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Performance anxiety: The need for an integrative approach

Article in Polish Psychological Bulletin · January 2018

DOI: 10.24425/119495

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 Polish Psychological Bulletin
Original Papers 2018, vol. 49(3) 272–282
DOI – 10.24425/119495

Joanna Kantor-Martynuska*
Ewa Domaradzka*

Performance anxiety: the need for an integrative approach

Giving public performance is a widely applied form of contributing to the experience of anxiety in the context of
demonstrating knowledge, skill and competence. The topic performing.
of this Special Issue Advances in research on performance Reviews of the empirical research on performance
anxiety is timed in accordance with the growing demand anxiety in music, sports, dance, test-taking, and other
for and personal importance of giving a good performance domains (e.g., Hackfort & Spielberger, 1988; Kenny,
in utterly any domain, e.g., tests, exams, professional 2011; Sarason & Sarason, 2013; Smith & Smoll, 2013)
talks, sports, arts, and, last but not least, sex. The papers emphasize personality, experience including performance
contributing to this Special Issue aim to shed light on the preparation, and situational factors as major determinants
roots of performance anxiety, to show it in the context of of the impact of performance anxiety on the quality of
emotional labor and professional burnout, to sketch its performance. Empirical evidence advocates that state
wide emotional background and its relationship with other performance anxiety negatively affects music performance
psychological phenomena. Theories of performance anxiety (Yoshie, Shiemasu, Kudo, & Ohtsuki, 2009; Kenny, 2011),
emphasize the role of stimulus interpretation and the whole- academic performance (e.g., Elliot & McGregor, 1999;
-body response in which physiological processes are part of Endler, Kantor, & Parker, 1994), sports activities (e.g.,
the emotional and cognitive aspect of responding to threat. Englert & Bertrams, 2012; Zeidner, 2008), and public
The editorial concludes with an introduction of individual speaking (e.g., Calamaras, Anderson, Tannenbaum, &
papers announcing the possible ways to incorporate new Zimand, 2014; Chodkiewicz & Mniszewska, 2015; Merritt,
data into the existing knowledge on performance anxiety. Richards, & Davis, 2001), including preaching (e.g., King,
Psychological and physiological processes related to 2014). However, its consequences for both mood and the
performance anxiety and the possibilities to overcome its level of performance may not be unequivocal. While most
consequences for the quality of public performance are the performers consider performance anxiety debilitating,
main character of this Special Issue. others find it beneficial and believe it has a facilitative role
Public appreciation for the competence, clarity, and for their performance (Alpert & Haber, 1960; Hanin, 2007).
attractiveness that make a good performance enhances A question arises whether performance anxiety is in
the importance of the difficulties individuals may face in the most part general anxiety applied to the performance
delivering such a presentation. Performing may be either context or whether it has any specific properties that make
a perfect context to present one’s knowledge and skills, it unique. The aim of this editorial is to present performance
a threat associated with confronting the public, or a mixture anxiety within the frame of several theoretical approaches
of both in varied proportions. The purpose of this volume that may provide cues for a better understanding of this
is to sample recent studies on performance anxiety to phenomenon. First, definitions of performance anxiety,
show their contribution to the description and explanation as well as its relationship with evaluation anxiety and
of performance anxiety, and to juxtapose various test anxiety, are put forward to consider its specificity
methodological approaches to studying performance anxiety. and convergence with other anxiety-related concepts.
These papers represent various areas (music performance, Next, the cognitive, emotional, and motivational aspects
sports, and self-presentation) in which performance anxiety are outlined, followed by the individual differences in
may occur in varied populations. The papers also vary in performance anxiety. Along with the social context of
form and methodology: review and empirical, narrative and performance anxiety comprising the important situational
experimental. They show general and individual factors factors and the functional aspects of performance anxiety,

* Institute of Psychology, Polish Academy of Sciences

Corresponding author: Joanna Kantor-Martynuska, e-mail: [email protected]

