CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Acids, Bases and Salts
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Acids and Bases

Acids Bases

Sour in taste, Derived from Greek word

Bitter in taste.
“Acidus”.

Changes blue litmus into red. Changes red litmus into blue.

e.g. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH),

e.g. Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulfuric acid,
Potassium hydroxide (KOH), Calcium
Nitric acid, Acetic acid, etc.
Hydroxide, Ammonium Hydroxide, etc.

D
RA
Acid-Base Indicators:
Natural indicators like litmus, turmeric, red cabbage leaves, and colored petals from
KI
flowers like Hydrangea, Petunia, and Geranium can show acidity or alkalinity. On the
other hand, synthetic indicators such as methyl orange and phenolphthalein are also
T
AN

used for the same purpose.

Red litmus solution Blue litmus solution Phenolphthalein solution Methyl Orange Solution
H
AS

Acid - No change Acid - Red Acid - Colorless Acid - Red

Base - Blue Base - No Change Base - Pink Base - Yellow
PR

Some naturally occurring acids:

“”
- Prashant Bhaiya
 PRASHANT KIRAD

What Is an Acid and a Base?

EMA
Ionizable and Non-Ionizable Compounds
An ionizable compound, when in water or molten form, breaks down into ions almost
completely. Examples include NaCl, HCl, KOH, and others. In contrast, a non-
ionizable compound does not separate into ions when dissolved in water or in its
molten state. Examples of such compounds are glucose and acetone.
Acids and Bases
An acid is a substance that contains hydrogen and can donate a proton (hydrogen
ion) to another substance. On the other hand, a base is a molecule or ion capable of
accepting a hydrogen ion from an acid. Typically, acidic substances are recognized
by their sour taste.
Arrhenius’ Theory of Acids and Bases

An Arrhenius acid is a substance that, An Arrhenius base is a substance that,

when dissolved in water, breaks apart to when dissolved in water, dissociates to

D
yield H+ (aq) or H3O+ ions. produce OH− ions.

RA
Acids Bases
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
KI
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Nitric acid (HNO3) Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]
T
AN

Bronsted Lowry Theory

A Bronsted acid is an H+ (aq) ion donor.
H

A Bronsted base is an H+ (aq) ion acceptor.

AS

Examples:
In the reaction: HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq) → NH+4(aq) + Cl− (aq)
PR

JOSH METER?
HCl – Bronsted acid and Cl− : its conjugate acid
NH3 – Bronsted base and NH+4 : its conjugate acid

Potential physical tests for identifying an acid or a base are:

Taste
Acids typically have a sour taste, while bases often taste bitter. However, relying on
taste to identify acids or bases is not recommended due to the risk of contamination
or corrosiveness.
For instance, substances like curd, lemon juice, orange juice, and vinegar exhibit a sour
taste because they contain acids. On the other hand, baking soda, despite having a
somewhat sour taste, serves as an example of a base. It is essential to use proper
testing methods rather than relying on taste alone.

Effect on Indicators by Acids and Bases

An indicator is a chemical substance that exhibits a change in its physical properties,
 PRASHANT KIRAD
particularly in color or odor, upon contact with an acid or a base.

Common indicators and the colors they display are as follows:

a) Litmus: Litmus is provided in paper strip forms as red litmus and blue litmus.
Neutral solution – purple Acid transforms moist blue litmus paper to red.
Acidic solution – red Base transforms moist red litmus paper to blue.
Basic solution – blue

b) Methyl Orange:
Neutral solution – orange
Acidic solution – red
Basic solution – yellow

c) Phenolphthalein:
Neutral solution – colorless
Acidic solution – remains colorless
Basic solution – exhibits a pink color.
EMA

D
Acid-Base Reactions

RA
When acid and bases react with metals:
Acids, in general, react with metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas. Bases, in
general, do not react with metals and do not produce hydrogen gas.
KI
Acid + active metal → salt + hydrogen + heat
T

2HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2 (↑)

AN

Base + metal → salt + hydrogen + heat

2NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 + H2 (↑)
H

A more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its base.
AS

2Na + Mg (OH) 2 → 2NaOH + Mg

When acid react with Metal Carbonates and Bicarbonates:
PR

When acids engage with metal carbonates or bicarbonates, the resulting reaction
generates carbon dioxide, metal salts, and water. For example, the reaction between
hydrochloric acid and sodium carbonate produces sodium chloride, carbon dioxide, and
water. Notably, if the evolved carbon dioxide is passed through lime water, it causes
the lime water to exhibit a milky appearance.
Acid + metal carbonate or bicarbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide.

2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

H2SO4 + Mg (HCO3)2 → MgSO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2

Effervescence indicates the liberation of CO2 gas.
When acid and Base react with each other:
A neutralization reaction takes place when an acid interacts with a base, resulting in
the formation of salt and water as the final products. In this conventional approach, an
acid- base neutralization reaction is expressed as a double-replacement reaction.

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

 PRASHANT KIRAD
1.Metal Oxides and Hydroxides with Acids:
Metal oxides or metal hydroxides exhibit basic properties.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water + Heat
H2SO4 + MgO → MgSO4 + H2O
2HCl + Mg (OH) 2 → MgCl2 + 2H2O
2.Non-Metal Oxides with Bases:
Non-metal oxides demonstrate acidic properties.
Base + Nonmetal Oxide → Salt + Water + Heat
2NaOH + CO2→ Na2CO3 + H2O
Reaction of acids and base
A very common acid is hydrochloric acid. The reaction between strong acid, says
hydrochloric acid and strong base say sodium hydroxide, forms salt and water. The
complete chemical equation is shown below.
HCl (strong acid) + NaOH (strong base) → NaCl (salt) + H2O (water)

D
Acids and Bases in water

RA
When added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help
in conducting electricity.
KI
Acids:
Ionization: When an acid is dissolved in water, it ionizes to produce hydrogen ions (H⁺).
T

These hydrogen ions combine with water molecules to form hydronium ions (H₃O⁺).
AN

H⁺ + H₂O → H₃O⁺
Bases:
Dissociation: When a base is dissolved in water, it dissociates to produce hydroxide
H

ions (OH⁻).
AS

Heat
NaOH → Na⁺ + OH⁻
PR

Bases which are soluble in water

are called alkalis. All bases do not
dissolve in water. They are soapy to
touch, bitter and corrosive.

What are alkali?

Dilution:
Dilution involves decreasing the concentration of a solution by incorporating additional
solvent, typically water. This process is highly exothermic. When diluting acid, it is
essential to add the acid to water and not vice versa.

Strength of Acids and Bases:

Strong Acid or Base: In the case of a strong acid or base, every molecule in a given
quantity undergoes complete dissociation in water, resulting in the formation of their
respective ions (H+(aq) for acids and OH−(aq) for bases).
Weak Acid or Base: Contrastingly, with weak acids or bases, only a few molecules from
 PRASHANT KIRAD
a given amount undergo partial dissociation in water, producing their respective ions
(H+(aq) for acids and OH−(aq) for bases).

Dilute acid: contains less number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.
Concentrated acid: contains more number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.

Q. What is a universal indicator?

A universal indicator is a mixture of several pH
indicators that shows a gradual color change over a
wide range of pH values (typically from pH 1 to 14),
allowing it to determine the acidity or alkalinity of a “pH scale topic is
solution. It provides a different color for each pH important”
value, making it useful for estimating the pH of a - Prashant Bhaiya
solution more accurately than
using a single indicator.

pH Scale:

D
The pH scale, developed for measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution,

RA
derives the "p" from the German term 'potenz,' meaning power.
On the pH scale, readings range generally from 0 (indicating strong acidity) to 14
KI
(indicating strong alkalinity).
pH is a numerical representation of the acidic or basic nature of a solution.
T

A lower pH value corresponds to a higher concentration of hydrogen ions.

A neutral solution has a pH of 7.
AN

Values below 7 on the pH scale represent an acidic solution.

