Trophic Level: This level is occupied by the primary carnivores or secondary
consumers such as snakes, frogs, birds, etc.
Fourth trophic level: Large carnivores that are also called tertiary consumers make up this
level. Example: Lion, Tiger, Cheetah, etc.
Food Chain
• The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required for
all plant life. The plants utilise this energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is
used to synthesise their food.
• During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and is
passed on through successive trophic levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a
consumer and eventually, to an apex predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.
• Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its
constituents by scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After gaining
the energy, the reducers liberate molecules to the environment, which can be utilised
again by the producers.
In the below food chain:
• In the first stage, plants are eaten by herbivores such as grasshoppers.
• Then herbivores such as deer are consumed by carnivores such as lions, tigers, etc.
• On the death of carnivores, they are consumed by scavengers such as eagles and
vultures.
• When vultures die, their bodies are broken down by bacteria and fungi to nutrients.
• These nutrients are again used by the plants for their growth.
Significance of Energy Flow in Ecosystem
Following are some of the significance of Energy Flow in an Ecosystem;
1. It is vital for all living thing sin ecosystem to survive and function properly.
2. It helps us to understand who eats whom in nature.
3. More the diversity of organisms more stable the ecosystem is.
4. It shows how all creatures in an ecosystem depend on each other and how changes
can affect each other.
5. It helps us to see how human action are affecting the ecosystem.
6. Understanding the flow of energy in an ecosystem helps us to devise proper
conservation techniques to save the ecosystem.

Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and biomass of
the successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was the first ecologist to
describe the ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.
The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the producer level to the
consumer level are represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological
pyramid.
The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by primary and
secondary consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the
quaternary consumers are at the very apex of the food chain.
The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly, the primary
consumers outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the
same trend as the other consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the
secondary consumers.
For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat, which are plentiful.
These grasshoppers are then preyed upon by common mouse, which are comparatively less in
number. The mice are preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed on
by apex predators such as the brown snake eagle.

There are basically three different types of food chains in the ecosystem, namely –

• Grazing food chain (GFC) – This is the normal food chain that we observe in which
plants are the producers and the energy flows from the producers to the herbivores
(primary consumers), then to carnivores (secondary consumers) and so on.
 • Saprophytic or Detritus food chain (DFC) – In this type of food chain, the dead
organic matter occupies the lowermost level of the food chain, followed by the
decomposers and so on.
• Parasitic food chain (PFC) – In this type of food chain, large organisms either the
producer or the consumer is exploited and therefore the food passes to the smaller
organism.
In nature, we mostly observe food web as there are many organisms which are omnivores. As
a result, they occupy multiple trophic levels.

Food Web
Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the food chains within
a single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the foundation of all the food
chains. In a marine environment, phytoplankton forms the primary producer. A food web is a
natural interaction between the different food chains that represent the flow of nutrients and
energy within the ecosystem. It is also known as a consumer-resource system. Food web
provides an overview of the feeding behaviour of different animals, their interactions with
each other and their surrounding.
The food Web acts as a valuable tool in understanding the flow of energy and nutrients
represents species interactions, provides ecosystem services and contributes to biodiversity.
It represents the direction of the flow of energy and nutrients among various organisms in an
ecosystem. It represents the complex relationships between producers, consumers, and
decomposers.
In food web trophic levels, organisms are arranged into different levels, with producers at the
base, followed by primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers. All the organisms including
predators, prey, and scavengers interact within this food web, which influences the
population dynamics.
Decomposers break down dead matter, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem. Each
level in the food web depends on the lower level for energy and nutrients. Change in one
trophic level impacts the other tropic levels or the whole food web. It shows the dependency
of one trophic level on another and the importance of biodiversity.
Law of Thermodynamics in the Ecosystem

The law of thermodynamics in the ecosystem explains the flow of energy at each trophic
level. The first law states that energy is neither created, nor destroyed; it can only be
converted from one form to another. This is true in energy flow in the ecocystem.

The second law states that there is loss of energy at each step of energy flow. This law also
stands true in ecology as their is progressive decrease in energy at each trophic level.
Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramid definition – It is a graphic representation of the relationship between
organisms at various trophic levels in a food chain.
The basis of an ecological pyramid is biomass, energy, and number. Just as the name
suggests, ecological pyramids are in the shape of a pyramid. The concept was first introduced
by Charles Elton, the pioneer British Ecologist.
The bottom of an ecological pyramid is the broadest and is occupied by the producers. They
form the first trophic level. Just as in a food chain, in the ecological pyramid also, primary
consumers occupy the next level. This is because primary consumers consume producers.
Similarly, secondary consumers occupy the third level. And then the tertiary consumers that
occupy
the next level and so on.

Types of Ecological Pyramids

Depending on the factors that we use to represent an ecological pyramid, there are three
types. They are:

 Ecological pyramid of numbers– Here, the important factor is the number of

organisms in each trophic level. As we go up the levels of the pyramid, the number of
organisms decreases. The producers form the largest number and hence, are at the
bottom of the pyramid.

 Ecological pyramid of energy– The energy pyramid is an upright pyramid that

represents the flow of energy from the producers to the final consumers.
  Ecological pyramid of biomass – This pyramid represents the amount of biomass of
the organisms present at each trophic level. Biomass is nothing but the weight of the
organisms.

In general, all ecological pyramids are upright, except in certain cases. For example, in a
detritus food chain, the pyramid of numbers is not upright. This is because many organisms
feed on one dead plant or animal. The pyramid of biomass in an ocean is also inverted. This
is because the biomass of producers in an ocean is less. But a point of note is that the energy
pyramid is always upright as the flow of energy is unidirectional.
Ecological Succession
A characteristic feature of biological communities is that their structure and composition
changes. These changes are according to certain changes in environmental conditions. Some
of these changes occur in a more predictable and orderly fashion. The phenomenon through
which these changes occur in ecological communities is ecological succession. This is an
important aspect of the study of ecology and forms the core of ecological science.
Now, any form of disturbance or formation of new habitats in the ecosystem can trigger the
ecological succession.
When the changes create a community that is almost in equilibrium with the environment,
then we call the community as a climax community. In a given ecological area, the
communities change successively. This sequence of communities is a sere. The transitional
communities are known as seral communities. As the seral communities progress, there is an
increase in the diversity of organisms, numbers, and biomass.
The starting point of ecological succession can be traced back to millions and millions of
years back when living organisms never existed. Slowly, new organisms started developing.
The diversity of the planet started showing changes. These changes were occurring along
with the change in the environment.
Types of Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is mainly of two types:

 Primary succession and secondary succession.

 The primary succession is a slow process that initiates in areas where there are no
living organisms.
 Secondary succession begins in areas that were once inhabited but destroyed due to
environmental disturbances. Secondary succession is generally faster, as most of the
other factors are already present.
Forest ecosystem
A forest ecosystem describes the community of plants, animals, microbes and all other
organisms in interaction with the chemical and physical features of their environment:
specifically, a terrestrial environment dominated by trees growing in a closed canopy — a
forest, in other words.
The organisms involved in a forest ecosystem are interdependent on one another for survival
and can be broadly classified according to their ecological role as producers, consumers and
decomposers.
A forest ecosystem may be as small as a tree branch microsite where mosses, insects, and
microscopic organisms interact or as large as the boreal forest that encircles the Earth at
northern latitudes. The larger it is, the more complex the potential interactions.
Structural Features of the Forest Ecosystem
The two main structural features of a forest ecosystem are:
Species composition: It refers to the identification and enumeration of the plant and animal
species of a forest ecosystem.
Stratification: It refers to the vertical distribution of different species which occupy different
levels in the forest ecosystem. Every organism occupies a place in an ecosystem on the basis
of source of nutrition. For example, in a forest ecosystem, trees occupy the top level, shrubs
occupy the second and the herbs and grasses occupy the bottom level.
Why is this concept important?
Forests are more than just trees, they are crucial for our survival and development.
Understanding forests as forest ecosystems benefits us in numerous ways: Expanding our idea
of a forest. Seeing a forest as a complex system of various and simultaneous interactions makes
us appreciate and value forests on a whole new level.
Appreciating a wide spectrum of forest ecosystem services. Humankind and ecosystems are
strongly interrelated in a multitude of ways. Direct and indirect benefits from ecosystems are
known as ecosystem services.
Guiding our understanding of a responsible forest management. Understanding the complexity
of forest ecosystems enriches our forest management practices to always consider vital habitats
for a multitude of animal and plant species, water flow regulation, supply of clean air, soil
formation and many other factors.
Components of a Forest Ecosystem
The components of a forest ecosystem are as follows:
1. Productivity

The basic requirement for any ecosystem to function and sustain is the constant input of solar
energy. Plants are also the producers in a forest ecosystem.
There are two types of productivity in a forest ecosystem, primary and secondary. Primary
productivity means the rate of capture of solar energy or biomass production per unit area over
a period of time by the plants during photosynthesis.
It is further divided into Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) and Net Primary Productivity
(NPP). GPP of an ecosystem is the rate of capture of solar energy or the total production of
biomass. However, plants also use a significant amount of GPP in respiration.
Thus, NPP is the amount of biomass left after the utilization by plants or the producers. We
can hence say that NPP is the amount which is available for the consumption to herbivores and
decomposers. Secondary productivity means the rate of absorption of food energy by the
consumers.
2. Decomposition

Decomposition is an extremely oxygen-requiring process. In the process of decomposition,

decomposers convert the complex organic compounds of detritus into inorganic substances
such as carbon dioxide, water and nutrients.
Detritus is the remains of the dead plant such as leaves, bark, flowers and also the dead remains
of the animals including their faecal matter. The steps involved in the process of decomposition
are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and mineralization.