 Performance anxiety: the need for an integrative approach 273
they give a wider view of the adaptive and maladaptive Tobias, 2013). Evaluative anxiety is difficult to define as
features of this phenomenon. Eventually, the advantages its manifestations vary individually. It is a form of general
and disadvantages of performance anxiety are analyzed in anxiety with a general stimulus as the imminence of actual
the light of the actual experience of recognized performers. evaluation, be it taking a written exam or giving a talk.
This paper approaches performance anxiety with The self-regulative model of evaluative anxiety
consideration for its individualized and relational character. emphasizes the interaction of cognitive, emotional and
It is an attempt to integrate its cognitive, affective, and motivational processes as bases for anxiety (for a review,
motivational elements in a functional frame, with special see Elliot & Dweck, 2005). Considering the manifold
attention to the emotional aspects of performance anxiety. background of evaluation anxiety comprising self-focus
of attention (Kurosawa & Harackiewicz, 1995) and beliefs
Performance anxiety about whether worry is debilitative or facilitative (Butt,
and other anxiety-related constructs Weinberg, & Horn, 2003), we search for the cognitive-
-motivational antecedents of anxiety experienced in
An ability to successfully deliver public performances, the evaluative setting of giving a performance. Thus,
highly valued in the educational, professional, and social performance anxiety as the fear of being negatively
environment, is often burdened with stress, which makes evaluated (see Kenny, 2011) with the resulting sense of
performance anxiety a common experience. Giving a public failure is one of the forms of evaluative anxiety in which
performance, besides demonstrating one’s competences, the audience is present and tracking the course of the
puts a performer in the vulnerable position of being performance. Both evaluative anxiety and performance
exposed to other people’s evaluative responses, with its anxiety, with their proposed state or trait form, cognitive,
emotional, cognitive, and social correlates and effects. affective, physiological, and behavioural facets (Tarrant
Putting knowledge or skills to the test by exhibiting them et al., 2010), unfold in time with the prevalent elements
in a variety of endeavors, from test taking through public of anticipation, confrontation, and resolution in the pre-
speaking to artistic performances (Kenny, 2011), implies -performance, in-performance, and post-performance
the risk of being judged negatively. A wide range of public stages, respectively (Elliot & Dweck, 2005; Kępińska-
performance situations induce “the experience of persisting, -Welbel, 1997).
distressful apprehension and/or actual impairment of We propose that the factors contributing to per-
performance skills in the public context” (Salmon, 1990, formance anxiety could be grouped as internal (e.g., prone-
p. 3), called performance anxiety. Performance anxiety is ness to anxiety, self-efficacy), external (e.g. exposure
also defined as a type of social anxiety specific for social to an audience), and mixed (e.g., verification of one’s
interaction (Kenny, 2011; Zinn, McCain, & Zinn, 2000). assumptions concerning the approach of the audience
It is a multilevel construct, comprised of physiological, towards one’s performance). Internal factors refer to
affective, cognitive, and behavioral aspects (e.g., Tarrant, a performer’s individual characteristics, external to the
Jeathem, & Flett, 2010). This type of anxiety is related situational context of performance, and mixed consist
to contexts that are of great personal or professional in interaction and transaction between the internal and
importance in which success or failure are extremely external elements that result in experiencing performance
ample in consequences (or the performer at least thinks so). anxiety.
Performance anxiety can be limited to performing solo or
performing a specific skill or piece. Cognitive, motivational, and emotional aspects
Performance anxiety can be analyzed in the light of of performance anxiety
broad social anxiety studies. According to earlier standards
(American Psychiatric Association, 1994), performance Performance anxiety is a set of physiological,
anxiety was considered a type of social phobia and was emotional, cognitive, and behavioural responses that
perceived through the lens of its phobic quality: a low intertwine into concern about the coming or ongoing
genetic component and stronger psychophysical response performance. The intensity of this experience depends
to performing. However, at present, it is classified as on the internal, external, and mixed conditions that
a “performance only” subtype of social anxiety disorder, characterize an individual in a given performance situation.
provided that it is restricted to performing (American The temporal aspect of performance anxiety can be
Psychiatric Association, 2013; see also Hook & Valentiner, limited to a performance situation or extended to a pre-
2002). According to the classification of anxiety -performance (most often) or post-performance phases.
disorders, performance anxiety can be a chronic or acute Individual differences in both the intensity and effects of
adaptive or maladaptive form and they can all be present performance anxiety add complexity to approaching this
interchangeably in one individual (Schneier et al., 2014). topic in theoretical and empirical studies. The individual
Performance anxiety can be considered as an example of characteristics of a performer seem to form the conditions
evaluative anxiety, even though in the literature there is no of specificity and universality of performance anxiety.
consistency as to their relationship. Evaluative anxiety is On the other hand, performance anxiety is just one of
a set of phenomenological, physiological, and behavioural many factors that form a performer’s emotional experience
responses that accompany concern about possible failure and determine the quality of performance. A performer is in
in any testing or evaluative situation (Sieber, O’Neill, & a relationship with the environment and his or her emotional
274 Joanna Kantor-Martynuska, Ewa Domaradzka