As the pH value increases from 7 to 14, it signifies a rise in the concentration of
H

OH− ions, indicating an increase in the strength of the alkali.

The pH scale is often measured using paper impregnated with a universal indicator.
AS
PR

Importance of pH in everyday life:

Our body works within the pH range of 7.0 to 7.8.
When pH of rainwater is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain.
When acid rain flows into the rivers, it lowers the pH of the river water. The
survival of aquatic life in such rivers becomes difficult.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

pH in our digestive system:

It's fascinating to observe that our stomach
naturally produces hydrochloric acid, aiding in
the digestion of food without causing harm to
the stomach lining. However, in instances of
indigestion, an excess of stomach acid can lead
to discomfort and irritation. To alleviate this
pain, individuals often turn to bases known as
antacids. These antacids work by neutralizing
the surplus acid. Magnesium hydroxide,
commonly known as Milk of Magnesia, is a mild
base frequently employed for this purpose.
pH change as the cause of tooth decay:
Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5.
Tooth enamel, made up of calcium hydroxyapatite (a crystalline
form of calcium phosphate) is the hardest substance in the body.
Bacteria present in the mouth produce acids by degradation of

D
sugar and food particles remaining in the mouth after eating.
The best way to prevent this is to clean the mouth after eating

RA
food.
Using toothpaste, which is generally basic, for cleaning the teeth
KI
can neutralize the excess acid and prevent tooth decay.

Self-defense by animals and plants through chemical warfare:

T

Bee-sting leaves an acid that causes pain and irritation. The use of a mild base like
AN

baking soda on the stung area gives relief. Stinging hair of nettle leaves injects
methanoic acid causing burning pain.
H

Manufacture of Acids and Bases

AS

a) Nonmetal oxide + water → acid

SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)
PR

SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)

Non-metal oxides are thus JOSH METER?

referred to as acid anhydrides.

b) Metal + water → base or alkali + hydrogen

Zn(s) + H2O(steam) → ZnO(s)+ H2(g) c) Hydrogen + halogen → acid
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
d) Few metallic oxides + water → alkali HCl(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq)
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)

e) Ammonia + water → ammonium hydroxide

NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)
f) Metallic salt + conc. sulphuric acid → salt + more volatile acid
2NaCl(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
2KNO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO3(aq)
 PRASHANT KIRAD

EMA
Salts
Salt is formed through the combination of an anion derived from an acid and a cation
derived from a base.
Examples of salts include KCl, NaNO3, CaSO4, and others.
Typically, salts are produced through the neutralization reaction between an acid and a
base.
Commonly known as common salt, Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is extensively utilized globally
in cooking.
Salts sharing the same cation or anion are considered part of the same salt family.
Examples include NaCl, KCl, LiCl.

pH of Salts:
Salts of a strong acid and a strong base are neutral with a pH value of 7.
Salts of a strong acid and weak base are acidic with a pH value of less than 7.
Those of a strong base and weak acid are basic in nature with a pH value of more than
7.

D
Chemicals From Common Salt

RA
The salt formed by the combination of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide
solution is called sodium chloride (NaCl)/Common Salt.
The common salt thus obtained is an important raw material for various materials of
KI
daily use, such as sodium hydroxide, baking soda, washing soda, bleaching powder, and
many more.
T

Sodium hydroxide or lye or caustic soda

AN

Baking soda or sodium hydrogen carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate

Washing soda or sodium carbonate decahydrate
Bleaching powder or calcium hypochlorite
H
AS

1.Sodium Hydroxide
When electricity is passed through salty water (brine), it breaks down to make sodium
hydroxide. This process is called the chlor-alkali process because it produces chlorine
PR

and alkali (sodium hydroxide).

2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + Cl2 (g) + H2 (g)
At one end (anode), chlorine gas is released, and at the other end (cathode), hydrogen
gas is given off. Close to the cathode, we get a solution of sodium hydroxide.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
2.Bleaching Powder
Chlorine gas is utilized in the manufacturing process of bleaching powder.
The production of bleaching powder involves the interaction of chlorine with dry
slaked lime [Ca(OH)2].
While bleaching powder is often represented as CaOCl2, its actual composition is more
complex.
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 → CaOCl2 + H2O.

Bleaching powder is used –

for bleaching cotton and linen in the textile industry, for bleaching wood pulp in
paper factories, and for bleaching washed clothes in laundry;
as an oxidizing agent in many chemical industries; and
to make drinking water free from germs.

3.Baking Soda
Sodium bicarbonate, commonly known as baking soda or
bicarbonate of soda, has the chemical formula NaHCO3
and is recognized by the IUPAC name sodium hydrogen

D
carbonate. This salt is created by the combination of a

RA
sodium cation (Na+) and a bicarbonate anion (HCO3).
Found as a fine powder, sodium bicarbonate is a white,
crystalline substance. Its taste is mildly salty and
KI
alkaline, resembling that of washing soda (sodium
carbonate).
T
AN

Chemical name – Sodium hydrogen carbonate

Chemical formula – NaHCO3
H

4.Water of Crystallization
AS

The water of crystallization is the fixed number of water molecules present in one
formula unit of salt. Five water molecules are present in one formula unit of copper
sulphate. The chemical formula for hydrated copper sulphate is CuSO4.5H2O.
PR

5.Plaster of Paris
On heating gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) at 373 K, it loses water molecules and
becomes calcium sulphate hemihydrate (CaSO4.1/2H2O). This is called Plaster of
Paris.

Uses of Plaster of Paris:

It is employed by medical professionals to create casts for maintaining fractured
bones in the correct position.
In the realm of creativity, Plaster of Paris is utilized for crafting toys, decorative
items, and achieving smooth surfaces.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Important activities

D
Take a few zinc granules in a boiling tube and add approximately 5 mL of dilute

RA
sulphuric acid to it.
Observe the formation of gas bubbles on the surface of the zinc granules. Direct
the gas being produced through a soap solution in a trough using a glass delivery
KI
tube. This results in the formation of gas-filled bubbles in the soap solution that
rise into the air.
T

Bring a burning candle close to a gas-filled soap bubble. The gas within the soap
AN

bubble ignites with a 'pop' sound, indicating a small explosion.

This demonstration confirms that only hydrogen gas, which has the characteristic
'pop' sound when ignited, is evolved in the reaction between dilute sulphuric acid
H

and zinc metal (present in the form of zinc granules).

AS
PR

Take a boiling tube and place approximately 0.5 g of sodium carbonate in it.
Add about 2 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid to the boiling tube using a thistle
funnel.
Observe the brisk effervescence of a gas being produced.
Pass the gas generated through lime water. Notice that the lime water turns milky,
indicating the presence of carbon dioxide gas.
Continue passing carbon dioxide gas through the milky lime water for some time.
Eventually, the lime water becomes clear again.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
This demonstrates that the initially formed white precipitate of calcium carbonate
dissolves when excess carbon dioxide gas is passed.
Repeat the experiment using sodium hydrogen carbonate instead of sodium
carbonate. Again, carbon dioxide gas is produced, turning the lime water milky.
Upon passing an excess of carbon dioxide, the milky lime water once again becomes
clear.

D
RA
KI
Place 1 g of solid sodium chloride (NaCl) in a clean, dry boiling tube.
T

Carefully add concentrated sulfuric acid, fitting the rubber cone over the glass
AN

tube.
The reaction forms hydrogen chloride gas, observed escaping from the open end.
Test the gas with a 'dry' blue litmus paper, noting no change in color, indicating HCl
H

gas doesn't act as an acid in the absence of water.

AS

Test the gas with a 'moist' blue litmus paper, observing a color change to red,
revealing acidic behavior of HCl gas in the presence of water.
Conclusion: HCl gas is not acidic in the absence of water but displays acidic
PR

behavior in the presence of water.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

# TOP 7
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1) A dry pellet of a common base B absorbs moisture and turns sticky when kept open.
The compound is also a by-product of the chlor-alkali process. Identify B. What type of
reaction occurs when B is treated with an acidic oxide? Write a balanced chemical
equation for one such solution.