In the process of fragmentation, detritivores break down the detritus into smaller particles. In
the process of leaching, water-soluble inorganic nutrients descend down into the soil and settle
as unavailable salts.
Under the process of catabolism, bacterial and fungal enzymes reduce detritus into simpler
inorganic substances. Humification and mineralization processes take place during the
decomposition of soil and not detritus.
The process of humification leads to the accumulation of humus which undergoes
decomposition at a very slow rate. In the process of mineralization, the humus gets further
degraded by microbes and inorganic nutrients are released.
3. Energy flow

Energy flows in a single direction. Firstly, plants capture solar energy and then, transfer the
food to decomposers. Organisms of different trophic levels are connected to each other for food
or energy relationship and thus form a food chain.
Energy Pyramid is always upright because energy flows from one trophic level to the next
trophic level and in this process, some energy is always lost as heat at each step.
4. Nutrient Cycling

Nutrient cycling refers to the storage and movement of nutrient elements through the various
components of the ecosystem. There are two types of Nutrient cycling, gaseous and
sedimentary.
For Gaseous cycle (i.e. nitrogen, carbon), atmosphere or hydrosphere is the reservoir whereas
for the sedimentary cycle (i.e. phosphorus) Earth’s crust is the reservoir.
Types of forest ecosystems
Tropical Forest
• The Tropical forests mainly exist around the equator in places like South America,
Africa, Amazon region, and Southeast Asia.
• They have the maximum species diversity per area in the world.
• Here, it rains a lot throughout the year but the temperature remains stable around
27°C.
• Generally, these forests have two seasons, namely rainy and dry.
• The temperature, rainfall and twelve hours of daylight stimulate the growth of up to
100 different species of trees.
• Some of them are broadleaf trees, mosses, ferns, palms, and orchids.
• These trees grow very densely and block most of the light from penetrating into it.
• One can also find animals such as snakes, frogs, lizards, monkeys, anacondas, jaguars,
and small mammals in these forests.
 • Due to nutrient leaching, the soil of these forests lacks maximum essential nutrients
which in turn make it useless for agriculture only after a few years of use.
• Thus, the topsoil gets depleted soon.

Temperate Forests
• We can find temperate forests in North America, northeastern Asia, and Europe.
• In these forests, there are four seasons. Generally, the temperature here ranges from -
30 to 30°C.
• These forests receive rainfall of around 75-150cm.
• Usually, one can find only 3-4 species of trees on an average per square km.
• Deciduous or leaf shedding trees form a large proportion of trees.
• Coniferous trees such as pines and firs also grow here.
• Some of the common trees are oak, beech, elm, maple, birch, willow, and hickory.
• Some of the commonly found animals are rabbits, birds, squirrels, deer, wolves,
foxes, and bears.
• Both, the plants and the animals are adaptive to the cold winters and warm summer
weather.
• The soil of these forests is fertile due to the combination of decaying fallen leaves and
the moderate temperatures.

Boreal Forest
• Usually, we can find them between 50 to 60 degrees of latitude in the sub-Arctic zone
which comprises of Siberia, Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada.
 • These have two seasons namely, a short, moist and mildly-warm summer and a long,
cold and dry winter.
• The temperature here ranges from -40 to 20°C.
• One can find evergreen conifers here with needle leaves that are capable to stand the
cold, such as pine, fir, and spruce trees.
• Some of the animals that live here are deer, wolverines, caribou, bats, small
mammals, birds, moose, bears, lynx, wolf, etc. that can bear long and cold winters.
• These animals usually have thick fur or other insulation.
• However, the soil has a very thin layer and is poor in nutrients and acidic.
• Also, the canopy here does not allow the sunlight to penetrate into the ground and
thus there is very little growth of the understory.

Grassland Ecosystem
Grassland Ecosystem is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and other
herbaceous (non-woody) plants. It is also called transitional landscape because grassland
ecosystems are dominated by the grass with few or no trees in the area where there is not
enough for a forest and too much of a forest.
A landscape that is dominated by grasses and non-woody plants is known as a grassland
ecosystem. About 20% of the land on the earth is covered by this ecosystem which can occur
in temperate and tropical regions with less rainfall. The grasslands usually contain long
grasses, shrubs, small non-woody trees, and herbs.
These grasslands occupy the intermediate stage in ecological succession and cover land in all
altitudes and latitudes where the climate and soil do not allow the growth of trees. The
grassland ecosystem is called by different names in different regions such as Pampas in South
America, Veldt in South Africa, Steppes in Europe and Asia, and Downs in Australia. In
India, these types of grassland ecosystems are seen in the Himalayas.
Components/ Structure of Grassland Ecosystems
The structural components of the grassland ecosystem are classified into two types:
Biotic Components
The living things in the ecosystem that directly or indirectly impact other species in the
environment are known as biotic components. The components are as follows:
Producers – In the grassland ecosystem the producers are mainly grasses but herbs and
shrubs also contribute to the primary production
Consumers – In this ecosystem, there are three types of consumers:
Primary Consumers – These consumers are herbivores that feed on grasses some examples
are grazing animals (cows, cattle, deer, and rabbit), insects, some termites, and millipedes are
primary consumers
Secondary Consumers – They are carnivores like lions, tigers, jackals, snakes, and
frogs,that feed on primary consumers are known as secondary consumers.
Tertiary Consumers – These include eagles, vultures, and hawks that feed on secondary
consumers.
Decomposers – These include fungi, mold, and bacteria that decay the dead organisms and
recycle the minerals back into the soil which are in turn used by the producers to grow.
Abiotic Components
The abiotic factors include the minerals present in the soil. This includes:
Elements required for plant growth like nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and hydrogen.
Sunlight, temperature, water, and precipitation are also part of the abiotic factors.
Grasslands Ecosystem Examples
The grassland ecosystem are widespread across the globe, with example including:
• The prairies of North America
• The savannas of Africa
• The pampas of South America
• The steppes of Eurasia
• The velds of Australia
Grasslands Ecosystem Types
The grassland ecosystem is classified into five types based on the temperature, geographical
conditions, and plant species composition. They are:
Temperate Grasslands
These types of grasslands are seen in the interior part and the mid-latitudinal regions of the
continent. The grasses here are short with high nutrients. The climate in the temperate
grasslands is usually warm summers and cold winters with minimal rainfall. Some examples
of temperate grasslands are the Prairies in North America, Steppes in Eurasia, and Pampas in
Argentina.
Desert Grasslands
These grasslands occur in semi-arid and arid regions where the water availability is limited.
In this type of grassland, the plants are drought-resistant and they adapted to survive in harsh
conditions. Examples are the Patagonian Desert in South America and the Chihuahuan Desert
grasslands in North America.
Tropical Grasslands
Also known as savannas, these are usually found in Africa, South America, Australia, and
Asia. These grasslands are characterized by tall grasses, trees, and shrubs. The animals found
in this region are elephants, zebras, deer, giraffes, and leopards.
Flooded Grasslands
The grasslands are found on the banks of the streams and rivers where periodic flooding
occurs. The grasses are adapted to water inundation and the diversity of the species is diverse
due to the change in water level and fertile soil.
Montane Grasslands
The grasslands are located in high mountain regions about 3000 meters above sea level. They
experience harsh climatic conditions like intense sunlight, cold temperatures, and strong
winds. The grasses in this region are short due to the cold climate and the vegetation mainly
includes grasses and growing herbaceous plants. The grasslands are used as grazing land for
animals like yak, sheep, goats, and alpacas. The water from the melting snow is the main
water source on which the plants and animals rely. Rocky Mountains in North America, the
high-altitude grasslands of the Andes in South America are the examples of Montane
grasslands.
Biological Diversity in Grasslands
The landscape is dominated by widespread grasses and drought-resistant thorny trees in the
tropical regions. The grasslands support animals like antelopes, zebra, asses, foxes, rodents,
reptiles, and insects.
Flora of Grasslands
The landscape is dominated by widespread grasses and drought-resistant thorny trees in the
tropical regions. The flora is diverse and is adapted to the unique environmental conditions
like soil type, precipitation and adverse climatic conditions. Some of the common flora found
in the ecosystem are:
Grasses – Different type of grasses like tallgrass, shortgrass, savana grasses are found in the
ecosystem.
Wild flowers- The grassland ecosystem are known for the display of seasonal wildflowers
like coneflowers, asters and sunflowers.
Legumes – Plants of the legume family like clovers, lupines and these are important as they
fix atmospheric nitrogen and enrich the soil.
Shrubs – In Savanna’s shrubs like sagebrush, acacias are common and these are adapted to
survive in dry conditions.
Trees – Trees can be found in areas with more water some of them are baobab and acacia.
Fauna of Grasslands
The diverse plant species in the grassland ecosystem supports a wide array of animal species,
these offer vital habitats for animals by offering food, shelter and breeding grounds. The
fauna of the ecosystem includes:
Mammals- large herbivores like elephants, giraffes, zebras, antelopes roam around the
savannas. In North America bison and pronghorn are seen and carnivores like lions, hyenas,
cheetahs are common in the grasslands.
Birds – many bird species are adapted to the grassland ecosystem for nesting grounds. Some
of the birds are eagles, haws, owls, prairie chickens and bustards.

Functions of the Grassland Ecosystem

  The grassland ecosystem performs a variety of functions that benefit the overall
environment and also the wildlife and human population. Some of the main functions
of the grassland ecosystem are:
 The grasses primarily convert the sunlight into energy through photosynthesis and this
ensures the flow of energy in the food chain
 The plants help in fixing the nutrients from the atmosphere to the soil like nitrogen
and carbon dioxide.
 The grassland provides an essential habitat for various species like herbivores,
carnivores, birds, insects, and reptiles. They mainly rely on food, shelter and breeding.
 Livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats use these grasslands as grazing grounds.
 The deep roots of the grass help the soil to bind together and reduce the soil erosion
caused by water and wind. The grassland acts as a buffer for soil and prevents
sedimentation in water bodies.
 The grasses help to filter and purify the water as it percolates through the soil and
maintains the water quality in rivers and aquifers.
Economic Importance of Grasslands
The grassland ecosystem has various economic benefits like crop production, meat
production, agriculture, tourism, and recreation.