state, which changes dynamically and is comprised of many research suggests a regulatory function of performance
elements such as appraisal, context evaluation, action anxiety reflected by perceived control (Cheng & Hardy,
readiness, physiological change, expression and action 2015). The speech quality of high performance anxiety
(Oatley & Jenkins, 1992). Emotions are often experienced individuals is rated as lower by observers than by the
as mixed states (Hanin, 2007). They can be triggered by performers themselves, which is not the case in high social
information processed at all the levels of activity (Izard, interaction anxiety individuals (Hook & Valentiner, 2002;
1994). Coding and decoding of information at the cellular Hook, Valentiner, & Connelly, 2013).
level forms predispositions to certain mood states. The The role of cognition and motivation for behaviour
organismic level of information processing related to the in performing contexts has been referred to as behavioural
organization, unity, and integration of the human being inhibition, a tendency to avoid unfamiliar events and
encompasses data stimulating the sensory organs and people (Chorpita & Barlow, 1998). The core elements
streaming from within the body. The biopsychological level of behavioural inhibition, i.e., reactivity (physiological
of information processing integrates genetically prepared and behavioural responses to sensory stimuli) and self-
reception of the physical stimuli and acquired knowledge -regulation (voluntary attentional control and response
about their meaning for the organism. Eventually, cognitive inhibition), are decisive for the actual behaviour
information processing triggering emotion comprises during an exam or on stage (see Chorpita, Brown, &
appraisal and attributions (Izard, 1994; Spielberger & Barlow, 1998). A public performance situation seems
Vagg, 1995), all of which constitute the emotional bases to comprise motivational ambiguity, and so it calls for
of performance anxiety. Thus, the physiological and further theoretical references to explain performance
psychological symptoms of performance anxiety give rise anxiety.
to each other since physiological processes are part of the The Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning model
emotional and cognitive aspect of responding to threat (IZOF, Hanin, 2007) is based on the real experience of
(see Damasio, 2003), and information originating from the the athletes that is optimal for an individually successful
bodily processes such as heart rate, sweating, or trembling performance. IZOF assumes that subjective emotional
constantly influences the cognitive and emotional parts of experience is the core of the psychobiosocial states
the experience (see Bradley, McCraty, Tomasino, Daugherty, affecting performance. It focuses on the functional role
& Arguelles, 2010; Lane, McRae, Reiman, Chen, Ahern, & that such a psychobiosocial state has for an individual’s
Thayer, 2009). The elevated level of arousal may generate efficiency with the resulting quality of performance.
the fear of contempt and humiliation, an experience that is IZOF emphasizes the importance of the context of a given
associated with negative emotional and social consequences. affective state. The perceived intensity of the optimal
The cognitive view of performance anxiety empha- and dysfunctional emotional states that shows intra-
sizes the role of various cognitive processes, including -individual dynamics and individual variations contributes
attention, working memory, and stimulus interpretation. to the level of performance. Performers experience the
In attentional control theory (Eysenck, Derakshan, fear of being defeated in a competition and harmed as
Santos, & Calvo, 2007), anxiety is considered an a consequence of performance that is not good enough.
overload of working memory with threat-related cues If all these fears are not available to awareness at the
and apprehensive thoughts. It impairs the functions of moment of giving a performance, they may unconsciously
the central executive, a limited-capacity component of operate to produce tension and impair cognition. They
working memory (see Baddeley, 1986, 2001). Eysenck seem to be adaptive mechanisms for those who perform
and colleagues (Eysenck & Calvo, 1992; Derakshan, in public. Vivid experience of such aspects of performance
Ansari, Hansard, Shoker, & Eysenck, 2009) demonstrated as success or failure and fulfilling one’s aspirations to
that performance effectiveness, i.e. performance quality, achieve certain social, educational, or professional status
is independent of anxiety. On the other hand, efficiency, may serve to satisfy basic needs for safety and esteem (see
i.e. the relationship between effectiveness and the use Maslow, 1943).
of resources, is reduced by anxiety as negative thoughts Emotion has personal relational meaning: giving
interfere with performance-relevant information process- a performance may be perceived as a gain or a loss. The
ing. We can infer that in novice performers performance situation can be anticipated either as a potential challenge
anxiety will more frequently manifest in an overt form or threat (Schneier, Vidair, Vogel, & Muskin, 2014), and
when it decreases the level of performance (effectiveness). it can be interpreted as benefit or harm (Lazarus, 2001).
On the other hand, in expert performers a covert form of A fear fight-or-flight reaction is moderated by an approach
performance anxiety should be more common. Its effects attitude towards the situation or the predicted outcome
would be unobservable in the quality of performance of one’s action (Schneier et al., 2014). With reference
but noticeable for a performer as stress load or physical to the general anxiety properties (Schneier et al., 2014),
weariness, i.e. the psychophysical costs of giving the adaptive character of performance anxiety turns
a performance. The given quality of performance is maladaptive when the proportion of anxiety response
most probably formed as an interaction of expertise in is inadequate to the intensity of the threat or danger.
the broader domain of performance, preparedness and Performance anxiety is also maladaptive when this state
other domain-relevant skills, as well as a wide range becomes generalized across a class of situations, whatever
of a performer’s mental resources. On the other hand, their threat load.