Solution:

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is a commonly used base and is hygroscopic; it absorbs

moisture from the atmosphere and becomes sticky. A neutralization reaction occurs
when acidic oxides react with the base to give salt and water.

D
2 NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O

2) Give reasons for the following:

RA
(i) Only one-half of the water molecule is shown in the formula of the plaster of Paris.
KI
(ii) Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used as an antacid.
(iii) On strong heating, blue-colored copper sulfate crystals turn white. (2020)
T
AN

Solution:

(i) Only one-half of the water molecule is shown in the formula of plaster of Paris
H

(CaSO4. 1/2H2O) as one molecule of water is being shared by two molecules of calcium
AS

sulphate (CaSO4). So the effective water of crystallization for one CaSO4 unit comes
to half a molecule of water.
(ii) Acidity can be neutralized by a base. Sodium hydrogen carbonate can be used as an
PR

antacid solution because it is a weak base and will react with excess acid produced in
the stomach due to hyperacidity and will neutralize it.
(iii) Blue colored copper sulphate crystals are hydrated copper sulphate, CuSO4.5H2O.
On heating blue copper sulphate crystals lose their water of crystallization and turn
into anhydrous copper sulphate which is white.
Heat
CuSO4 . 5H2O → CuSO4 + 5H2O
(Blue) (White)

3) A white powder is added while baking cakes to make them soft and spongy. Name
its main ingredients. Explain the function of each ingredient. Write the chemical
reaction taking place when the powder is heated during baking. (AI2019)

Solution:

The white powder added while baking cakes to make them soft and spongy is baking
 PRASHANT KIRAD
powder. Its main ingredients are sodium hydrogen carbonate and a mild edible acid like
tartaric acid or citric acid. NaHCO3 decomposes to give out CO2 which causes the cake
to rise and makes it soft and spongy. The function of tartaric acid or citric acid is to
neutralize sodium carbonate formed during heating which can otherwise make the cake
bitter. The reaction taking place when the powder is heated:
Heat
2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2

4) The pH of a salt used to make tasty and crispy pakoras is 14. Identify the salt and
write a chemical equation for its formation. List its two uses. (2018)

Solution:
Salt used to make tasty and crispy pakoras is sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), pH = 9. On
a large scale, sodium bicarbonate is prepared as:

NaCl + H2O + CO2 + NH3 → NH4Cl + NaHCO3

D
(Sodium Chloride) (Water) (Carbon Dioxide) (Ammonia) (Ammonium Chloride) (Sodium Bicarbonate)

RA
5) A white-colored powder is used by doctors to support fractured bones.
KI
(a)Write the chemical name and formula of the powder.
(b)When this white powder is mixed with water a hard solid mass is obtained. Write
T

the balanced chemical equation for this change. (Board Term I, 2016)
AN

Solution:
H
AS

(a) Chemical name of the powder is calcium sulphate hemihydrate. The chemical formula
of the powder is CaSO4.1/2H2O.
(b) When water is added to the plaster of Paris, it sets into a hard mass in about half an
PR

hour. The setting of the plaster of Paris is due to its hydration to form crystals of
gypsum which set to form a hard, solid mass.
1 1
CaSO4. H2O + 1 H2O → CaSO4 . 2H2O
2 2
(Plaster of Paris) (Water) Gypsum
(Sets as Hard mass)

6) 6) List the important products of the Chlor-alkali process. Write one important use
of each. (2020)
Solution:

Sodium hydroxide is prepared by electrolysis of an aqueous solution of sodium chloride

(brine). The complete reaction can be represented as:
The process of electrolysis of sodium chloride solution is called chlor-alkali process
because of the products formed : chlor for chlorine and alkali for sodium hydroxide. The
three very useful products obtained by the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution are
sodium hydroxide, chlorine and hydrogen.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

On passing
2NaCl (aq) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)
Electricity

At anode: Cl2 gas is liberated and at cathode: H2 gas is liberated.

Uses of sodium hydroxide: In the manufacture of soaps and detergents.

Uses of chlorine: As a germicide and disinfectant for sterilization of drinking water and
for water of swimming pools.
Uses of hydrogen: In the manufacture of ammonia which is used for the preparation of
various fertilizers like urea, ammonium sulphate, etc.
7) How is washing soda prepared from sodium carbonate? Give its chemical equation.
State the type of this salt. Name the type of hardness of water which can be
removed by it. (2020)

Solution:
Washing soda is prepared by recrystallization of sodium carbonate:

D
NA2CO3 (s) + 10H2O (l) → NA2CO3 . 10H2O (s)

RA
Anhydrous Washing Soda
Sodium Carbonate
KI
It is used to remove the permanent hardness of water. Hard water is treated with a
calculated amount of washing soda when chlorides and sulfates of calcium and magnesium
T

present in hard water get precipitated as insoluble calcium and magnesium carbonates
AN

which can be easily filtered off. The water thus becomes soft.
H

CaCl2 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3↓ + 2NaCl

AS

MgSO4 + Na2CO3 → MgCO3↓ + Na2SO4

PR

“Class 10th Phodenge”

 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Carbon and It’s
Compound
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Atomic Number of Carbon 6

Carbon achieves stability with 4 electrons in its outermost
shell. While it could gain four electrons to form a carbon
anion, removing electrons poses challenges due to the
substantial energy requirement. Gaining or losing electrons
influences the formation of bonds in chemical compounds.

To solve this issue, carbon shares its outer electrons with other carbon or
different atoms. This sharing helps both atoms reach a stable configuration,
similar to noble gases. This sharing is called covalent bonding.

D
RA
Examples of Covalent Bonding: KI
Formation of Hydrogen Molecule:
The hydrogen molecule (H 2 ) forms when two hydrogen atoms come close together.
T

Each hydrogen atom shares its electron with the other, creating a covalent bond.
AN

This sharing completes their outer electron shells, making the molecule stable.
The chemical equation for this process is H + H → H 2
H
AS
PR

Formation of chlorine Molecule (Cl 2):

Chlorine gas (Cl 2) forms when two chlorine atoms combine. Each chlorine atom
contributes one electron, creating a covalent bond. This shared electron pair
satisfies the octet rule, making the molecule stable. The chemical equation

Formation of Oxygen Molecule (O2 ):

Two oxygen atoms combine to form an oxygen molecule (O2). The chemical equation
is 2O → O2 showing that two oxygen atoms come together to create one oxygen
molecule.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Formation of Nitrogen Molecule (N 2):

Two nitrogen atoms combine to form a nitrogen molecule (N2 ). The chemical
equation is N + N → N2 indicating that two nitrogen atoms come together to create
one nitrogen molecule.

D
RA
Formation of Methane (CH 4):
Methane CH 4 forms when one carbon atom combines with four hydrogen atoms. The
KI
chemical equation for this is C + 4H2→ CH 4 indicating the combination of carbon
and hydrogen to produce methane.
T
AN
H
AS
PR

Methane, or marsh gas, is a vital fuel used in CNG and Biogas. It not only serves as
a potent energy source but also participates in reactions forming essential
compounds like (Ammonia NH 3 ),(Water H 2 O), and (Carbon Dioxide CO2) This
versatility underscores its significance in both energy and environmental contexts.

Formation of Sulphur (S 8 ):
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Properties of covalent Bond: EMA

Low Melting and Boiling Points: Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling
points due to weak intermolecular forces.

Weak Intermolecular Forces: Covalent compounds exhibit weak forces between

molecules.

Electron Sharing Between Atoms: Electrons are shared between atoms in covalent
bonds.

No Charged Particles Formed: Covalent compounds do not form charged particles;

electrons are shared, not transferred.

Allotropes of carbon: EMA

Allotropy is the characteristic of an element to exist in multiple forms, where each
form possesses distinct physical properties while maintaining identical chemical
properties.

D
RA
DIAMOND:

Properties:
KI
Very Hard
Does not conduct Electricity
T

Transparent and colorless.