 Agriculture and livestock grazing – Grassland offers pasture for livestock that are
used meat and dairy industry. It provides fodder for cattle, sheep, goats, and other
animals that are essential for livelihood in many parts of the world.
 Wildlife conservation– the grassland ecosystem plays an important role in the
conservation of wildlife as it provides the required habitats for various species and
also serves as a critical stopover for many migratory birds as it offers a rich feeding
grounds for the birds to refuel for their long migrations. Though many threats exist to
the grassland ecosystem it supports unique plant and animal communities. Many
animals species are getting endangered due to habitat fragmentation but the grassland
ecosystem helps to conserve them.
 Livestock Grazing- livestock such as cattle, sheep, and goats use these grasslands as
grazing grounds.

Threats to Grassland Ecosystem and its Conservation

The grassland ecosystem covers a significant portion of the earth’s surface and it is very
important for carbon storage, biodiversity, and human livelihood. These grasslands face
threats that can impact biodiversity. some of the key threats include:
 Overgrazing – If the number of livestock is more than the capacity of the grassland it
can lead to soil erosion, reduction in plant species, soil compaction, and degradation
of land.
 Agriculture expansion – The conversion of grasslands to agricultural lands and
pastures is a major threat as it leads to the loss of habitat, disruption of the ecosystem,
and decreased biodiversity.
  Urbanization – Expansion of urban areas into grasslands reduces the size of the
ecosystem, alters the climate and water cycle, and fragments habitats.
 Climate Change – Increased temperature, altered precipitation patterns, and extreme
climate changes can affect the ecosystem by affecting plant growth and reducing
water availability and species distribution.
 Land Degradation – Soil erosion, compaction, and nutrient depletion reduce the
productivity of the land and further affect plant growth and biodiversity.
 Pollution– Chemicals from agricultural lands, industrial discharges and urban waste
contaminate the soil and water and it affects plant growth.
Desert Ecosystem
A desert ecosystem is a type of biome characterized by low precipitation levels and xeric
vegetation. These ecosystems typically receive less than 250 millimeters of rainfall annually.
A desert ecosystem is characterized by scanty rainfall, arid climate, extreme
temperatures, and scarce vegetation. The desert plants and animals have specialized
features that help prevent dehydration and resist the temperature extremes of their habitat.
There are two types of deserts found in the world – hot deserts and cold deserts. Hot deserts
experience extremely high temperatures whereas cold deserts experience extremely low
temperatures and even permafrosts.
Hot desert ecosystem examples of plants and animals include cactus, wildflowers, date
palms, camel, kangaroo rats, etc. Common examples of plants and animals living in cold
deserts include arctic willow, arctic fern, polar bears, llamas, arctic fox, etc.

Desert Ecosystem Characteristics

Some of the characteristics of the desert ecosystem are:
  Arid Environment: Deserts have less rainfall 25 -30cm annually) and high
temperatures creating dry conditions.
 Sparse Vegetation: Due to the lack of water, vegetation is sparse and is adapted to
conserve water.
 Adapted Wildlife: Desert animals have evolved to survive harsh conditions. Features
such as water-conserving adaptations and nocturnal activity have been adopted.
 Limited Water Sources: Deserts have few water sources, such as oases, intermittent
streams, and underground aquifers which are crucial for survival.
 Extreme Temperature Variations: Days are scorching hot, while nights can be very
cold due to no cloud cover and insulation.
 High Wind Velocity: Strong winds in deserts lead to erosion, shaping unique
landforms like sand dunes.
 Specialized Adaptations: Desert organisms have specialized features like long roots,
thick skin, and heat-reflecting coatings to cope with the harsh environment.
 Absence of Water Vapour: The air is very dry as there is no water vapour in the air.
Types of Desert Ecosystems
There are two types of deserts ecosystem found in the world: hot and cold deserts. The
primary difference between these two types of deserts is their temperature. The hot deserts
have exceptionally higher temperatures whereas cold deserts experience extremely low
temperatures at some point of day and even snowfall.

Hot and Dry Desert – Sahara Desert

The Sahara Desert, one of the hottest and largest deserts in the world that spans across North
Africa, and countries like Egypt, Morocco, Mali, Chad, Niger, Western Sahara, Sudan,
Mauritania, Libya, Algeria. and Tunisia. It is characterized by vast stretches of sand dunes,
rocky plateaus, and sparse vegetation.
The Sahara
experiences extreme temperatures, with scorching heats often exceeding 49°C during the day.
The nights in Sahara are extremely cold and the temperature can drop to freezing point.
Rainfall is scarce and sporadic. Despite its harsh conditions, the Sahara is home to unique
flora and fauna including camels, desert foxes, and drought-resistant plants like acacia trees
and cacti.
Features of Hot and Dry Deserts
Hot and dry deserts are desert ecosystems characterized by high temperatures and arid
conditions. Some key features of hot deserts are listed below:
1. High Temperature: Hot deserts experience extreme temperatures, with scorching
daytime heat and cooler nighttime. Daytime temperatures can often exceed 100°F
(38°C) or more.
2. Low Precipitation: These deserts receive minimal rainfall, often less than 250
millimeters (10 inches) annually. Some hot deserts, like the Sahara in Africa and the
Sonoran in North America, can be extremely arid.
3. Sandy Soil: Sandy Soil dominate the desert ecosystem. Sandunes are characteristic
feature of a desert biome. These dunes can vary in size and play a role in the
ecosystem by providing habitats for specialized plant and animal species.
4. Xeric Adaptations: All plants and animals in hot desert are adapted to survive high
temperature and dry environment. These adaptations include succulent leaves,
reduced surface areas, padded feet, reduced sweat pores. etc.
Cold and Dry Desert – Ladakh
Ladakh is an example of cold desert in India. It is located in the highest ranges of Himalayas
and is characterized by barren, rocky terrain, with sparse vegetation and occasional patches of
snow.

Ladakh experiences extreme cold temperatures for most time of the year but the winters are
particularly harsh, with temperatures going below freezing, often reaching as low as -30°C. It
receives minimal precipitation, primarily in the form of snow during the winter months.
Ladakh supports a unique ecosystem, including hardy wildlife such as snow leopards, ibex,
and marmots. However, the vegetations only includes short shrubs that grow during short
summers.
Features of Cold and Dry Desert
Cold deserts are also known as temperate deserts. These are unique ecosystems characterized
by low temperatures and arid conditions. Some key features of cold deserts are as follows:
1. Varying Temperatures Reaching to the Freezing point: Cold deserts experience a
wider range of temperatures compared to hot deserts. While daytime temperatures can be
relatively warm, the nights are often cold, with temperatures dropping below freezing
points.
2. Low Precipitation: Similar to hot deserts, cold deserts receive minimal rainfall, often
less than 250 millimeters (10 inches) annually.
3. Soil Composition: Cold desert soils are often sandy or gravelly and have low organic
matter content.
4. Snowfall: Some cold deserts experience snowfall during the winter months. The presence
of snow can provide additional moisture to the ecosystem, influencing the life cycles of
plants and animals.
5. Vegetation: Cold desert plants have adapted to withstand both low temperatures and
water scarcity.
6. Animal Adaptations: Cold desert animals have evolved strategies to cope with
temperature extremes and limited water availability.
Adaptation of Plants and Animals in Hot Deserts
Plants and animals in hot deserts have evolved a variety of adaptations to survive the extreme
temperatures, arid conditions, and scarcity of water. Examples of hot desert plants and
animals are:
Hot Desert Plants: Prickly Pear Cactus, Saguaro Cactus, and Date Palm.
Hot Desert Animals: Camel, Fennec Fox, and Sidewinder Rattlesnake.
Adaptation of Plants and Animals in Cold Deserts
The organisms in Cold deserts have adaptations that help them to conserve body heat and
escape dehydration due to the cold and dry environment. Examples of cold desert plants and
animals are:
Cold Desert Plants: Arctic Willow, Arctic Poppy.
Cold Desert Animals: Polar Bear, Mountain Goat.
Features and Desert Habitats
Desert habitats are characterized by sparse vegetation, extreme temperatures, and minimal
precipitation. They often have unique geological formations such as sand dunes, rock
formations, and salt flats. Adaptations among desert organisms include water-conserving
mechanisms, nocturnal activity patterns, and specialized anatomical features for heat
tolerance. Even though they are difficult to survive in, deserts are habitat to a great variety of
life forms, from hardy cacti and succulents to specialized insects, reptiles, and mammals that
evolved to survive in these harsh conditions.
Importance of Desert Ecosystem
Importance of desert ecosystem are:
 Deserts are rich in unique species adapted to extreme conditions, contributing to
global biodiversity.
 Despite their harshness, deserts help regulate global climate by sequestering carbon
dioxide and influencing atmospheric circulation.
 Desert vegetation stabilizes soil, preventing erosion and facilitating groundwater
recharge, essential for local water supplies.
 Deserts hold cultural heritage sites and resources essential for indigenous peoples,
promoting community and identity.
 Desert regions support tourism, agriculture, mining, and renewable energy
production, driving economic growth and development.
Aquatic ecosystems
Types of Aquatic Ecosystems and their Adaptations: Aquatic ecosystem is the water-
based counterpart of the terrestrial ecosystem. It is the ecosystem that exists in and around a
water body. Although all living organisms are directly or indirectly dependent on water for
their survival irrespective of their ecosystem or biome, certain organisms are completely
dependent on water as it is their niche or habitat. Such organisms with water bodies as their
niche or habitat are called aquatic organisms.
It is a water-based ecosystem in which different water-based organisms interact with other
biotic and abiotic components surrounding them. These water-based organisms are
completely dependent on their water-based environment for their food, shelter, reproduction,
and other requirements or services. However, the capability of the ecosystem to sustain life
will be dependent on the water’s physiochemical characteristics, its quantity of dissolved
sediments, levels of dissolved nutrients, etc. factors.