 Performance anxiety: the need for an integrative approach 275
With reference to performing in public, self-evaluative Individuals vary in the extent to which they suffer from
emotions such as shame, embarrassment, or loss of self- their psychobiosocial response to the context of performing.
-esteem (see Niedenthal, Krauth-Gruber, & Ric, 2006) Individual differences in performance anxiety have been
are related to self-efficacy and meeting one’s expectations well established as regards trait anxiety (for a review, see
rather than the moral behaviour with which they are Kenny, 2011), while state performance anxiety has been
usually connected (Niedenthal et al., 2006). For instance, largely related to its trait-like form, increasing on the day
shame, an apprehension of oneself as a negative object for of performance (Ryan, 2005). Performance anxiety, shows
others (Trower, Gilbert, & Sherling, 1990), is an emotion positive relationships with neuroticism, the fear of crowds
program that evolved to mitigate the likelihood or costs of and social situations (Steptoe & Fidler, 1987), irrespective
reputation-damaging information spreading to others (see of the level of performing experience. Emotional and
Takemura, Delton, Sato, Robertson, Cosmides, & Tooby, cognitive components merge to produce exceptional
2012). To make a step further, performance anxiety may be vulnerability to performance anxiety: a study conducted on
a program aimed at preventing shame resulting from failure actors (Goodman & Kaufman, 2014) revealed that although
on stage. Consequently, previous experience with shame most actors experienced stage fright, female actors with low
on stage might be an aversive memory that may trigger or emotional stability and an external locus of control would
amplify performance anxiety. seem to be at most risk.
Performance anxiety comprising the current, anticipa- Specific aspects of performance anxiety are less
tory, or recalled emotional states (e.g. Kępińska-Welbel, salient in individuals with higher general trait anxiety,
1997) accompanying a performance is formed by the who typically experience anxiety across many situations,
optimal and dysfunctional emotional states of different of which performance context is an example. Individual
content and intensity. An optimal emotional state is differences in the subjective experience of performance
generated as relevant and appropriate for a particular anxiety can be traced in emotion, physiology, cognition,
performer under specific conditions. This individualized and and the strategies of coping with it.
relational approach refers to the interaction of the pleasant-
-unpleasant and the functional-dysfunctional dimensions Emotion and physiology-related factors of PA
of an emotional state as emotional background for the The literature emphasizes the challenging aspects
high quality of performance (Hanin, 2007). It comprises of performance anxiety or stage fright that may hinder
an assumption that each emotional state can be quantified performance. Stage fright comprises perceived tension
in at least four categories generated by the interaction of and exaggerated beliefs concerning the importance and
these two dimensions (Hanin, 2007) and, depending on consequences of any particular performance (Steptoe,
the individual, may lead to a successful, average or poor 1989, p. 3). In this definition, affective and cognitive
quality of performance. To make the situation even more components contribute to the uncomfortable experience
complex, an emotional state that is optimal for a small preceding a performance. The core emotional experience
performance may not be optimal for a serious audition. The of performance anxiety is a feeling of anxiety, tension,
emotional state may have an energizing vs. de-energizing apprehension, dread, or panic (Steptoe, 2001). These
and organizing vs. disorganizing role for the performance phenomena are common both to performance anxiety
(Hanin, 2007), regulating the efficiency of a performer and such personality dimensions as neuroticism or
and the resulting quality of performance. Also, taking trait anxiety. There is empirical evidence of a positive
an individual differences approach to make between- relationship between experiencing temporary stage fright
-performer comparisons, the same intensity of performance and neuroticism and everyday fear, notably fear of crowds
anxiety in two different performers may be either helpful or and social situations (Steptoe & Fidler, 1987), irrespective
detrimental. of the level of performing experience.
While the experience of being exposed to other people
Individual differences in performance anxiety as a soloist is often associated with an increase in the
level of arousal, physiological hyper-arousability inherent
In the context of giving a public performance, the in temperamental emotional reactivity is a vulnerability
way performance anxiety manifests in an individual and factor accompanying emotional dysregulation (see Strelau,
the intensity of these symptoms result from an interaction 2008). On the other hand, intense and frequent exposure
of such factors as multilevel information processing, to the experiences of anxiety or fear accompanying the
a performer’s proneness to experience anxiety, estimation performing context may challenge the nervous system
of task difficulty, domain -relevant competence and and lead to conditional overreacting to the circumstances
experience, subjective importance of the performance resembling those in which they originally occurred. With
situation, sense of self-efficacy, self-concept, metacognition reference to a testing situation itself, it has been found that
and external circumstances (e.g. estimated attitude of the elevated cortisol levels during information retrieval seem to
audience, status or importance of a performance), as well impair recall (Ackermann, Hartmann, Papassotiropoulos, de
as past experiences, memories or anticipations, and learning Quervain, & Rasch, 2013). In a performance situation, such
(Hanin, 2007; Elliot & Dweck, 2005). As shown above, a tendency may manifest itself as increased susceptibility of
there is a wide variety of the elements that contribute to an high emotional reactivity individuals to the disadvantageous
individual experience of performance anxiety. aspects of the performance context.
276 Joanna Kantor-Martynuska, Ewa Domaradzka