AN

Uses:
Industrial cutting tools due to hardness.
Jewelry and gemstones.
H
AS

GRAPHITE:

Properties:
PR

Conductivity: Excellent electrical conductivity.

Thickness: Single layer of carbon atoms
arranged in a hexagonal lattice.
Strength: Exceptionally strong.
Uses:
Lubricants and as a dry lubricant in locks and
mechanisms.
Electrodes in batteries.
Pencils (as pencil lead).
Moderators in nuclear reactors.

FULERENES:

The fullerene C60 was named "Buckminsterfullerene" after

Buckminster Fuller. The initial discovered fullerene is C60,
also known as Buckminsterfullerene, and it comprises 60
carbon atoms.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Versatile Nature of carbon: EMA

The versatile nature of carbon is attributed to its ability to form a wide variety of
compounds, owing to the following characteristics:

Tetravalency: Carbon can form four covalent bonds, allowing it to bond with various
other atoms, including itself, to create diverse molecular structures.

Catenation: Carbon exhibits a high degree of catenation, meaning it can form long
chains, branched structures, or rings, contributing to the diversity of carbon-based
molecules.

Allotropy: Carbon exists in different allotropes, such as diamond, graphite,

graphene, fullerenes, and carbon nanotubes, each with distinct properties and
applications.

Isomerism: Carbon compounds can have different structural or spatial

arrangements, leading to the existence of isomers—molecules with the same
molecular formula but different structures.

D
Polymerization: Carbon is integral to the formation of polymers, enabling the

RA
creation of a wide range of synthetic materials with diverse applications.

These characteristics collectively contribute to carbon's versatility, making it a

KI
cornerstone of organic chemistry and a crucial element for the existence of life as we
know it.
T
AN

HYDROCARBONS
H
AS

SATURATED UNSATURATED
PR

Compounds of carbon are It is the electric current which reverses

linked only by single bonds its direction after every fixed interval of
between the carbon atoms. time.
-Type of Saturated -Types of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbon: Alkanes Alkenes and Alkynes

ALKANES:
- Hydrocarbons with all carbon atoms linked by single covalent bonds are alkanes or
paraffins.
- General formula: CnH2n+2.

ALKENES:
- Unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one double bond along with single bonds
are called alkenes or olefins.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

- General formula: CnH₂n where n>2

-
ALKYNES:
- Unsaturated hydrocarbons with one or more triple bonds along with single bonds
are alkynes.
- General formula: CnH2n−2

Note: For alkenes, n must be greater than 2, and for alkynes, n must be greater
than or equal to 2 to ensure a minimum number of carbon atoms for a double or
triple bond.

IUPAC Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons:

IUPAC (International Union of Pure and

Applied Chemistry) nomenclature is a
systematic method used to name organic

D
compounds, including hydrocarbons.

RA
KI
T
AN

Most important Topic -

Nomenclature”
H

- Prashant Bhaiya
AS
PR

Alkanes (Saturated Hydrocarbons):

- End the name with "-ane."
- Number the carbon atoms in the longest continuous chain.
- Identify and name any substituents (side branches).
- Combine the names of the substituents with the chain name.
- Example: CH3CH2CH2CH3 is butane.

Alkenes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons with Double Bonds):

- End the name with "-ene."
- Number the carbon atoms in the longest continuous chain.
-Identify the location of the double bond and include it in the name.
- Example: CH2=CH−CH3 is propene.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Alkynes (Unsaturated Hydrocarbons with Triple Bonds):

End the name with "-yne."
- Number the carbon atoms in the longest continuous chain.
- Identify the location of the triple bond and include it in the name.
- Example: CH≡C−CH2−CH3 is propyne.

Remember to follow the IUPAC rules for numbering and prioritizing

substituents. The goal is to provide a systematic and unique name for each
hydrocarbon based on its structure.

Steps for writing IUPAC Names:

1. Identify the Longest Carbon Chain:
- Locate the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms in the molecule.
2. Number the Carbon Chain:

D
- Number the carbon atoms in the chain from the end that gives

RA
substituents the lowest numbers.
3. Identify and Name Substituents:
KI
- Identify and name any substituents (groups attached to the main carbon chain).
4. Combine Chain and Substituent Names:
T

- Combine the names of the main carbon chain and substituents, alphabetizing them.
AN

5. Add Prefixes and Suffixes:

- Add prefixes and suffixes based on the type of compound (alkane,
H

alkene, alkyne).
AS

Examples:
PR

4. CH₃CH₂CH₂COOH:
1. CH₃CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₃:
Longest Chain: 4 carbon
Longest Chain: 5 carbon atoms (Pentane).
atoms (Butane).
IUPAC Name: Pentane.
Substituent: COOH (Carboxyl
group at the 1st carbon).
2. CH₃CH₂CH₂OH:
IUPAC Name: Butanoic acid.
Longest Chain: 3 carbon atoms (Propane).
Substituent: OH (Hydroxy group at the 1st
carbon).
IUPAC Name: Propan-1-ol (or simply Propanol).

3. CH₂=CHCH₃:
Longest Chain: 3 carbon atoms (Propene).
IUPAC Name: Propene.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Drawing Structures of Saturated and
Unsaturated Compounds:
Connect All Carbon Atoms with Single Bonds:
- Use single bonds to link all carbon atoms together in the molecule.

Satisfy Remaining Valencies of Carbon with Hydrogen Atoms:

- Attach hydrogen atoms to each carbon atom to fulfill their valency.
- Carbon typically forms 4 bonds due to its 4 valencies.

If Available Hydrogen Atoms are Insufficient:

- If the number of available hydrogen atoms is less than required, use double or triple
bonds to satisfy the remaining valency of carbon.

1.The structural formula for propane is:

D
RA
KI
T
AN

This represents a straight-chain alkane with three carbon atoms, each bonded to two
hydrogen atoms. The carbon atoms are connected by single bonds.
H

2. The structural formula for ethene (also known as ethylene) is:

AS
PR

This represents an alkene with two carbon atoms and a double bond between them.
Each carbon atom is bonded to two hydrogen atoms.

3. The structural formula for propyne is:

 PRASHANT KIRAD
This represents an alkyne with the carbon atoms. The triple bond is between the first
and second carbon atoms. Each carbon atom is bonded to one hydrogen atom.

4. The structural formula for cyclohexane is represented as a

hexagon:

Cyclohexane is a cyclic alkane with six carbon atoms forming a ring, and each carbon is
bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The bond angles in the ring are approximately 109.5
degrees, creating a stable and symmetrical structure.

D
5. The structural formula for benzene is represented as a hexagon
with a circle inside:
RA
KI
T
AN
H
AS

This representation indicates that benzene has a stable and symmetrical ring
structure with six carbon atoms. The circle inside the hexagon signifies the
PR

delocalized pi electrons, highlighting the resonance structure of benzene. Each carbon

atom is bonded to one hydrogen atom, and all carbon-carbon bonds in benzene are
equivalent.

Functional Groups: EMA

A functional group is an atom or group of

atoms within a carbon compound that imparts
reactivity and determines its chemical
properties. When a compound contains a
functional group, it is denoted in the
compound's name through the use of either a JOSH METER?
prefix or a suffix.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Prefix =
Chloro/Bromo

Suffix -ol

Suffix -al

Suffix -one

Suffix -oic
acid

D
Homologous Series:
RA
KI
A homologous series is a group of organic compounds sharing similar structure
and chemical properties, where successive members in the series differ by the
T

addition of a common CH2 group. For example, CH4, C2H6, and C3H8
AN

- All members have the same general formula.

- Successive members differ by a CH2 group.
- Two adjacent members differ by molecular masses of CH2.
H

- All members exhibit similar chemical properties (though not necessarily

AS

identical physical properties).

PR

Structural Isomerism:
Structural isomerism refers to compounds sharing the same molecular formula
but exhibiting distinct arrangements of atoms or bonds within their structures.