Characteristics of Aquatic Ecosystem

Following are the characteristics of the Aquatic ecosystem;
1. Composed of water i.e. either freshwater or saltwater.
2. Should provide a habitat for a variety of aquatic organisms.
3. The aquatic vegetation or flora should consist of algae and corals.
4. Should be a more or less self-sustained ecosystem.
5. They should be the most productive ecosystem of the plant.
6. They should help and regulate maintaining the hydrological cycle.
7. They should function as pollution filters.
Factors Affecting the Aquatic Ecosystem
The following are the factors that affect the aquatic ecosystem:
1. The extent of distribution of producers depends on the depth at which light can
penetrate i.e. the area which has ambient amount of light will have high numbers of
producers.
2. The normal concentration of dissolved oxygen in a water body should be 10 ppm by
weight or more. If the level goes below 3-4 ppm then the aquatic organisms start to
die.
3. Minor changes in the normal temperatures of the water bodies may pose a threat to
the survival of aquatic organisms as they have a very narrow tolerance range for
temperature.

Freshwater Ecosystem
The type of water ecosystem in which the water has a salt concentration of less than 5 ppt. is
called the freshwater ecosystem. This ecosystem covers only 2% of the total water cover of
the planet but is the form of water that is required by the terrestrial organisms also along with
the aquatic organisms found in it. It is further divided into;
1. Lentic ecosystem (lacustrine ecosystem): The freshwater ecosystem that includes
water bodies that are static or still like lakes, and ponds. This type of ecosystem
consists of floating or rooted plants and algae as vegetation. Water animals like
shrimps, crabs, and some varieties of fish are found. Other than these land animals
like snakes, alligators, crocodiles, and amphibians like frogs, and salamanders are also
found.
2. Lotic ecosystems (riverine ecosystem): The freshwater ecosystem includes water
bodies with rapid flow of water like streams and rivers. They have phytoplankton
along with insects like beetles, mayflies, etc., and other species like dolphins, eel,
trout, otters, etc.
3. Swamps and Wetlands: The freshwater ecosystem that is partially or fully covered
by water like marshes, swamps, and bogs. These areas house wide varieties of
organisms like black spruce, water lilies, dragonflies, green heron, northern pike,
crocodiles, etc.
Marine Ecosystem
The type of water ecosystem in which the water has a salt concentration of 35 ppt. or above is
called a marine ecosystem or saltwater ecosystem. This ecosystem covers 98% of the total
water cover of the planet. It has some unique life forms which have adapted to the high salt
concentrations. It is further divided into;
1. Ocean ecosystem: Oceans cover more than 70% of the earth’s surface. There are five
oceans present i.e. the Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Arctic Ocean,
and Southern Ocean. Out of these, the Pacific Ocean is the largest and the deepest
followed by the Atlantic Ocean. Oceans are home to a variety of species like; algae,
plankton, crustaceans, corals, sharks, whales, etc.
2. Estuaries: It is the meeting point of a freshwater body and a saltwater body. The
water has more salt concentration as compared to freshwater bodies but is diluted as
compared to saltwater bodies. These areas receive large quantities of plant nutrients
and usually have ambient sunlight so they are more productive due to large quantities
of primary producers.
3. Coral reefs: These are formed by the dead remains of the coral polyps that form a
shell-like covering of calcium carbonate which after their death forms a network with
other such empty shells. This network forms a colony-like arrangement where various
kinds of aquatic organisms take shelter. These are found in coastal areas where the
water is warm, shallow, clear, receives ambient sunlight, and houses many aquatic
organisms. Coral reefs are considered the rainforest of the aquatic system as they are
home to the majority of marine biodiversity.
4. Coastal ecosystem: The connecting point between land and water is called the coastal
region. These regions have a diverse form of habitats in which the bottom regions are
dominated by the huge range of algae, and aquatic plants. The animal species consists
mainly of arthropods like insects, crabs, lobsters, etc. along with snails, fishes, etc.
Significance of Aquatic Ecosystem
 They are the major source of oxygen and are responsible for the huge amounts of
carbon removal from the atmosphere. So, the health of the aquatic ecosystem is very
critical for the planet.
 They are home to a huge number of biodiversity acting as valuable biodiversity
reservoirs.
 Water is essential for the survival of the biodiversity present in the land also.
 They also help in regulating the earth’s temperature and seasons.
 Aquatic organisms are a huge source of food for terrestrial animals along with
humans.
 They help in nutrient cycling, replenishing groundwater, and providing habitats, and
recreational opportunities.
Introduction to biodiversity definition: genetic, species and ecosystem diversity
• Biodiversity can be defined as a community of all the living organisms on the earth
and the diversity among them from all the ecosystems.
• It is the variability between the species, within the species, and between the
ecosystem
• The term biodiversity was coined by Walter G. Rosen in the year 1986.
• Biodiversity holds ecological and economic significance.
• It provides us with nourishment, housing, fuel, clothing, and several other resources.
• It also extracts monetary benefits through tourism.
• Therefore, it is very important to have a good knowledge of biodiversity for a
sustainable livelihood
Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity plays a major role in maintaining the ecological balance of the ecosystem. It
refers to the number of different species belonging to a particular region. In biodiversity, each
species has a major role to play in the ecosystem.
1. Ecological Role of Biodiversity
Apart from providing ecological balance to the environment, each species of biodiversity has
a major function to play in the ecosystem. They play a major role in the production and
decomposition of organic wastes, fixing atmospheric gases, and regulation of water and
nutrients throughout the ecosystem. The stability of the ecosystem increases with the
diversity of the species.
2. Economical Role of Biodiversity
Biodiversity acts as a source of energy and has a major role in providing raw materials for
industrial products such as oils, lubricants, perfumes, dyes, paper, waxes, rubber, etc. The
importance of plant species for various medicinal use has been known for ages. According to
reports, more than 70 % of the anti-cancer drugs are derived from plants in the tropical
rainforests.
 3. Scientific Role of Biodiversity
Each species of the ecosystem contributes to providing enough evidence as to how life
evolved on this planet and the role of each species in maintaining the sustainability of the
ecosystem.
Types of Biodiversity
Biodiversity can be categorized into three main types:
1) Genetic Diversity (Diversity within species)
2) Species Diversity (Diversity between species)
3) Ecosystem Diversity (Diversity between ecosystem)
i. Genetic Diversity
Every individual of a particular species differs from each other in its genetic makeup. This
genetic variability among the members of any plant or animal species is known as genetic
diversity. When two individuals are closely related, they share more genetic information and
hence, are more similar.
ii. Species Diversity
Species diversity can be defined as the variety of species within a particular region or habitat.
This type of diversity can be found in both the natural ecosystem and agricultural ecosystem.
There are more than 85,000 flowering plant species in tropical North and South America,
tropical and subtropical Asia has more than 50,000 flowering plants whereas, there are only
35,000 flowering plant species in tropical and subtropical Africa. But, Europe has around
11,300 vascular plants. Also, other areas, such as salt flats or a polluted stream, have fewer
species.
iii. Ecosystem Diversity
There is a large diversity of different ecosystems that have distinctive species. This
ecosystem varies with each other as per their habitats and the difference in their species. This
ecosystem diversity can be found within a specific geographical region or a country or a state.
This type of diversity also includes forests, grasslands, deserts, and mountains.
Loss of Biodiversity
Loss of biodiversity is the decrease in the number of a particular species in a certain habitat.
Loss of biodiversity also leads to the extinction of the plant and animal species and this loss
can be either reversible or permanent.
Human activities have been the major cause of the loss of biodiversity which has led to
sudden changes in climate causing a big threat to biodiversity. There has also been an
increased demand for natural resources along with the growing population leading to greater
waste generation.
Causes of Loss of Biodiversity
Some of the major causes that have resulted in the loss of biodiversity are mentioned below:
 The natural habitat of the ecosystem plays a major role in maintaining the ecological
balance. Several trees are cut down every year for the construction of industries,
highways, settlement,s and so on to fulfill the human demands. As a result, the species
become the target of predation and eventually dies.
 Hunting of the wild animals for commercialization of their products has been a major
reason for the loss of biodiversity. Since the year 2013, more than 90 rhinos were
killed by the poachers for their horns and as per the records of 2016, 9 Indian Rhinos
have been killed in Kaziranga National Park of Assam.
 The exploitation of the medicinal plants for several laboratory purposes has resulted
in the extinction of these species. Also, several animals are sacrificed for various
research in science and medicine.
 Natural calamities like floods, earthquakes, forest fires also lead to the loss of
biodiversity.
 Air pollution has a major role in the loss of biodiversity. Rapid cutting down of the
trees has resulted in the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere leading to
climate change. As a result, there has been an increase in the land and ocean
temperature leaving an inimical impact on species.
Value Of Biodiversity: Consumptive Use, Productive Use, Social, Ethical, Aesthetic And
Option Values
Biodiversity value may be classified as follows:
1. Consumptive use Value:
These are direct use values where the biodiversity products can be harvested and consumed
directly e.g. fuel, food, drugs, fibre etc.
(a) Food:
A large number of wild plants are consumed by human beings as food. About 80,000 edible
plant species have been reported from the wild. About 90% of present-day food crops have
been domesticated from wild tropical plants.
(b) Drugs and medicines:
About 75% of the world’s population depends upon plants or plant extracts for medicines.
The wonder drug Penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived from a fungus called Penicillium.
Likewise, we get Tetracycline from a bacterium. Quinine, the cure for malaria is obtained
from the bark of Cinchona tree, while Digitalin is obtained from foxglove (Digitalis) which is
an effective cure for heart ailments.
Recently Vinblastine and Vincristine, two anticancer drugs, have been obtained from
Periwinkle (Catharanthus) plant, which possesses anticancer alkaloids. A large number of
marine animals are supposed to possess anti-cancer properties which are yet to be explored
systematically.
(c) Fuel:
Our forests have been used since ages for fuel wood. The fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and
natural gas are also products of fossilized biodiversity. Firewood collected by individuals is
not normally marketed, but are directly consumed by tribes and local villagers, hence falls
under consumptive value.
2. Productive use Values:
These are the commercially usable values where the product is marketed and sold. It may
include number of wild gene resources that can be traded for use by scientists for introducing
desirable traits in the crops and domesticated animals.
These may include the animal products like tusks of elephants, musk from musk deer, silk
from silkworm, wool from sheep, fir of many animals, lac from lac insects etc, all of which
are traded in the market. Many industries are dependent upon the productive use values of
biodiversity e.g. the paper industry, plywood industry, railway sleeper industry, silk industry,
textile industry, ivory-works, leather industry, pearl industry etc.
3. Social Value:
These are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion and psycho-spiritual
aspects of the people. Many of the plants are considered holy and sacred in our country like
Tulsi (holy basil), Peepal, Mango, Lotus, Bael etc. The leaves, fruits or flowers of these
plants are used in worship.
Thus social life, songs, dances and customs are closely woven around the wildlife. Many
animals like cow, snake, bull, peacock, owl etc. also have significant place in our psycho-
spiritual arena and thus hold special importance. Thus, biodiversity has distinct social value,
attached with different societies.
4. Ethical Value:
It is also sometimes known as existence value. It involves ethical issues like “all life must be
preserved”. It is based on the concept of “Live and Let Live”. If we want our human race to
survive, then we must protect all biodiversity, because biodiversity is valuable.
The ethical value means that we may or may not use a species, but knowing the very fact that
this species exists in nature gives us pleasure. We all feel sorry when we learn that
“passenger pigeon’ or “dodo” is no more on this earth. We are not deriving anything direct
from kangaroo, zebra or giraffe, but we all strongly feel that these species should exist in
nature. This means, there is an ethical value or existence value attached to each species.
5. Aesthetic Value:
Great aesthetic value is attached to biodiversity. No one of us would like to visit vast
stretches of barren lands with no signs of visible life. People from far and wide spend a lot of
time and money to visit wilderness area where they can enjoy the aesthetic value of
biodiversity and this type of tourism is now known as eco-tourism.
The “willingness to pay” concept of such eco- tourism gives us even a monetary benefit for
aesthetic value of biodiversity. Eco-tourism is estimated to generate 12 billion dollars of
revenue annually that roughly gives the aesthetic value of biodiversity.
6. Option Values:
These values include the potentials of biodiversity that are presently unknown and need to be
explored. There is a possibility that we may have some potential cure of AIDS or cancer
existing within the depths of marine ecosystem, or a tropical rainforests.
Thus option value is the value of knowing that there are biological resources existing on this
biosphere that may one day prove to be an effective option for something important in the
future. Thus, the option value of biodiversity suggests that any species may prove to be a
miracle species some day.
The biodiversity is like precious gifts of nature presented to us. We should not commit the
folly of losing these gifts even before unwrapping them. The option value also includes the
values, in term of the option to visit areas where a variety of flora and fauna, or specifically
some endemic, rare or endangered species exist.
7. Ecosystem Service Value:
Recently, a non-consumptive use value related to self maintenance of the ecosystem and
various important ecosystem services has been recognized. It refers to the services provided
by ecosystems like prevention of soil erosion, prevention of floods, maintenance of soil
fertility, cycling of nutrients, fixation of nitrogen, cycling of water, their role as carbon sinks,
pollutant absorption and reduction of the threat of global warming etc.
Biogeographical Classification Of India
India's biogeographic classification is a division of the country based on biogeographic
characteristics. India has a rich heritage of natural diversity. Among the top 17 megadiverse
countries in the world, India ranks fourth in Asia and tenth globally. The study of the
distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographical space and over
geological time is known as biogeography. India has ten biogeographical zones