Cognitive personality-related factors of PA managing stage fright, and proper breathing techniques
Cognition is another basis for performance anxiety, and body communication (e.g., breathing and relaxation;
with interpretation schemes used by those highly prone to Zakaria, Musib, & Shariff, 2013). The selected ways that
this type of stress (see Kenny, 2011). Performance anxiety emotion can be regulated are by controlling attention to
during public speaking is commonly associated with emotionally evocative stimuli and cognitively changing
a wide representation of cognitive failures and challenges, their meaning (see Ochsner & Gross, 2005). Considering
comprising unfamiliarity with the role, insufficient these mechanisms of emotion regulation, we can speculate
preparation, making mistakes, rigid rules, audience interest, that performance anxiety should be reduced by finding the
and physical appearance (Bippus & Daly, 1999). If the positive meaning of a threatening situation and refocusing
competences of high personal importance are judged low at attention from the threat-inducing stimuli to the possible
a certain occasion of public performance, performers’ self- benefits of taking the risk of giving a performance. Indeed,
-esteem is extremely sensitive to this judgment, especially acceptance was found to be more effective than suppression
if it was already low before the actual performance and placebo in reducing both subjective and physiological
(Harter, 1993). Here, performance anxiety is based on the (skin conductance level) measures of arousal as a proxy
overgeneralization of the way the performance is evaluated of anxiety (Wilson, Barnes-Holmes, & Barnes-Holmes,
onto the way a performer is evaluated as a person. 2014). Reappraising the anxious arousal as excitement
However, considering that performance anxiety is a specific by adopting an opportunity mind-set instead of a threat
instance of evaluation anxiety, it is more strongly related mind-set was found to be positively associated with the
to self-efficacy than to self-esteem (Caprara & Cervone, quality of performance (Brooks, 2013). Greater situational
2000). Self-efficacy that may be mediated by motivation for mindfulness, as awareness and ability to attend to the
preparation or skill enhancement (for a review, see Zeidner present moment with a quality that is open to accept rather
& Matthews, 2005) is also more predictive of the level of than judge (Kabat-Zinn, 1994), predicted lower music
performance (Zimmerman, 2000). performance anxiety (Farnsworth-Grodd & Cameron,
The quality of performance has been shown to 2013). Situational mindfulness comprised increased focus
generally benefit from task-focus (Wegner & Giuliano, on the positive aspects of the performance, greater self-
1980). Yet, it is controversial whether this attentional -kindness, and self-acceptance.
mode supports performing in public to a greater extent
than emotion focus or self-focus (Zeidner, 1998). Research Contextual aspects of performance anxiety
shows that test-anxious individuals are usually highly self-
-focused. Their attention is more eagerly directed toward The external bases of performance anxiety comprise
their thoughts and feelings about the test than toward the its social aspect, e.g., the perceived attitude of an audience
task itself (Carver & Scheier, 1989). Moreover, public or jury and the importance of an event that regulates the
self-consciousness – meaning awareness of the self as level of perceived threat. Social cognition in performance
a social object – strongly correlates with social anxiety anxiety comprises attitude formation and a performer’s
(Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1992) and may therefore concern with the opinion of others, associated with the
contribute to performance anxiety. Also, self-focus related need for social approval (see Crowne & Marlowe, 1960).
to performance anxiety might have a role in triggering It is a common experience of performers that when
ego defense mechanisms. These findings suggest that a performance is situated in an atmosphere of acceptance,
performance anxiety resulting in employing ego defense curiosity and pleasure, it promotes positive activation,
mechanisms is associated with the reduced engagement in motivation and engagement. In such circumstances it
preparation for a performance, which might in turn impinge may be easier to reappraise anxiety as excitement, which
the quality of performance. Speculating about the possible is beneficial for the level of performance (see Brooks,
negative individual correlates of performance anxiety, 2014). Playful school class presentations in which
we could think of field-independence (Witkin, 1968 after students share their knowledge of a selected topic and
Matczak, 2000), comprising reduced need for social exchange the roles of performers and audience may be an
approval (Witkin & Goodenough, 1977) and psychoticism example.
with the reduced importance of the opinion of others (see A performer’s assumptions about performing are
Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985). acquired and formed within the process of socialization
and education, which often emphasizes the competitive
Strategies of coping with performance anxiety aspect of performance. Thus, performing may seem
As mentioned earlier, with reference to performance a contest, duel, or demonstration of power rather than
anxiety most coping strategies are of a cognitive character, sharing knowledge or skill, marginalizing the role of
comprised of modification of interpretation schemes, pleasure and interest in a performer. A common practice
task-focus, process-focus (vs. effect-focus), sufficient of enhancing the evaluative aspect of performance that
preparation, and positive self-talk (see Sinico & Winter, strengthens ego-centered motives leaves much space for
2013), but not searching for social support and avoidance performance anxiety. In such a context, considering the
(Biasutti & Concina, 2014). Behavioural strategies above processes in the functional spotlight should promote
that reduce performance anxiety include developing viewing performance anxiety as an adaptive advantage that
personal confidence, enhancing motivation and skills in performers might well benefit from.
 Performance anxiety: the need for an integrative approach 277
Performance anxiety as a social adaptation professional environment depends on their ability to
successfully gain maximum support of the public.
Performance anxiety can be analyzed in the light of In individuals with high motivation to carry on with
the evolutionary approach that emphasizes two separate performing activities and the internal locus of control
causes of any psychological phenomenon: its functional (Rotter, 1966), performance anxiety, once experienced,
and phylogenetic origin. The questions to consider here may have a protective role. As an internal affective signal
are whether performance anxiety is of any functional associated with low self-efficacy (see Bandura, 1999),
importance to an individual, and whether the ability to it may prompt sufficient preparation preceding further
control performance anxiety and overcome its symptoms performances. Considering the similar circumstances,
may be viewed as an adaptive advantage at an individual performance anxiety as punishment in the operant
level. A highly specialized and competitive contemporary conditioning scheme (underpreparation – performance
work environment promotes the ability to successfully anxiety) may encourage achieving a certain level of task-
deliver public presentations of any kind. In such -mastery prior to performance in order to avoid anxiety on
circumstances, the ability to overcome stress and maintain stage. Actually, pleasant anticipation of a performance goes
efficiency in confrontation with the audience seems to be an with intrinsic motivation and feeling of self-efficacy (see
important adaptive disposition. Lagendörfer, Hodapp, Kreutz, & Bongard, 2006).
Despite the subjective unpleasantness of anxiety, we Adopting an interactionist view on performance
should bear in mind its functional nature (Corr, 2011). anxiety, we may expect that the situational context
Anxiety forms an incentive prompting avoidance of the significant from the perspective of one’s career raises the
aspects of a situation that may raise the risk of experiencing risk of high performance anxiety as a state, especially in
an actual social threat (see Perkins & Corr, 2014). In the those with high trait anxiety. Such a situation might be
case of performance anxiety, the social threat refers to being considered from the perspective of inferiority-superiority
perceived as weak with the resulting negative evaluation as being subject to the evaluative response of others and
and its possible consequences for social position and thus “at their mercy.” The capability to deliver what one
self-esteem. While the adaptive function of anxiety is to has prepared underlies a success or a failure, of which the
protect an individual from danger, performance anxiety criteria are often unclear. The self-presentational theory of
would constitute an instinctual, adaptive response to social anxiety (Leary & Kowalski, 1995a, 1995b; Schlenker
social exposure in the context of performing in public and & Leary, 1982) proposes that it accompanies a motivation
competition. to make a desired impression on other people with the
The rise of such physiological correlates of perfor- simultaneous doubt that this goal can be achieved. In
mance anxiety as the level of glucocorticoids (cortisone humans, “success is achieved not by intimidating a rival,
and cortisol) occurs even if no real audience is present but by attracting positive responses from other members of
(Fancourt et al., 2015). However, giving a solo public the group, resulting in prestige” (Price, 2003, after Kenny,
performance is associated with extensive exposure 2011, p. 63), which is exactly what public performance
to judgment and responsibility for the performance stands for. In our species, the processes of selection
outcome. Fear of social exposure has its roots in can involve the relationships between an individual
confrontation with an opponent or an antagonist. From and a group. Behaviours associated with professional
the adaptive perspective, it is a situation of a potentially achievement contributing to reproductive success may
dangerous power asymmetry in which anxiety is be determined by the relations between the members of
a warning adaptation. One is alone against many others a social environment (Sober & Wilson, 1998), such as
who may form a powerful coalition against a performer, approval and respect. These speculations concerning the
and for that reason it would not be advantageous adaptive view of performance anxiety based on more
to prevent anxiety (see Tooby & Cosmides, 2010). general assumptions concerning anxiety, though not directly
Extrapolating from this general adaptive effect, the less testable, form the context that may help to better understand
powerful (prepared or competent in a particular domain) the function of this phenomenon for performers.
a performer feels, the higher the perceived danger (see
Wan, 2008). The risk of being negatively evaluated Exemplary experiences of performance anxiety
and thus perceived as deficient or inadequate (Elliot
& Dweck, 2005) may entail loss of means of making In this section, the somatic and cognitive effects of
a living, which ultimately forms a threat to survival. performance anxiety on live performance are illustrated
The quality of the performance may have consequences with the experience of renowned performing artists. Their
for the future access to resources and social position, statements1 may be divided into five categories: negative
a loss of which may mean neglect. Huron (2001, somatic effects, negative experience, negative cognitive
p. 47) speculates that “music making may have arisen effects and fear of them, and on the other hand – positive
as a courtship behavior.” If so, success in performing experience and positive cognitive effects of performance
might increase the likelihood that the performer’s assets anxiety.
in mate selection would exceed the assets of those who
fail to perform in public. These aspects are tangible for 1 All the following statements were found on popular websites and serve
artists, sportspeople, or speakers whose status in their illustrative purposes only.
278 Joanna Kantor-Martynuska, Ewa Domaradzka