Examples:
Ethanol:
- A liquid compound, soluble in water.
- Commonly referred to as alcohol, it serves as the active ingredient.
- Due to its excellent solvent properties, ethanol is employed in various medicines
such as tincture iodine, cough syrups, and many tonics.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Acetic Acid (C2H4O2): -

-- Commonly known as acetic acid.
- A 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is termed vinegar and is used
as a preservative in pickles.
- With a melting point of 290 K, it tends to freeze during winter.
- Carboxylic acids, including acetic acid, are categorized as weak acids.

Denatured Alcohol:
Denatured alcohol is a form of alcohol that is rendered unsuitable for consumption
in large quantities due to its adverse effects on health. Excessive alcohol intake can
impede metabolic processes and suppress the central nervous system, leading to
issues such as lack of coordination and drowsiness. To prevent the misuse of alcohol,
it is intentionally altered by incorporating toxic substances like methanol and
pyridine, as well as colored dyes. This modified form of alcohol, known as denatured
alcohol, is specifically designed to deter ingestion.

D
RA
Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds:
1. Combustion:
KI
Combustion is a chemical reaction that releases heat and light.
T

Combustion of Carbon: C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + Heat + Light

AN

Combustion of Hydrocarbon: CH4 (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (g) + Heat + Light
H

Combustion of Alcohol: C2H5OH (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (g) + Heat + Light
AS

In each case, the combustion process involves the reaction of the substance with
oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) accompanied by the release
PR

of heat and light.

Nature of Flame:

Saturated hydrocarbons such as methane and ethane burn with a clear blue flame
in the presence of sufficient oxygen.
Limited oxygen availability for saturated hydrocarbons results in a sooty flame.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons like ethene and ethyne burn with a yellow flame and
significant black smoke.
Kerosene, when burned with sufficient oxygen, produces a clear, blue flame.
Some hydrocarbons like benzene and naphthalene burn with a sooty flame.
Combusting coal and petroleum primarily yields CO2, CO, nitrogen oxides, and
sulfur oxides. The latter contributes to air pollution.

2. Oxidation:
Carbon compounds readily undergo oxidation during combustion.

2C (s) + O2 (g) → 2CO (g)

(Limited Oxygen, Carbon Monoxide)
 PRASHANT KIRAD

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2 (g)

(Excess Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide)

Different amounts of oxygen yield different products.

Oxidation of Alcohol:

Both alkaline KMnO4 and acidified K2Cr2O7 act as oxidizing agents, supplying oxygen
for the oxidation process.

3. Addition Reaction:

In the presence of catalysts like palladium or nickel, unsaturated hydrocarbons

undergo addition reactions, where hydrogen is incorporated, leading to the formation
of saturated hydrocarbons. Catalysts are substances that facilitate a reaction to
take place at a different rate, without being consumed in the process.

D
Hydrogenation Reaction:

RA
This process is employed in the hydrogenation of vegetable oil. Vegetable oils typically
KI
consist of long unsaturated carbon chains, whereas animal fats possess saturated
carbon chains. Animal fats commonly contain saturated fatty acids, which are
detrimental to health.
T
AN
H
AS

4. Substitution Reaction:
PR

A substitution reaction is a chemical process in which one functional

group in a chemical compound is exchanged with another functional
group.
CH3OH + HBr → CH3Br + H2O
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
In these reactions, one functional group is substituted for another,
resulting in the formation of new compounds.

Reactions of Ethanol:

i. Reaction with Sodium:

2Na + 2CH3CH2OH → 2CH3CH2O-Na+ + H2

(sodium
ethoxide)
 PRASHANT KIRAD
ii. Reaction to Form Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
CH3CH2OH → CH2 = CH2 + H2O

Hot concentrated H2SO4 acts as a dehydrating agent (which removes water),

facilitating the reaction.

Reactions of Ethanoic Acid:

D
RA
In these reactions, ethanoic acid participates in esterification, and saponification, and
reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to yield different products.
KI
Soaps and Detergents:
T
AN

Soaps consist of sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids. The ionic
end of the soap dissolves in water, while the carbon chain dissolves in oil.
H
AS
PR

Detergents are typically ammonium or sulphorate salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.

Cleaning Action of Soap:

Most of the dirt is oily, and oil does not dissolve in water.
Soap molecules form Structures called micelles.
In micelles, one end is oriented towards the oil droplet, while the other, which is
ionic, faces Outward.
Soap, in the form of a micelle, resides in the center of the micelles.
The micelles remain in the solution as a colloid, preventing them from coming
together and precipitating due to ion-ion repulsion.
Soap micelles are large enough to scatter light; therefore, a soap solution
appears cloudy.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Hardness of Water:
Hard water refers to water with a high mineral content, particularly calcium and
magnesium salts. Soap molecules react with these salts, leading to the formation
of precipitates, also known as scum.

D
Soft water, which lacks calcium and magnesium salts, does not form scum with

RA
soap.
Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonate saltsof long-chain carboxylic
KI
acids. The charged ends of these compounds do not form insoluble precipitates
with hard water, allowing them to remain effective in such conditions.
T
AN

# TOP 7
H
AS

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
PR

1) A compound X on heating with an excess of cone. H2 SO4 at 443 K gives an

unsaturated compound Y. X also reacts with sodium metal to evolve a colorless gas Z.
Identify X, Y, and Z. Write the equations of the chemical reaction of formation of Y and
also write the role of conc. sulphuric acid in the reaction. [CBSE 2016]

Solution:
 PRASHANT KIRAD

2) Distinguish between esterification and saponification reactions with the

help of equations for each. State one use of each
(i) ester
(ii) saponification process.

Solution:

D
3) Explain giving reasons, why carbon can neither form C4+ cation nor C4- anion but
forms covalent compounds which are bad conductors of electricity and have low melting
and boiling points. [CBSE 2017]
RA
KI
Solution:
T

Carbon cannot lose four electrons because high energy is needed to remove four
AN

electrons. It cannot gain 4 electrons because 6 protons cannot hold 10 electrons. It can
share 4 electrons to form covalent bonds. Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity
because these do not form ions. They have low melting and boiling points due to the weak
H

force of attraction between molecules.

AS

4) Write the chemical equation of the reaction of ethanoic acid with the following:
PR

a. Sodium
b. Sodium hydroxide,
c. Ethanol.
Write the name of one main product of each reaction.

Solution:
 PRASHANT KIRAD

5) What is the difference between the molecules of soaps and detergents, chemically?
Explain the cleansing action of soap. [CBSE 2015]

Solution:
Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids. They contain the —COONa group.
Detergents are sodium or potassium salts of sulphonic acids. They contain —SO3 Na or
—SO4 Na group. Soap has an ionic end which is hydrophilic, and interacts with water
while the carbon chain is hydrophobic and interacts with oil and grease. The soap
molecules orient themselves in a cluster in which hydrophobic tails are inside the cluster
and ionic ends face outside. These clusters are called micelles. These attract oil which is
washed away by water.

6) Write the molecular formula of the following compounds and draw their electron dot
structures:
(a) Ethane
(b) Ethene

D
(c) Ethyne

RA
Solution: KI
T
AN
H
AS
PR

7). What are micelles? Why does it form when soap is added to water? Will a micelle be
formed in other solvents such as ethanol also? State briefly how the formation of
micelles helps to clean the clothes having oily spots.