1) Trans-Himalayan Region
 It accounts for 5.6% of the total
geographical area.
 Indian part of it includes the high
altitude, cold, and arid mountain
areas of
o Ladakh,
o Jammu and Kashmir,
o North Sikkim,
o Lahaul,
o Spiti areas of Himachal
Pradesh.
 This zone has sparse alpine steppe
vegetation that supports several
endemic species and is a suitable
habitat for the world's largest
populations of wild sheep and goats,
as well as other rare fauna such as the
Snow Leopard and the migratory
Blacknecked Crane (Grus nigricollis).
 This zone's cold, dry desert is an extremely vulnerable ecosyste

2) Himalayan Zone
 It accounts for 6.4% of the total geographical area and contains some of the highest
peaks in the world.
 The Himalayan zone makes India one of the richest areas in terms of habitats and
species.
 Location: East, northwest, west, and central Himalayas
 The alpine and subalpine forests, grassy meadows, and moist mixed deciduous forests
provide diverse habitat for endangered bovid species such as Bharal (Pseudois
 nayaur), Ibex (Capra ibex), Markhor (Capra falconeri), Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus
jemlabicus), and Takin (Budoreas taxicolor).
 Other rare and endangered species restricted to this zone include Hangul (Cervus eldi
eldi) and Musk Deer (Moschus moschiferus).
3) Indian Desert Zone
 The extremely arid region west of the Aravalli hill range, which includes both
Gujarat's salty desert and Rajasthan's sand desert.
 The Indian desert forms India's northern boundary, encompassing primarily the
western and northwestern regions of Rajasthan, as well as a portion of the Kachchh
region of Gujarat in the southwest.
 It is 350-450 metres above sea level in the east at the Aravalli range, 100 metres in the
south and west, and 20 metres in the Rann of Kachchh.
 It has large expanses of grassland that support several endangered species of
mammals such as Wolf (Canis lupus), Caracal (Felis caracal), Desert Cat (Felis
libyca), and birds of conservation interest such as Houbara Bustard (Chamydotis
undulate) and the Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps).
4) Semi-arid Zone
 The semi-arid region accounts for 16.6% of the total geographical area.
 It is a transition zone between the desert and the dense forests of the Western Ghats.
 Peninsular India has two large semi-arid regions. This semi-arid region also has
several artificial and natural lakes, as well as marshy lands.
 This zone includes the Punjab plains, Delhi, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir's fringes,
Himachal Pradesh's western edges, eastern Rajasthan, eastern Gujarat, and northwest
Madhya Pradesh.
 The area is distinguished by discontinuous vegetation blanketed with bare soil and
soil water that is in short supply all year.
 The dominant grass and palatable shrub layer in this zone supports the most wildlife
biomass.
 In Western India, the Semi-arid zone is characterised by savannah woodland, dry
deciduous forest, and tropical thorn forest.
 The heart of this zone is the Aravalli System, which is home to two types of
vegetation: tropical dry deciduous forest and tropical thorn forest.
 The cervid species Sambar (Cervus unicolor) and Chital (Axis axis) are restricted to
better wooded hills and moister valley areas, respectively.
 The Lion (Panthera leo leo), an endangered carnivore species (restricted to a small
area in Gujarat), Caracal (Felis caracal), Jackal (Canis aureus), and Wolf (Canis
lupus) are among the endangered species found in this region
5) Western Ghats
 The Western Ghats account for 4% of the total geographical area.
 It is one of India's major tropical evergreen forest regions.
 The Western Ghats zone is one of the world's 25 biodiversity 'hotspots' and one of
India's major tropical evergreen forested regions, with enormous plant diversity.
 The Western Ghats run along the west coast of peninsular India from the Tapti river
in the north to Kanyakumari in the south, passing through the states of Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
 The region is home to nearly 4000 species of flowering plants, accounting for nearly
27% of India's total flora. Over 1500 of these species are endemic.
 The Western Ghats region is a significant genetic estate with a diverse array of
ancient lineages.
 The Western Ghats are home to viable populations of most of the vertebrate species
found in peninsular India, as well as an endemic faunal element.
 Nilgiri Langur (Presbytis jobni), Lion Tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus), Grizzled
Giant Squirrel (Ratufa macroura), Malabar Civet (Viverricula megaspila), Nilgiri
Tahr (Hemitragus bylocrius), and Malabar Grey Hornbill (Ocycerous griseus) are all
endemic to this region.
 The Travancore Tortoise (Indotestudo forstem) and Cane Turtle (Heosemys silvatica)
are two endangered species found only in a small area of the central Western Ghats.
6) Deccan Plateau
 The Deccan Plateau is India's largest biogeographic region, accounting for 42% of the
total geographical area.
 It is a semi-arid region located in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats.
 The zone is relatively homogeneous, with climates ranging from semi-arid to moist-
deciduous/semi-evergreen.
 This bio-geographic zone of peninsular India is by far the most extensive, covering
India's finest forests, particularly in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and
Odisha.
 The Vindhya and Satpura hill ranges, the Chhota Nagpur Plateau, the Eastern Ghats,
the Tamil Nadu Plains, and the Karnataka Plateau are all part of the central highlands.
The Vindhya and Satpura hill ranges are famous for their diverse flora.
 The majority of the forests are deciduous, but there are areas of greater biological
diversity in the hill ranges. The zone, which includes deciduous forests, thorn forests,
and degraded scrubland, is home to a variety of wildlife species.
 Species found in this region include:
o Chital (Axis axis), Sambar (Cervus unicolor), Nilgai (Boselapbus tragocamelus),
Chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis), Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), Gaur
(Antilope cervicapra), Elephant (Elephas maximus) in Bihar-Orissa and
Karnataka-Tamil Nadu belts.
o Wild Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in a small area near the border of Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
o The hard ground Swamp Deer (Cervus duvauceli), which is now restricted to a
single locality in Madhya Pradesh
7) Gangetic Plain
 The Gangetic Plain accounts for about 10.8 percent of the total geographical area. The
Gangetic plain is topographically homogeneous for hundreds of kilometers.
 The Gangetic divide, the Upper Gangetic Plain, the Middle Gangetic Plain, and the
Lower Gangetic Plain are all part of this zone.
 This zone, which stretches from eastern Rajasthan through Uttar Pradesh to Bihar and
West Bengal, is mostly agricultural and has a dense human population.
 The Gangetic plain encompasses the Terai-Bhabar tracts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and
West Bengal.
 Teak, Shisham, Sal, Khair, and other trees from these forests have some of the highest
population densities and topographic uniformity.
 This region's fauna includes the Rhinoceros unicornis, Elephant (Elephas maximus),
Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), Swamp Deer (Cervus duvauceli), Hog-Deer (Axis
porcinus), and Hispid Hare (Carprolagus bispidus).
8) North East Region
 The North East Region accounts for 5.2 percent of the total geographical area.
 This region is a transition zone between the Indian, Indo-Malayan, and Indo-Chinese
bio-geographical regions, as well as a meeting point for the Himalayan mountains and
Peninsular India.
 The North-East is thus a biogeographical 'gateway' for much of India's fauna and
flora, as well as a biodiversity hotspot (Eastern Himalaya).
 Many of the species that contribute to this biological diversity are either restricted to
the region itself or to smaller localised areas of the Khasi Hills.
9) Islands
 This zone, which accounts for 0.3% of India's total geographical area, is one of the
three tropical moist evergreen forest zones.
 The islands are home to unique flora and fauna. These islands are high endemism
hotspots, with some of India's finest evergreen forests and a diverse range of corals.
 The islands are divided into two major groups: the Lakshadweep Islands and the
Andaman Islands.