Negative somatic effects is anecdotally believed to have come to the point of

In an interview, Scarlett Johansson admitted that purposefully cutting her finger in order to have a serious
although she gets excited about getting ready for a public excuse for cancelling a concert8 on the high peak of a wave
appearance, she hates red carpet shows. She gets uncomfort- of her avoidance motives concerning a performance.
able and scared, perspiring profoundly, with a banging heart
and a dry mouth2. Renee Fleming reveals that for some time Negative cognitive effects
before a performance “nothing had happened to precipitate Some performers are painfully aware of the negative
it [the reaction], nothing had changed, but without warning, effects that performance anxiety has on their cognition.
my throat closed up entirely.”3 Jack Lydon’s experience Alan Rickman acclaims: “I get stage fright and gremlins
of performance anxiety is: “(…) Unbelievable, the panic. in my head saying: ‘You’re going to forget your lines’.”
I nearly die of fear before I go on stage. Something wicked. Jane Fonda admits that in order to cope with performance
I can’t eat a thing the day before a gig. It’d make me vomit.”4 anxiety actors “hide behind the masks.”9 Memory errors
Although a difficulty, performance anxiety can be can be really annoying, as Barbra Streisand puts it: “Some
managed in favour of the quality of performance. As Helen performers really do well when they forget the words.
Mirren notices: “I still suffer terribly from stage fright. I get They forget the words all the time, but they somehow have
sick with fear. Not every night, but at the beginning and on humor about it. I remember I didn’t have a sense of humor
occasion – not necessarily when I’m expecting it. You just about it. I was quite shocked.”10 The feeling of inferiority
have to cope with it – take it on the chin and work through and elevated public self-consciousness may intensify the
it, trying to use the adrenalin to perform.”5 The actress effects of the error or memory slip.
emphasizes her effort in harnessing the positive energy However, there are also positive aspects of PA. The
arising from fear and using nervousness in one’s own positive experience includes the feeling of responsibility
favour (see Gamble & Gamble, 2015). The intensity of the and respect for the audience, being introduced to the
somatic symptoms of performance anxiety suggests their world of performance, and sensitivity as a background for
functional importance and adequacy. The reasons for such nervousness that accompanies performance together with
a global engagement of an organism, both at the conscious trust in people. These attitudes to the audience help to build
and unconscious levels, must refer to the consequences a positive relationship with the public, which reduces the
important for their adaptive functions. dichotomy between a performer and the audience.
The positive cognitive effects include the focus
Negative experience of attention and narrowing of its field, getting ready for
The Polish actor Andrzej Chyra experiences a performance (“A little bit of stage fright, then I’m ready”
performance anxiety when he is unsure of the performance, Faith Hill11), and energizing the performance, as Helen
when he knows that it’s poor. In this case performance Mirren admits in the quotation above. Andrea Bocelli
anxiety is the anticipation of shame. His remark refers to notices: “every audience has its character; I like America
the function of performance anxiety as one of the factors – they love me. I suffer from stage fright, but in America
preventing the self-conscious emotion of shame. Renee not so much”12, which emphasizes the role of the external
Fleming also confesses that she has “(…) a very difficult environment and the personal meaning of the performing
time with stage fright; it undermines your well-being and situation for the level of performance anxiety. All these
peace of mind, and it can also threaten your livelihood.”6 experiences shared by people whose job is to perform in
As an example of a negative experience, Andrea Bocelli, public demonstrate a variety of aspects that performance
a renowned tenor with a worldwide career, confesses: anxiety brings in to performance.
“Stage fright is my worst problem. A voice is very intimate.
It’s something of your own. So there’s always this fear, Summary and practical issues
because you feel naked. There’s a fear of not reaching
up to expectations.”7 This experience exemplifies power This editorial presents performance anxiety in the
asymmetry accompanying exposure to the public and the context of the theories that allow integrating its cognitive,
feeling of vulnerability to the unexpected group behaviour. emotional, and motivational elements with reference to
With reference to the behavioural effects of performance their functional importance for an individual performing in
anxiety, Martha Argerich, a worldwide famous pianist, public. This approach may shed a new light on performance
anxiety, whose challenges to social approval and social
status may form a direction for further research.
2 http://film.wp.pl/id,101598,title,Scarlett-Johansson-sparalizowana- Theoretical consideration of the scope and function
trema,wiadomosc.html?ticaid=1150e5&_ticrsn=3. of performance anxiety and the empirical research on
3 http://socialanxietydisorder.about.com/od/researchresources/a/Quotes-

-About-Stage-Fright.htm
4 http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/stage_fright.html#mxfw 8 http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/03/arts/television/03schw.html?_r=0
50YxKq95EDLb.99 9 http://socialanxietydisorder.about.com/od/researchresources/a/Quotes-
5 Ibidem. -About-Stage-Fright.htm
6 http://socialanxietydisorder.about.com/od/researchresources/a/Quotes- 10 Ibidem.