Solution:

Micelles are clusters of molecules in which hydrophobic tails are inside the cluster 3 and
the ionic ends are at the surface of clusters. Soap molecules when dissolved in water
they form a cluster due to the hydrophobic part of molecules orienting themselves away
from water. So they arrange towards the inside of the cluster while the hydrophilic part
remains outside of the cluster. No, micelles will not be formed in alcohol. Soap in the
form of micelles can be cleaned because the oily dirt will be collected in the center of
the micelle which is rinsed away by water.
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Chemical Reactions &
Equations
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Chemical Reaction:
The transformation of chemical substance into another
chemical substance is known as Chemical Reaction. e.g.:
Rusting of iron, the setting of milk into curd, digestion
of food, respiration, etc.
JOSH METER?
Chemical changes indicate that a chemical reaction has
occurred.
Characteristics of chemical reactions:
Formation of new substances with different
Chemical Equation: properties, Change in color, Evolution of gas,
Representation of chemical Evolution or absorption of heat, Formation of a
precipitate, Irreversibility of many chemical
reaction using symbols and
reactions, Change in state of matter, Change in
formulae of the substances energy.
is called Chemical Equation.
Example: A + B → C + D

D
RA
Reactant Product
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide
Mg + O2→ MgO
KI
Magnesium ribbon burns
T

with a dazzling white

AN

flame and changes into a

white powder. This
powder is magnesium
H

oxide. It is formed due

AS

to the reaction between

magnesium and oxygen
present in the air
PR

Magnesium is rubbed with sandpaper to remove the oxide layer, allowing it to burn more easily.

Balanced Chemical Equation:

A balanced chemical equation has an equal number of atoms of each
element in the reactant and product side.
Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass of reactants = Mass of products.
Fe+H2O→Fe3O4+H2 (Unbalanced)
3Fe+4H2O→Fe 3O4 + 4H 2 (Balanced)

number of atoms of each element in reactants = number of atoms of each

element in products
 PRASHANT KIRAD

“Experiment ka funda“:
Take some lead nitrate solution in a test tube or beaker and add
potassium iodide solution. A yellow precipitate of lead iodide
forms immediately, and the solution changes color from colorless
to yellow.

“Experiment ka funda“:
Take some zinc granules in a conical flask and add sulfuric
acid. Bubbles of hydrogen gas will form around the zinc

D
metal. We verify it's hydrogen gas because the bubbles burn
with a popping sound when passed through a soap solution.

RA
Formation of hydrogen gas by the action of Additionally, the flask becomes hot to the touch, indicating
dilute sulphuric acid on zinc
that the reaction releases heat along with the gas.
KI
T

Balancing Chemical Reaction:

AN

1. Identify the unbalanced equation:

H

2. List the number of atoms of different elements in the unbalanced equation:

AS
PR

3. Start balancing the compound (reactant of product) that contains the

maximum number of atoms. In that compound, balance the element with the
maximum number of atoms

(Balanced) “Balancing ki practice

jyaada se jyaada karo”
- Prashant Bhaiya
 PRASHANT KIRAD

More Questions to practice:

1. CO 2 + H 2 O → C6 H 12 O 6 + O 2 . A solution of slaked lime Ca(OH)2 is used for
whitewashing walls. It reacts with carbon dioxide in the
2. CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H 2O air to form calcium carbonate CaCO3 , which gives the
walls a shiny finish after two to three days. Marble also
3. Fe 2O3 + C → Fe + CO2
has the formula CaCO3 ​. The reaction is:
4. N 2 + H2 → NH 3 Ca(OH) 2 (𝑎𝑞)+CO 2(𝑔)→CaCO 3(𝑠)+H 2O(𝑙)

Types of Chemical Reactions:

1. Combination Reactions: two or more reactants combine to form single
products.
A + B → AB

1. Formation of Water : 2H2 +O2 →2H 2 O

2. Formation of Calcium Oxide : CaO + H 2O → Ca(OH) 2 (slaked lime)

D
RA
KI
T

“Experiment ka funda“:
AN

Take a small amount of calcium oxide (quick lime) in a beaker and slowly add water to it.
Touch the outside of the beaker, and you will feel it getting hot. This is because calcium
oxide reacts vigorously with water to produce slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), releasing a
H

large amount of heat.

AS

Reactions that release heat along with the formation of products are called exothermic
PR

chemical reactions, while those that absorb heat are known as endothermic reactions.

2. Decomposition Reactions: a single reactant decomposes to form two

or more products.
AB → A + B
1. Decomposition of Calcium Carbonate : CaCO3 (s) → CaO(S) + CO2
2. Decomposition of Ferrous Sulphate :
2FeSO 4 → Fe2 O3 + SO 2 + SO 3

Saari activities
acche se dekhna,
important h! Direct
questions aa jaate h
 PRASHANT KIRAD

“Experiment ka funda“:
Take about 2 grams of Ferrous Sulphate Crystals in a DRY Boiling Tube. They are
originally green in color. Heat the boiling tube over a burner, and you will observe the
magic. The green color changes to white and then finally a brown solid is formed, which is
ferric oxide. Along with the color change, the smell of burning sulphur is also noticeable

Thermal Decomposition Reactions: heat-induced breakdown.

“Experiment ka funda“:
Take 2 grams of lead nitrate powder in a
boiling tube. Heat it over a burner. Brown
fumes of nitrogen dioxide gas are released,
filling the tube. Holding a glowing splinter over
the tube causes it to catch fire, indicating the
presence of oxygen gas. After the reaction,
yellow lead monoxide solid remains in the
tube, which appears reddish-brown when hot
and yellow when cold.

D
RA
Electrolytic Decomposition - heat-induced breakdown..
Activity 1.7:
KI
Hydrogen (cathode) will produce a popping sound when a burning candle is brought close.
Oxygen (anode) will make the flame of the candle burn brighter.
T

Photolytic Decomposition - light-induced decomposition.

AN

“Experiment ka funda“:
H

White silver chloride turns grey

in sunlight. This is due to the
AS

decomposition of silver chloride

into silver and chlorine by light.
PR

3. Displacement Reactions: chemical reaction in which a more reactive

element displaces a less reactive element from its compound.
Single Displacement: A+BC→AC+B
Example: Zn+CuSO 4 →ZnSO 4 +Cu
Reactivity series of metals

Trick to remember
reactivity reactivity series:
Katrina ne car mangi alto zen
ferari phir bhi haye cu mili
silver audi
 PRASHANT KIRAD

“Experiment ka funda“:
In this reaction, the iron nail turns
brownish and the blue color of the
copper sulphate solution fades
because iron displaces copper from
copper sulphate (CuSO₄) in a
displacement reaction. The original
deep blue color of the solution
fades to light green, and the iron
nail becomes covered with a red-
brown layer of copper.

4. Double Displacement Reaction:

Those reactions in which two ionic compounds in the solution react by exchange of
their ions to form new compounds are called double displacement reactions.
Double Displacement: AB+CD→AD+BC
Example: NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

D
“Experiment ka funda“:

RA
Take 3 mL of sodium sulphate solution in a test tube and 3
mL of barium chloride solution in another. Add the barium
chloride solution to the sodium sulphate solution. A white
KI
precipitate will form in the test tube
T
AN

Secret Questions:
H

1. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reactions that take place
AS

during respiration. Identify the type of combination reaction that takes

place during this process and justify the name. Give one more example of
PR

this type of reaction. [CBSE 2012]

Solution :
(i) The carbohydrates that we take in our food are oxidized to carbon
dioxide and water.
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂→ 6CO₂ + 6H₂O
The carbon of carbohydrates and oxygen combine to form CO₂.
(ii) It is an exothermic combination reaction.
(iii) Decomposition of vegetable matter into compost is another example of
this type of reaction.

2. Translate a balanced chemical equation with state symbols for the following
i) Solutions of Barium chloride and Sodium sulfate in water react to give
insoluble Barium sulfate and a solution of Sodium chloride.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

ii) Sodium hydroxide solution in water interacts with hydrochloric acid

to produce Sodium chloride solution and water.
iii) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia.
iv) potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
Solution :
i) BaCl 2 +Na2 SO4 →BaSO 4 +2NaCl
ii) NaOH+HCl→NaCl+H 2 O
iii) 3H2 +N2 →2NH 3
iv) 2K+2H 2 O→2KOH+H2

5. Oxidation Reactions:
Oxidation: If a substance gains oxygen or loses hydrogen during a reaction, it

D
is said to be oxidized.