Andaman Islands
❖ The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a 348-island group in the Bay of Bengal that
runs north-south.
❖ The Andaman Islands are about 190 kilometres from the nearest point on the
mainland, Cape Negrais in Burma.
❖ The Great Andaman (300 km long) is made up of five islands that are close together,
with the Little Andaman to the south.
❖ The Nicobar groups of islands are separated from the Andamans and from one
another by 800 m deep channels.
 ❖ Some of the endemic fauna of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands include the
Narcondam hornbill and the South Andaman krait.
Lakshadweep Islands
❖ The Lakshadweep Islands are a group of 27 small islands located in the Arabian Sea.
They are 320 kilometres from Kerala's coast.
❖ The Lakshadweep is made up of 25 coral islets with a typical reef lagoon system rich
in biodiversity. However, the densely populated Lakshadweep islands have almost no
natural vegetation.
10)Coastal Region
 The coastal region accounts for 2.5 percent of total geographical area, and its
sandy beaches, mangroves, mud flats, coral reefs, and marine angiosperm pastures
make it India's wealth and health zone.
 The coastline from Gujarat to the Sunderbans is estimated to be 5,423 kilometres
long.

Ecological Problems of These Regions

1. Loss of Species and Biomass: Human activities are responsible for the majority of
threats to species, sites, and habitats.
2. Changes in Climatic Conditions: When a forest is cut and burned to make way for
cropland and pastures, the carbon stored in the tree trunks combines with oxygen and
is released into the atmosphere as CO2. This amplifies the greenhouse effect and
contributes to rising global temperatures.
3. Drying up of rivers and aquifers: Rivers and aquifers are drying up as a result of
increased forest removal. Reduced rainfall reduces the percolation of water in the
underground, lowering the levels of the underground water-table.
4. Floods and Droughts: As CO2 levels rise in the atmosphere, temperatures rise,
resulting in floods and droughts. Water evaporates quickly as a result of the high
temperature. Eroded soil that lacks vegetative cover cannot retain moisture for long.
As a result, this causes droughts.
 5. Desertification: The continuous expansion of deserts into previously semi-arid regions
is a serious manifestation of the long-term effects of land degradation and intensive
soil erosion.
6. Rapid melting of glaciers: This is a result of global warming, which is depleting the
sources of fresh water for our rivers and streams that flow from the Himalayan ranges.
Biodiversity at global, national and local levels
Global Level:
Conservative estimates of the existing biodiversity is ten million species, but if estimates for
insects are correct then it could be around 30 million species, we have till now enlisted about
1.4 million species. It includes among others about 98% birds, 95% reptiles and amphibians,
90% fish and about 85% higher plants known to exist on this Earth

National and Local Level:

India has over 108,276 species of bacteria, fungi, plants and animals already identified and
described (Table 4.2). Out of these, 84 percent species constitute fungi (21.2 percent),
flowering plants (13.9 percent), and insect (49.3 percent). In terms of the number of species,
the insecta alone constitute nearly half of the biodiversity in India

These species occur on land, fresh and marine waters, or occur as symbionts in mutualistic or
parasitic state with other organisms. In the world as a whole, 16, 04,000 species of Monera,
Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia have been described so far. However, it is estimated
that at least 179, 80,000 species exist in the world, but as a working figure 122, 50,000
species are considered to be near reality. Percentage of Different Biota in India

India is 10th among the plant rich countries of the world, fourth among the Asian countries,
eleventh according to the number of endemic species of higher vertebrates (amphibia, birds
and mammals), and tenth in the world as far as richness in mammals is concerned. Out of the
10 ‘Hot spots’ identified in the world, India has four. These are Eastern Himalaya, North East
India, Western Ghats and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
The crops which first grew in India and spread throughout the world include rice, sugarcane,
Asiatic vignas, jute, mango, citrus, and banana, several species of millets, spices, medicinal,
aromatics and ornamentals. India ranks sixth among the centres of diversity and origin in
terms of agro-biodiversity.
India as a mega-diversity nation
India has 350 different mammalian species (ranked eighth in the world), 1,200 bird species
(ranked eighth in the world), 453 reptile species (ranked fifth in the world), and 45,000 plant
species, the majority of which are angiosperms (fifteenth in the world).
• Ferns (1022 species) and orchids have particularly high species diversity (1082 species).
• India is home to 50,000 insect species, including 13,000 butterflies and moths. The
number of unknown species is estimated to be several times higher.
• It is estimated that 18 per cent of Indian plants are endemic to the country, meaning they
can only be found there.
• Flowering plants have a much higher degree of endemism than other plant species, with a
third of them being found nowhere else on the planet.
• 62 per cent of the amphibians found in India are unique to the country. In the case of
lizards, 50 per cent of the 153 species found are endemic. Insects, marine worms, centipedes,
mayflies, and freshwater sponges have all been found to have high endemism.
• Aside from the high biodiversity of Indian wild plants and animals, the country also has a
wide range of cultivated crops and livestock breeds. This is the result of the Indian
subcontinent's civilizations evolving and flourishing over thousands of years.
• Rice varieties ranging from 30,000 to 50,000, as well as cereals, vegetables, and fruit,
were among the traditional cultivars. The highest diversity of cultivars can be found in the
Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Northern Himalayas, and North-Eastern hills, which receive a
lot of rain.
• Over 34,000 cereals and 22,000 pulses grown in India have been collected by gene banks.
India has 27 indigenous cattle breeds, 40 sheep breeds, 22 goat breeds, and 8 buffalo breeds.
The forests of the Northeast and the Western Ghats, which are among the world's most bio-
diverse areas, are our internationally recognized national "hot spots."
• Many subspecies of different animals and birds have evolved on the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, which are extremely rich in species. Large proportions of endemic species,
or those found only in India, are concentrated in these three areas.
• There are 2200 species of flowering plants and 120 species of ferns in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands alone.
• In India, 85 (63%) of the 135 land mammal genera are found in the Northeast.
• There are 1,500 endemic plant species in the Northeast States.
• The Western Ghats are home to a large number of amphibian and reptile species,
particularly snakes, as well as over 1,500 endemic plant species.
• Coral reefs surround the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep Islands, and
the Gulf areas of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu in Indian waters. They are nearly as diverse as
tropicalevergreen forests in terms of species!
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS- INTRODUCTION
• In 1988, British biologist Norman Myers coined the term "biodiversity hotspot" to
describe a biogeographic region with both high levels of plant endemism and significant
habitat loss.
• Myers added eight more hotspots in 1990, including four Mediterranean-style ecosystems.
In 1989, Conservation International (CI) adopted Myers' hotspots as its institutional blueprint.
• The biodiversity of the planet is divided into ecological zones. The world is divided into
over a thousand major ecoregions.
• The richest, rarest, and most distinctive natural areas are said to be 200 of them. The
Global 200 is a term used to describe these areas. 50,000 endemic plants, accounting for 20%
of all plant life on the planet, are thought to be found in only 18 "hot spots" around the globe.
• Mega diversity nations are countries with a high proportion of these hotspots of diversity
• The rate at which species are becoming extinct in our country is unknown. Because our
wilderness areas are rapidly dwindling, it is likely to be extremely high.

BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS IN INDIA

1. Himalaya: This term refers to the entire Himalayan region of India (and that falling in
Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar)
2. Indo-Burma: Includes all of North-Eastern India, except Assam and the Andaman Islands
(and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern China)
3. Sandilands: Includes the Nicobar Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei,
Philippines)
4. Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: The Western Ghats are comprised of the entire Western
Ghats (and Sri Lanka)
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
• The majority of these natural ecosystems have been overused or misused by humans.
• Mangroves have been cleared for fuelwood and prawn farming, resulting in a reduction in
the habitat required for marine fish breeding.
• The most serious threat to biodiversity worldwide is the current destruction of large areas
of wilderness habitats, particularly in the super-diverse tropical forests and coral reefs.
• Scientists estimate that by 2050, human activities will have wiped out approximately 10
million species. Approximately 1.8 million species of plants and animals, both large and
small, are currently known to science.
• However, the number of species is likely to be multiplied by at least ten. Plants and
insects, as well as other forms of life previously unknown to science, are constantly being
discovered in the world's diverse "hotspots."
• Unfortunately, at the current rate of extinction, about 25% of the world's species will
perish relatively quickly. This could happen at a rate of tens of thousands of species per year,
a thousand to ten thousand times faster than the natural rate!
• Within the next twenty or thirty years, human actions could obliterate 25% of the world's
species.
• Human population growth, industrialization, and changes in land-use patterns are all
contributing to this mass extinction.
• Tropical forests, wetlands, and coral reefs will account for a significant portion of these
extinctions.
• Rapid global biodiversity destruction is exacerbated by the loss of wild habitats as a result
of rapid human population growth and short-term economic development.
• Human activity has so far had the greatest impact on island flora and fauna with high
endemism in small isolated areas surrounded by sea, which has already resulted in the
extinction of many island plants and animals (the dodo is a famous example).
• Man's introduction of species from one area to another disrupts the balance of existing
communities, resulting in habitat loss. Many local species have been wiped out as a result of
the intentionally or accidentally introduced organisms (Eupatorium, Lantana, Hyacinth,
Congress grass, or Ruthenium).
• Species extinction occurs as a result of the destruction of natural ecosystems, whether as a
result of conversion to agriculture or industry, over-exploitation of resources, or pollution of
the air, water, and soil. Forests and grasslands in India are constantly being converted to
agricultural land.
• Encroachments have been legalized on several occasions.
• Natural wetland systems have also been drained to make way for croplands, resulting in
the extinction of aquatic species.
• Grasslands that were once sustainably used by a smaller number of people and their cattle
are now either converted to other uses or degraded due to overgrazing.
Endangered And Endemic Species Of India
Species are classified into two types-Endangered species and extinct species.
Extinct-no longer found in the world
Endangered-a species is said to be endangered, when its number has been reduced to a
critical level. Unless measures are taken to protect, they will become extinct.
Rare species-when it is localized to a restricted area.
Vulnerable species- when its population is facing continuous decline due to habitat loss.
RED data book: a data book that contains list of endangered species of plants and animals
In the past 50 years, the planet has experienced rapid growth of human population,
development, and urbanisation, deforesting hundreds of million acres of forests across the
globe along the way. As a result, wildlife is losing more habitats and food by the day. As
India is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, it comes as no surprise that
human activity and land development are increasing rapidly. These are just 10 endangered
species in India that are under threat and urgently need protecting.
10 Endangered Species in India
1. Bengal Tiger: Bengal tigers account for about half
of the world’s total tiger population, 70% of which
can be found living in India. Though this big cat is
an adaptable animal that can live in various
habitats including forests, mangroves and
wetlands, and has the ability to cope with hot or
cold temperatures, Bengal tiger populations have
plummeted over the years. The animal has been
endangered following decades of persistent
poaching for its skin and body parts, trophy
hunting, and severely reduced habitat from urban
development. The species now live in just 7% of their historical habitat range, with fewer
than 2,000 individuals left in the wild. In a densely populated country like India, human-
wildlife conflict is also a contributing factor to its dwindling numbers.
2. Asiatic Lion
The Asiatic lion is about 10-20% smaller than its African cousins with a larger tail tuft and a
distinct belly fold. As the name suggests, the Asiatic Lion was historically native across
south-west Asia to eastern India. But now, the
species’ entire population can only be found in
India and restricted to the Gir National Park
and environs in Gujarat. Listed as an
endangered species by the International Union
for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) since
2010, the Asiatic lion only has about 500-650
individuals left in the country. While the
animal is mostly confined to the Gir Forest,
many farmers still use crude and illegal
electrical fences to protect their crops where
lions often get caught up in it. Likewise,
nearly 20,000 open wells dug by farmers in the area for irrigation have led to many accidental
drownings of lions.
3. Snow Leopard
Much like the Asiatic Lion, snow leopards used to have much larger habitats and prowled
across the mountain ranges of Asia. Now, they can
only be found in Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand and the western and eastern parts of the
Himalayas, with population numbers down to about
500 in India. Unsurprisingly, this drop is the result
of human interference, namely animal poaching for
its pelt and body parts, and a rapid decline of prey
due to increasing domestic livestock, which depletes
the high altitude pasture lands. Conflicts between
remote communities and snow leopards have also
been a threat to the species, as well as hydroelectric
and mining projects, which reduces the leopard’s natural habitat. As female snow leopards
tend to produce only one to two cubs once every two years, it also makes it harder for the
species to recover its numbers.
4. One-horned Rhinoceros
Also known as the Indian rhinoceros, this animal is mostly found in India and the foothills of
Himalayas. One-horned rhinoceros has been heavily targeted for their horns for decades,
which allegedly have medicinal properties, and killed as agricultural pests. The population is
also impacted by frequent flooding seasons, forcing rhinos to move to higher ground and
outside of national parks, increasing risks of human-wildlife conflicts. These factors have
consequently driven the population to near extinction at the start of the 20th century,
dropping down to as little as 200 animals. But with the help of strict and targeted
conservation measures, current population numbers have risen back up to around 3,700 in
northeastern India and the Terai grasslands of Nepal, making it “one of the most successful
conservation efforts in history”.
5. Blackbuck
Due to severe poaching – hunted especially in the princely states of India for their pelts – and
habitat loss, the blackbuck, or Indian antelope, is now one of the most endangered species in
India. In 1947, there were around 80,000 blackbucks. But that number had fallen to 8,000 in
less than 20 years. Despite conservation efforts that help population numbers go back up to
around 25,000, factors such as preying stray dogs – which India has one of the highest rates
of – pesticides and moving vehicles all continuing threats to the species. You can find
blackbucks in small herds in open grasslands, dry scrub areas, and thinly forested areas across
India, and have been introduced in Argentina and the United States to help increase their
numbers.
6. Lion-tailed Macaque
Endemic to the small and severely fragmented
rainforests of Western Ghats of South India, the
lion-tailed macaque is a recognisable monkey
identifiable by its silver-white mane that
surrounds its head. Estimates place the total
wild population of the macaque around 4,000
individuals, and is projected to decline more
than 20% in the next 25 years should threats
like hunting, roadkills and habitat loss persist.
These rare primates are mostly shy and tend to
remain in the upper canopies of rainforest,
which continues to dwindle due to deforestation
and land clearing. The species’ easy access to
human food is also changing their behaviours,
driving the animal to spend less time foraging for food.
7. Resplendent Tree Frog
This mysterious frog species was only discovered in 2010 at the highest peak of the Western
Ghats, and has a striking orange hue and several big glands covering its body surface. The
resplendent tree frog is so rare that they can only be found in the Anamudi summit in Kerala
within the Eravikulam National Park. Scientists estimate that there are only about 300
remaining animals and recommend top-priority conservation for this species.
8. Kashmiri Red Stag
The Kashmiri red stag has been listed as a critically endangered species by the IUCN for
decades and is among the top 15 species of high conservation priority by the Indian
Government. As a result, the species is now largely restricted within a 141 sq km area in
Dachigam National Park. In the early 1990s, the number of red stags was estimated to be
around 5,000 but dramatically decreased to about 150 in 1970, and around 110-130 in 2015.
Habitat fragmentation, land encroachment for grazing, and very low fawn-female ratio are
attributed to be the main causes behind red stag’s population decline. Many ongoing
conservation drives are attempting to tackle these issues to help protect this critically
endangered species in India.
9. Nilgiri Tahr
This endangered mountain goat species only has about 2,500-3,000 individuals remaining in
the wild. Much like the other animals are on the list, wildlife poaching and habitat loss has
led the nilgiri tahr to be contained within the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, covering less
than 10% of their former range. But for these mountain goats, climate change is expected to
be an even bigger threat. The animal lives in high-altitude mountainous grasslands and rocky
cliffs of the Western Ghats, and is projected to become unsuitable habitats for the goats as
global surface temperatures rise.
10. Indian Bison (Gaur)
The largest and tallest in the family of wild cattle, the Indian bison is an animal native to
South Asia and South-East Asia but one that is severely threatened by wildlife poaching (for
its meat, horns and medicinal products), shrinking habitats and food scarcity from the
destruction of grasslands. Famously the inspiration behind the branding of the popular energy
drink, Red Bull, the bison has unfortunately
lost more than 70% of its population in many
parts of their range. The gaur is listed as a
vulnerable species by the IUCN and is
protected by India’s 1972 Wild Life
Protection Act, which calls for the
reintroduction of native plants and regulation
of indiscriminate cattle grazing around areas
where the gaurs roam.
Endemic species of India
Endemic species are those that are found in just one region and nowhere else in the world.
For example, kangaroos are originally endemic to Australia and are found nowhere else in the
world. The cases where they have been spotted outside their natural habitat is due to humans
introducing them when the animal was in captivity.
There are also other marsupials that are endemic only to Australia and its surrounding
islands. The Tasmanian Tiger is one such animal that was endemic to Australia, Tasmania
and New Guinea. But now, it is extinct.
Examples of Endemic species
• Endemic species, such as the tortoises of the Galápagos and the lemurs of Madagascar
can be found on small islands.
• Antarctica, Hawaii and Australia are all huge land masses where we can find a lot of
endemic species.
• Kangaroos are endemic to Australia and polar bears are endemic to the Arctic.
• The Redwood Forest on the West Coast of the United States has become endemic as it
is now almost entirely limited to California.
• Diseases, on the other hand, can also be endemic.
• An endemic disease may be geographically isolated or it may be isolated to a certain
group.
• Malaria is an example of an endemic disease because it is mostly limited to small
pockets of infection in Africa.
Endemic Species of India
A list of the endemic species of India is mentioned below:
Asiatic Lion, Gir Forest
Asiatic Lion is also known as the Indian Lion and can be only found in and around Gir Forest
National Park of Gujarat. These are listed as endangered species. These are one of the five big
cats found in India, the others being Indian Leopards and Bengal Tigers.
Kashmir Stag, Kashmir Valley
Also known as Hangul, the Kashmir Stag is found in the dense forests of Dachigum National
Park, Kashmir Valley and Chamba district, Himachal Pradesh.
Lion-Tailed Macaque, Western Ghats
It is the rarest, most threatened and endangered primate species found only in the Western
Ghats of Southern India.
Purple Frog, Western Ghats
The purple frog, also known as the Pignose frog, is only found in the rainforests of western
ghats in India. It spends most of its life underground.
Sangai Deer, Loktak Lake
It is also known as Brow Antlered Deer exclusively found in Keibul Lamjao National Park of
Manipur. This park is a marshy wetland located in the southern parts of Loktak lake.
Nilgiri Tahr, Nilgiri Hills
It is a wild sheep species, endangered and endemic to the Nilgiri Hills of Western Ghats.
Other endemic species of India include:
o Pygmy Hog, Assam
o Bronzeback Vine Snake, Western Ghats
o Nilgiri Blue Robin, Nilgiri Hills
o Malabar Civet, Western Ghats
o Anaimalai Gliding Frog, Anaimalai Hills
o Namdapha Flying Squirrel, Arunachal Pradesh
Conservation Of Biodiversity: In Situ And Exsitu Conservation Of Biodiversity
In-situ Conservation
• It is the methods of conserving all the living species, especially the wild and
endangered species in their natural habitats and environment.
• In-situ conservation of Biodiversity includes biosphere reserves, national parks,
wildlife sanctuaries, etc.
• When we conserve and protect at all levels of biological organization, that is, the
whole ecosystem, the approach is known as in situ conservation.
• In this, the conservation of species is protected within their natural habitat.
 • For example, to save the tiger, we save the whole forest.
Wild Life Sanctuary
Wildlife sanctuary is a protected area where wild animals and birds are conserved and
protected in their natural habitat. The capturing, killing, and poaching of animals are strictly
prohibited. However, human activities like the collection of firewood, etc. are allowed up to
some extent. Wildlife sanctuaries can be created for particular species—for example, Gir
wildlife sanctuary to protect lions.
National Park
The national park protects the entire plants, animals, and landscape of the region. Cultivation
of land, forestry, and grazing are not allowed at all. Human activities are strictly prohibited—
for example, Corbett National Park.
Biosphere Reserve
Biosphere Reserve is a large protected area for the conservation of wildlife, plant and animal
resources, and traditional tribal life in the area. It contributes to the protection and
preservation of the natural ecosystem and culture of the region. It may also contain other
protected areas like wildlife sanctuaries or national parks. For example, Pachmarhi Biosphere
Reserve contains Satpura National Park and Bori and Pachmarhi Wildlife Sanctuary.
Sacred Groves
Sacred grooves are tracts of forested land that are protected by the community living around
them. The community attaches some religious or cultural significance to the protected forest
land. It helps protect many rare, threatened, and endemic plant and animal species found in a
region—for example, Khasi and Jantia hills in Meghalaya.
Advantages of In-situ Conservation
• The wildlife species are preserved within their natural habitat. They easily adjust and
adapt to their surrounding.
• It conserves the entire ecosystem, not just one particular species.
• It is a more economical and convenient method.
• Useful in conserving large populations of a species
• The chances of recovery are high.