-About-Stage-Fright.htm 11 Ibidem.
7 http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/a/andreaboce582263.html? 12 http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/stage_fright.html#mxfw

src=t_stage_fright. 50YxKq95EDLb.99
 Performance anxiety: the need for an integrative approach 279
its bases and consequences reveal the dual nature of well as the contextual elements of a performance contribute
this phenomenon. On one hand, performance anxiety to performance anxiety, constituting its advantageous or
with a predominant arousal component, state-like form, disadvantageous effect on performance.
moderate intensity, and its activating effects prepares In practice, coping strategies comprised of control
a performer for an extra effort and helps to rise to the of interpretation schemes, self-efficacy or task focus,
challenge of social exposure and judgment. It appears training the attentional control, and conscious regulation
to be adaptively sound in a situation of facing the public of the perfectionistic and catastrophic tendencies should
and being subject to evaluation. This context requires counterweigh the emotional vulnerability to performance
taking the risk of confrontation with the audience, which anxiety and its possible links to trait anxiety as an
may place social approval and social position in peril, evaluative or social anxiety. Insight into the manifold
and thus is important from the adaptive perspective. If background of performance anxiety and the way it is
sufficient preparation precedes a performance underlying experienced may help to work out a means to reduce its
a performer’s well -grounded sense of self -efficacy, debilitating effects and enhance its facilitating role for
performance anxiety serves as a mechanism that signals the public performance.
necessity of making an extra effort. It facilitates standing up
to the situation and activating competences with the aim to Contents of the special issue
maximize the quality of performance.
On the other hand, it is a common experience of The papers contributing to this Special Issue extend
performers that performance anxiety of the exaggerated the specific unobvious contexts in which performance
scale involving prolonged apprehension is a debilitating anxiety is anchored. In the introductory empirical paper
phenomenon, hindering the quality of public presentation. Attachment quality is associated with music performance
It reduces energetic activation and implies loss of anxiety in professional musicians: an exploratory narrative
performance-focus. Deficits in these resources seem to be study, Kenny investigates a variety of attachment themes in
more profound if a performer maintains the competitive biographies of professional orchestral musicians and their
view of a public performance, which is likely to move the relationship with music performance anxiety. This narrative
attention and motivation from task to self and from the study, run with open-ended in-depth interviews with ten
process to effect. The depleting aspect of performance professional musicians, brought data later analyzed using
anxiety may also be enhanced by the mutual relationship content and thematic analysis. It was revealed that early
between a performer and the audience and the way relational trauma may be a relevant etiological factor in
a performer perceives the attitude of an audience. If the music performance anxiety symptomatic of musicians.
a performer assumes that the audience is keeping track The paper forms the basis for a proposal to extend the
of his or her failures or if the audience is actually more symptomatic approach by attachment -informed life-
evaluation- than enjoyment-focused, such conditions -course context in understanding and treating severe music
tend to affect performance in a negative way. Also, if the performance anxiety.
level of preparedness is low or subjectively underrated by The following paper by Szczygieł entitled Service with
a performer, anxiety may exceed its adaptive level with a fake smile and emotional exhaustion. Does emotional
debilitating effects for the quality of performance. intelligence matter? explores the costs of emotional
These two facets of performance anxiety find labor aimed at maintaining pleasant facial expressions
correspondence in the motivational ambiguity of public in customer service employees. Low ability to conceal
performing that requires trade-off between approach and real emotions and fake positive emotions may lead to
avoidance tendencies. The results of this process are based performance anxiety in a workplace. It was found that more
on the proportion of the benefits from undertaking the extensive use of surface acting during interactions with
task and the costs of withdrawing from it, as perceived customers is associated with more symptoms of emotional
by a performer. One of the motivational mechanisms exhaustion, but high emotional intelligence prevents this
underlying performance anxiety is the BIS (McNaughton & effect. We may predict that high emotional intelligence
Gray, 2000; Corr, 2010), producing anxiety when activated could help to avoid performance anxiety in individuals
and increasing the avoidance motivation to the performance performing in public.
situation that may discourage a performer. With reference Sankaran’s review entitled Learned helplessness
to cognition, the BIS, responsible for responding to threat, in sports: The role of repetitive failure experience,
is activated by a discrepancy between a standard adopted performance anxiety and perfectionism shows the link
for a particular performance and the way this performance between repetitive failure in a performance and learned
actually proceeds. Through the controlled processing of the helplessness. The role of performance anxiety and
potential discrepancy, the BIS reduces the pool of cognitive maladaptive perfectionism underlie thinking traits that may
resources available to manage a performance. Such a drop affect motor performance when these traits moderate the
in one’s assets seems to be more salient in persons with effects of consecutive failure experience. A typical profile
a tendency to adopt and maintain self-focused vs. task- of an athlete is presented, emphasizing susceptibility
-focused attitude to performance. The significance of an to choking under pressure as an outcome of perceived
individual public performance, a performer’s motivational uncontrollability and performance anxiety. Such themes as
tendencies, trait anxiety, and other personality factors as burnout and potential interventions are further developed.
280 Joanna Kantor-Martynuska, Ewa Domaradzka