RA
Reduction: If a substance loses oxygen or gains hydrogen during a reaction, it
is said to be reduced.
KI
Redox Reaction: In a reaction where one reactant gets oxidized while the
other gets reduced, it is called an oxidation-reduction reaction or redox
T

reaction.
AN

“Experiment ka funda“:
When about 1 gram of red-brown copper powder is heated
in a china dish, it forms a black substance, which is copper
H

oxide (CuO). This black coating is a result of the oxidation

of copper to copper oxide. To turn the black coating back
AS

to reddish-brown, hydrogen gas can be passed over the

heated copper oxide, causing a reverse reaction that
produces copper.
PR

“Ox“idation: “Ox“ygen dost (gaining

oxygen) or Hydrogen dushman (losing
hydrogen).
“Re“duction: Oxygen dushman (losing
oxygen) or “Hy”drogen dost (gaining
hydrogen). { Hy re! }
Oxidised (+O)

ZnO + C → Zn + CO

Reduced (-O)

Extra Knowledge!!
 PRASHANT KIRAD

EFFECTS OF OXIDATION REACTIONS IN EVERYDAY LIFE?

Corrosion: the process by which metals are gradually destroyed by chemical
reactions with substances in their environment, such as moisture and acids.
This often results in the formation of an oxide or other compound on the
metal's surface.
Impact: Corrosion weakens the metal structure, affecting its strength and
durability.
Prevention: Coating metals with protective layers (e.g., paint or
galvanization) helps prevent direct exposure to oxygen and moisture,
reducing the risk of corrosion.
Examples: Rusting of iron, Tarnishing of silver, Green coating on copper

Rancidity: the spoilage of fats and oils in food, leading to unpleasant

D
taste and smell. This happens due to the oxidation of fats and oils when

RA
exposed to air.
Impact: Rancidity imparts unpleasant tastes and smells to food products,
KI
making them unpalatable and reducing their shelf life.
Prevention: Adding antioxidants, storing foods in airtight containers, and
T

refrigerating can help slow down or prevent the oxidation process and,
AN

consequently, rancidity
Examples: Spoiled butter, Old cooking oil, Stale chips
H
AS

Top 7 Questions
PR

1. Why is respiration considered an exothermic reaction? Explain.

Answer: Respiration is the process of breaking down food in the living body to
produce energy. Respiration is considered an exothermic chemical reaction
because the oxidation of glucose occurs during the process, releasing a large
amount of energy, which is captured in the form of ATP. During respiration, we
inhale oxygen from the atmosphere, which reacts with glucose in our body cells
to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy. The reaction is represented by
the following chemical equation:
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂→ 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy ( ATP )
 PRASHANT KIRAD

2. Explain the following in terms of the gain of oxygen with two examples
each.
(a) Oxidation (b) Reduction.
Answer: (a) Oxidation: In a chemical reaction, when oxygen is added to an
element or compound to form its oxide, the element or compound is being
oxidized. For example:
4Na(𝑠)+O 2 (𝑔)→2Na 2O(𝑠)
H 2S(𝑔)+O 2 (𝑔)→H 2O(𝑙)+SO 2(𝑔)
(b) Reduction: In a chemical reaction, when oxygen is removed from a compound,
the compound is said to be reduced. For example:
CuO(𝑠)+H 2(𝑔)→Cu(𝑠)+H 2O(𝑙)
2HgO(𝑠)→2Hg(𝑙)+O2 (𝑔)

3. A shiny brown-colored element ‘X’ on heating in the air becomes black.

D
Name the element ‘X’ & the black-coloured compound formed.

RA
Answer: The shiny brown-colored element is Copper metal (Cu). If the metal is
heated in air, it interacts with atmospheric oxygen to form copper oxide.
KI
Therefore, the black-colored compound is copper oxide.
2Cu(s) + O 2 (g) → 2CuO(s).
T
AN

4. Why do we store silver chloride in dark-colored bottles?

Answer: Silver chloride is highly sensitive to light and undergoes photolytic
H

decomposition upon exposure to light. This reaction occurs rapidly and causes
AS

the silver chloride to lose its properties, forming chlorine gas and elemental
silver. Therefore, silver chloride is stored in dark-colored bottles to protect it
PR

from light and prevent its decomposition.

5. Write one equation each for decomposition reactions in which energy is

supplied in the form of heat, light, or electricity.
Answer: (a) Thermal decomposition reaction (Thermolysis): Decomposition of
potassium chlorate: If heated strongly, potassium chlorate decomposes into
potassium chloride and oxygen molecules. This reaction is commonly used for
the synthesis of oxygen molecules.
2KClO3 +heat→2KCl+3O 2
(b) Electrolytic decomposition reaction (Electrolysis): Decomposition of
sodium chloride (NaCl): On passing electricity through molten sodium chloride,
it decomposes into sodium and chlorine.
2NaCl(electrolysis)→2Na+Cl 2
 PRASHANT KIRAD

(c) Photodecomposition reaction (Photolysis):

Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide: In the presence of light, hydrogen
peroxide decomposes into water and oxygen molecules.
2H 2O2 +light→2H2 O+O 2

6. What is the difference between displacement and double displacement

reactions? Write relevant equations for the above.
Answer: A displacement reaction occurs when a more reactive substance
replaces a less reactive substance from its salt solutions. A double displacement
reaction occurs when a mutual exchange of metal ions happens between two
compounds.
In a displacement reaction, only a single displacement occurs, whereas in the
double displacement reaction, as the name suggests, two displacements occur
between the molecules.

D
Example of Displacement reaction:

RA
Mg+2HCl→MgCl2 +H2
Example of Double displacement reaction:
KI
2KBr+BaI2 →2KI+BaBr 2
T

7. Zinc liberates hydrogen gas when reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid,
AN

whereas copper does not. Explain why?

Answero Zinc is more reactive than copper as Zinc is placed above hydrogen,
H

and copper is placed below hydrogen in the activity series of metals. Thus, zinc
AS

liberates hydrogen gas when reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid, whereas
copper does not.
PR

Top 7 Questions
1) Clean a magnesium ribbon about 2 cm long by rubbing it with sandpaper.
Hold it with a pair of tongs. Burn it using a spirit lamp or burner and
collect the ash so formed in a watch-glass
 PRASHANT KIRAD

(i). Magnesium ribbon needs to be rubbed before burning because it has a

coating on its surface.
A. basic magnesium carbonate
B. basic magnesium oxide
C. basic magnesium sulphide
D. basic magnesium chloride

(ii). What is the colour of magnesium ribbon?

A. White
B. Black
C. Grey
D. Yellow

(iii). What is the chemical name of the powder obtained in the

D
A. magnesium carbonate

RA
B. magnesium oxide
C. magnesium sulphide
KI
D. magnesium chloride
T

(iv). Which compound is formed when the powder obtained reacts with water?
AN

A. Magnesium sulphate
B. Magnesium oxide
H

C. Magnesium Carbonate
AS

D. Magnesium hydroxide
PR

2) Take a plastic mug, drill two holes at its base and insert carbon
electrodes. Connect these electrodes to a 6 volt battery. Fill the mug with
water such that the electrodes are immersed. Add a few drops of dilute
sulphuric acid to the water. Take two test tubes filled with water and
invert them over the two carbon electrodes. Switch on the current and
leave the apparatus undisturbed for some time.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

(i). What is the ratio in which hydrogen and oxygen are present in water by
volume?
A. 1:2
B. 1:1
C. 2:1
D. 1:8

(ii). Which electrodes are used in this activity?

A. Graphite
B. Diamond
C. Copper
D. Coke

(iii). Where is hydrogen gas collected?

D
A. Anode

RA
B. Cathode
C. At both electrodes
D. Hydrogen gas is not evolved in this activity
KI
T

(iv). Which of the following is an endothermic process?

AN

A. Dilution of sulphuric acid

B. Condensation of water vapours
H

C. Respiration in human beings

D. Electrolysis​
AS

Answers:
PR

1.
(i) A
(ii) C
(iii) B
(iv) D

“Class 10th Phodenge”

2.
(i) C - Prashant Bhaiya
(ii) A
(iii) B
(iv) D
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Metals and Non Metals
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Metals
Those elements which form ions by losing electrons are called metals.