Disadvantages of In-situ Conservation

• Conditions that threaten the survival of the organism will still be present.
• The genetic diversity of the region may already have decreased.
• Endangered habitats may be fragmented and may affect the survival of the species.
Ex-situ Conservation
• It is the methods of conserving all the living species in the artful habitats that reflect
their natural living habitats.
 • threatened animals and plants are taken out of their natural habitat and placed in a
unique and ideal setting where they can be protected and given special care.
• Examples of ex-situ conservation of biodiversity include aquariums, botanical
gardens, cryopreservation, DNA banks, zoos, etc.
Zoological Park
A zoological park is a facility where animals are kept within enclosures for public display
and are often bred for conservation purposes. Zoological parks increase the public interest in
the understanding of wildlife and are centers for recreation and education like the National
Zoological Park, Delhi.
Botanical Gardens
A botanical garden is a garden specially meant for the collection, cultivation, preservation,
and display of a wide variety of plants, which are typically labeled with their botanical
names. They serve the purpose of scientific research, conservation, display, and education
like the National Botanical Garden, Lucknow.
Gene Bank
A gene bank is a biorepository that preserves the genetic material. It is a collection of seeds,
plants, tissue cultures, etc., of potentially valuable species. It conserves the genetic diversity
of wild and domesticated plants and animals like the National Animal Gene Bank, Karnal.
Cryopreservation
Cryopreservation is the long-term process of keeping live cells, tissues, and other biological
samples frozen at sub-zero temperatures for storage and preservation. The sample is
commonly kept at −196°C. It preserves the biological material, and the genetic integrity of
the material is stored like the one present in IARI, New Delhi.
Advantages of Ex-situ Conservation
• It protects endangered species from external threats like predation and poaching.
• Selective breeding programs can be implemented.
• It is a focused approach, as the health of individual animals can be monitored.
• The genetic diversity of the population is preserved
• It is invaluable for research and public education.
• It has the potential to reintroduce organisms back into their natural habitat.

Disadvantages of Ex-situ Conservation

• The individual is living outside its natural habitat.
• Animals may not adjust to the new environment.
• Captive animal populations have limited genetic diversity.
• It is expensive to maintain.
• Animals may not survive reintroduction into the wild.
CASE STUDY
Kokkare Bellure – Karnataka: Co-existence (Man and Wildlife)
The endangered pelican breeds in large numbers at Kokkare Bellur, which is one of only ten
known breeding sites in India. Kokkare Bellure is a village in the Indian state of Karnataka.
Hundreds of spot-billed pelicans, painted storks, ibis, and other birds migrate to this area
every December to start breeding colonies on the tall tamarind trees in the village's centre.
The birds have been protected by the locals, who believe that they bring good luck in terms of
rain and crops. The villagers collect a plentiful supply of guano, a natural fertiliser that
collects beneath the nests. Nitrates are abundant in the droppings of fish-eating birds. The
owners of the birds' trees dig deep pits beneath the trees into which the guano falls. Silt from
nearby lakes and ponds is combined with guano and sold as fertiliser for their fields. To
encourage nesting, they have now planted trees around their homes.
For their timber value, our natural forests are being deforested and replanted with teak, sal,
and other single species. Plantations lack the biological diversity of a multi-story natural
forest, which has a closed canopy and a diverse understory of vegetation. The forest canopy
is opened up when excessive firewood is collected from the forest by lopping the branches of
trees, affecting local biodiversity. Because seedlings are constantly tramped by foraging
cattle, forest regeneration is slowed. Forest ecosystems are degraded by increasing human
population on the edges of our Protected Areas. This is an important factor to consider when
assessing the ecosystem's quality.
Nutrient cycles in Ecosystem
The nutrient cycle is a system where energy and matter are transferred between living
organisms and non-living parts of the environment. This occurs as animals and plants
consume nutrients found in the soil, and these nutrients are then released back into the
environment via death and decomposition. In forest environments, there is an exchange of
nutrient elements such as hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen among the soil, plants and animals
living within the environment.
 • Non-mineral elements make up 95% of the mass of all living organisms
• The non-mineral elements are Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O)
• These nutrients are often obtained from carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air and water
(H2O)
• Mineral Elements: Macronutrients and Micronutrients
• Macronutrients are chemical elements that plants need
in large quantities to perform basic functions,
and their availability can limit the growth of
organisms.
• They include the elements (N), phosphorus (P),
potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium
(Mg)
• Micronutrients are taken up in much
smaller amounts than macronutrients, but
are still vital for growth and metabolism.
• The micronutrients include boron (B),
copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn)
and zinc (Zn).

Nutrient Cycling in Forest Ecosystems

In forest environments, the nutrient cycle involves animals, plants, fungi and bacteria living
above- and below-ground (the soil is alive!), as well as mineral components of soil, dead
leaves and wood, and water from rain and snowfall. Trees and other plants take up mineral
and non-mineral nutrients from the soil through their roots. These nutrients are stored in the
leaves, flowers and other parts of plants. The nutrients are either transferred to animals when
animals eat the plants or they are transferred back into the soil. For instance, when plants and
animals die, arthropods, earthworms, fungi and bacteria in the soil break them down.
Arthropods are insects such as mites. Arthropods and earthworms grind up the decaying
material and they mix this material with the soil. Fungi can break apart some of the more
complex compounds and break them down into smaller components. All of these organisms
ultimately consume and respire much of the material back into carbon dioxide gas, which is
why it disappears over time.
Carbon cycle

• Carbon is present mainly as carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere

• There is a continuous exchange of carbon between biotic and abiotic components by
the process of photosynthesis and respiration
• Atmospheric carbon dioxide is fixed by plants in the process of photosynthesis
• All the living organisms release carbon dioxide during respiration
• Carbon is released into the atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels and auto emissions
• Organic carbon from dead and decaying organisms and waste products is released into
the atmosphere after decomposition
Nitrogen cycle
 • Nitrogen is also an essential component of life. Nitrogen cannot be directly utilised by
living organisms and has to be converted to other forms.
• By the process of nitrogen fixation, nitrogen-fixing bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen
to ammonia and nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia to nitrate. It is then taken up by
plants
• Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to nitrates directly by lightning and assimilated by
plants
• Decomposers break down proteins and amino acids of dead and decaying organic
matters and waste product
• Denitrifying bacteria convert ammonia and nitrates to nitrogen and nitrous oxide by
the process of denitrification. In this way, nitrogen is released back into the
atmosphere
Oxygen Cycle

• Oxygen is essential for life. Aquatic organisms are dependent on oxygen dissolved in
water. Oxygen is required for decomposition of biodegradable waste products.
• Photosynthesis is the main source of oxygen present in the atmosphere
• Atmospheric oxygen is taken up by living organisms in the process of respiration and
release carbon dioxide which is used for photosynthesis by plants
Hydrologic or Water Cycle
• Water is an essential element for life to exist on earth.
• Water from oceans, lakes, rivers and other reservoirs is continuously converted to
vapour by the process of evaporation and transpiration from the surface of plants
• Water vapours get condensed and return by precipitation and the cycle continues
• The water falling on the ground is absorbed and stored as groundwater
Importance of Nutrient Cycling
All living organisms, biomolecules and cells are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. These elements are essential for life. It is important to
recycle and continuously replenish nutrients into the environment for life to exist.

Nutrient cycling is important for:

• It is required for the transformation of nutrients from one form to another so that it
can be readily utilised by different organisms, e.g. plants cannot take atmospheric
nitrogen and it has to be fixed and converted to ammonium and nitrate for uptake.
• Transfer of nutrients from one place to another for utilisation, e.g. air to soil or water
• Nutrient cycles keep the ecosystem in equilibrium and help in storing nutrients for future
uptake
• Through nutrient cycling, living organisms interact with the abiotic
components of their surroundings