The paper Waiting for the concert. Pre-performance Alpert, R., & Haber, R.N. (1960). Anxiety in academic achievement
emotions and the performance success of teenage music situations. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61,
207–215.
school students by Kaleńska-Rodzaj analyses emotions American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical
that adolescent musicians experience prior to giving a solo Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth Edition). Washington (DC):
music performance and explores the function of these American Psychiatric Association.
emotions for performance quality. The study shows the American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth Edition). Arlington, VA: Ameri-
prevalence of ambivalent emotions such as hope, but also can Psychiatric Publishing.
sadness, joy, and anxiety in musicians’ pre-performance Aufegger, L., Perkins, R., Wasley, D., et al. (2016). Musicians’ percep-
emotional state. Cluster analysis reveals six basic aspects tions and experiences of using simulation training to develop per-
of this state: high and moderate music performance anxiety, formance skills. Psychology of Music, advance online publication.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735616666940.
calmness, mixed emotions, joy with background fatigue, Baddeley, A.D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford: Oxford University
and excitement. Again, it is shown that positive and mixed Press.
emotions form a large portion of the affective background Baddeley, A.D. (2001). Is working memory still working? American Psy-
for performance quality. chologist, 56, 851–64.
Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective.
The empirical paper Psychometric properties of the
Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 2, 21–41.
Kenny-Music Performance Anxiety Inventory modified Biasutti, M., & Concina, E. (2014). The role of coping strategy and experi-
for general performance anxiety by Kantor-Martynuska ence in predicting music performance anxiety. Musicae Scientiae,
and Kenny has a twofold advantage. First, it analyses the 18, 189–202.
psychometric properties of the Polish adaptation of the Bippus, A.M., & Daly, J.A. (1999). What do people think causes stage
fright? Naive attributions about the reasons for public speaking
Kenny Music Performance Anxiety Inventory – Revised anxiety. Communication Education, 48, 63–72.
(K -MPAI -R, Kenny, 2009), modified as the Kenny Bradley, R.T., McCraty, R., Atkinson, M., Tomasino, D., Daugherty, A.,
Performance Anxiety Inventory (K-PAI) for a general & Arguelles, L. (2010). Emotion self-regulation, psychophysiologi-
population of individuals with experience in public cal coherence, and test anxiety: results from an experiment using
electrophysiological measures. Applied Psychophysiology and Bio-
performance in fields other than music. Second, it explores feedback, 35, 261–283.
the relationship between performance anxiety and affective Brooks, A.W. (2013). Get excited: Reappraising pro-performance anxiety
disorders, cognitive dispositions and temperamental as excitement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143,
characteristics such as general anxiety, depression, 1144–1158.
Brooks, A.W. (2014). Get excited: Reappraising pre-performance anxiety
attentional control, behavioural inhibition, behavioural as excitement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143,
activation, and reward susceptibility. The authors analyse 1144–1158.
the structure of performance anxiety in a general population Butt, J., Weinberg, R.S., & Horn, T.S. (2003). The intensity and direc-
of those who perform in public. tional interpretation of anxiety. Fluctuations throughout competi-
tion and relationship to performance. The Sport Psychologist, 17,
As this Special Issue demonstrates, performance 35–54.
anxiety is a common experience for those who give public Calamaras, M.R., Anderson, P.L., Tannenbaum, L., & Zimand, E. (2014).
performances of any kind. Further work should aim to Public speaking anxiety. In: L. Grossman & S. Walfish (Eds.),
apply the knowledge concerning the bases and context of Translating psychological research into practice. (pp. 253–258).
New York: Springer Publishing.
performance anxiety. Students of any age should be given
Caprara, G.V., & Cervone, D. (2000). Personality: Determinants, dynam-
an opportunity to be a part of the audience and perform ics and potentials. Cambridge University Press.
in a safe and friendly atmosphere. The effects of such Carver, C.S., & Scheier, M. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior.
performance should be subject to constructive analysis New York: Cambridge University Press.
and correction. Skills of emotion regulation should be Cheng, W.-N.K., & Hardy, L. (2015). Three-dimensional model of per-
formance anxiety: Tests of the adaptive potential of the regula-
systematically trained in those who perform to reduce tory dimension of anxiety. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22,
emotional labour, professional burnout, and the resultant 255–263.
risks for physical and mental health. More awareness of Chodkiewicz, J., & Mniszewska, J. (2015). The Polish adaptation of the
the positive goals of presenting in public would leave more Public Speaking Anxiety Questionnaire. Psychiatria Polska, 49,
95–105.
resources to care for the quality of performance. Research Chorpita, B.F., & Barlow, D.H. (1998). the development of anxiety: The
should focus on studying performance anxiety in natural role of control in the early environment. Psychological Bulletin,
contexts, with insights to intrinsic motivation and the 124, 3–21.
level of preparedness. The populations of sportspeople, Chorpita, B.F., Brown, T.A., & Barlow, D.H. (1998). Perceived control
as a mediator of family environment in etiological models of child-
musicians, and speakers might benefit from participating in hood anxiety. Behavior Therapy, 29, 457–476.
such research as part of their general academic background. Corr, P.J. (2010). Automatic and controlled processes in behavioural con-
trol: Implications for personality psychology. European Journal of
Personality, 24, 376–403.
Corr, P.J. (2011). Anxiety: Splitting the phenomenological atom. Person-
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