Physical properties of metals

LUSTRE MALLEABILITY

CONDUCTIVITY HIGH MP AND BP

DENSITY SOLID STATE

DUCTILITY SONOROUS

“Bahut Jaroori Table”

- Prashant Bhaiya

Properties Description/Defination

Metals have a shiny appearance, known as metallic lustre, which is due

Lustre
to the reflection of light from their surface.
Metals can be hammered or rolled into thin sheets without breaking.
Malleability
This property is known as malleability.
Metals are excellent conductor of heat and electricity. Silver and
Conductivity copper are particularly good electrical conductors, which is why they
are widely used in electrical circuits.

Metals can be drawn into thin wires. This property is called ductility.
Ductility Copper and aluminum are common examples, often used for electrical
wiring.

Most metals have high melting and boiling points due to the strong
High Melting and
bonding between their atoms. For example, iron and tungsten have very
Boiling Points
high melting points.
Most metals are solid at room temperature, with the exception of
Solid State
mercury, which is liquid.
Metals typically have high density, meaning they are heavy for their
Density
size.
Metals produce a ringing sound when struck, a
Sonorous property known as sonority. This is why metals like iron and
brass are used in making bells and musical instruments.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Chemical properties of metals

RXN WITH WATER RXN WITH ACIDS

RXN WITH SALTS RXN WITH

NON METALLIC ELEMENTS
RXN WITH OXYGEN

Reaction with oxygen: When metals react with oxygen, they form metal oxides.
Most metal oxides are basic in nature, meaning they can react with acids to form
salt and water.
Metals + Oxygen → Metal Oxide VIP (very import ant portion)

Potassium and sodium metals are extremely reactive, undergoing vigorous

reactions with the oxygen in the air. In the presence of air, they can
readily catch fire and burn. To prevent these reactive metals from
reacting with oxygen, moisture, and carbon dioxide in the air, they are
stored in kerosene oil. This protective measure ensures that the metals
remain stable and do not undergo combustion when exposed to
atmospheric conditions.

Reaction with Water: Metals react with water to form metal hydroxides and
hydrogen gas. The reactivity with water varies among metals:
Highly reactive metals (like sodium and potassium) react vigorously with cold water.
Less reactive metals (like magnesium) react with hot water.
Least reactive metals (like iron) react with steam.

Metals + Water → Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen

JOSH METER?

Reaction with Acids: Metals react with dilute acids to produce salt and hydrogen
gas. This reaction is more vigorous with more reactive metals.

Metals + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen

Displacement Reaction: A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal
from its compound in solution. This is known as a displacement reaction.
Example: CuSO4 + Zn → ZnSO4 + Cu

Reaction with Non-metals: Metals can react with non-metals to form ionic
compounds, where metals lose electrons to form cations and non-metals gain
electrons to form anions.
Example: 2 Na + Cl2 → 2 NaCl2
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Explanation:
In this activity, metal samples are placed in cold water to
observe reactions. Reactive metals are arranged by
increasing reactivity. Fire and floating observations are
noted. Non-reactive metals with cold water are tested in
hot water and steam. The final arrangement is based on
decreasing reactivity with water, considering reactions
with hot water and steam.

Reactivity series of Metals:

The reactivity series of metals is a list that ranks
metals from most reactive to least reactive. This series
is useful for predicting how metals will react with
water, acids, and other substances, as well as in
displacement reactions.
EMA

Non-Metals
Those elements which form negative ions by gaining electrons are called
non-metals.

Physical properties of Non-metals:

Lack of luster: Non-metals are generally not shiny.
Brittleness: Non-metals are brittle and break easily when
hammered.
Poor conductivity of heat and electricity: Non-metals do not
conduct heat and electricity well, except for graphite, which is a
good conductor of electricity.
Low Melting and Boiling point: Non-metals generally have lower
melting and boiling points than metals.
Low Density: Non-metals usually have lower densities compared to
metals.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Chemical properties of Non-metals:

Combustibility: Some non-metals, like hydrogen and carbon, can undergo combustion
reactions.
Reaction with Oxygen: Non-metals may react with oxygen to form oxides. For example,
sulfur reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide.
Acid-Base Reactions: Non-metals can react with bases to form salts. For instance,
sulfuric acid, a non-metal compound, reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium
sulfate and water.
Hydrogen Ion Formation: Non-metals may accept electrons to form negatively charged
ions (anions) in reactions with metals.
Covalent Bonding: Non-metals form covalent bonds by sharing electrons with non-metals.
Reaction with Water: Some non-metals, such as sulfur and phosphorus, react with water
to produce acids.
Reaction with Metals: Non-metals can displace less reactive metals from their salts in
solution, forming new compounds.

Metals and Non-Metals

When metals interact with non metals, they combine to create ionic compounds.
Conversely, when nonmetals engage with other nonmetals, they form covalent compounds.
Ionic compounds: Ionic compounds are chemical compounds composed of
positively charged ions (cations), usually derived from metals, and negatively charged
ions (anions), usually derived from nonmetals.
Formation: Ionic compounds are formed by transferring electrons from the metal
atom to the nonmetal atom. This transfer results in the formation of ions with
opposite charges.
Ionic Bonding: Ionic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between positively
charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions). This attraction holds the
ions together in a stable compound.
Properties: 1. Ionic compounds generally have high melting and boiling points.
2. They are usually solid at room temperature.
3. They conduct electricity when dissolved in water or melted, as ions are free to
move.
Examples: Common examples of ionic compounds include sodium chloride (NaCl),
potassium iodide (KI), and magnesium oxide (MgO).

Properties of Ionic Compounds:

High Melting and Boiling Points: Ionic compounds typically have high melting and
boiling points due to strong electrostatic forces holding ions together in three-
dimensional lattice.
Solubility in Water: Many ionic compounds are soluble in water because water
molecules surround and separate the ions, facilitating their movement.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Conductivity: Ionic compounds conduct electricity when dissolved in water or

molten, as ions become free to move and carry an electric charge.
Brittleness: Solid ionic compounds are often brittle because when force is applied,
layers of ions with like charges align, leading to repulsion and cleavage.

Occurrence of Metals
Metals are predominantly obtained from the Earth's crust, which serves as a major
reservoir for these elements.
Seawater contains soluble salts like sodium chloride and magnesium chloride.
The naturally occurring elements or compounds found in the Earth's crust are
referred to as minerals.
Minerals that can be profitably processed to extract metals are specifically termed
ores.

Extraction of metals from ores

Metallurgy: Metallurgy is the science and process of
extracting metals from their ores, refining them,
and preparing them for use.

Metal extraction methods vary depending on the

position of metals in the activity series:

Highly Reactive Metals: Metals with high reactivity, such

as Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), Calcium (Ca), and
Magnesium (Mg), are typically extracted through
electrolysis. Their strong bonding with other components
prevents reduction by heating with carbon.
Moderately Reactive Metals: Moderately reactive metals
like Zinc (Zn), Iron (Fe), and Lead (Pb) are generally
extracted through reduction processes using agents like
coke (C).
Less Reactive Metals: Less reactive metals, for instance,
Copper (Cu) and Mercury (Hg), are extracted from their
oxides through heating alone, a method known as self-
reduction.
Very Less Reactive Metals: Metals with very low
reactivity, such as Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), and Platinum
(Pt), exist in nature in the metallic form and do not “Reactivity Series pakka
require extraction processes. exam me aayegi”
The concentration of ores: - Prashant Bhaiya
When metals interact with nonmetals, they combine to create ionic compounds.
Conversely, when nonmetals engage with other nonmetals, they form covalent compounds.
Gravity Separation: Using the difference in the density of ore and impurities.
Froth Flotation: Involves the separation of ore from impurities by using froth
formed
by certain chemicals.
Magnetic Separation: Used when either the ore or the impurities are
magnetic.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Extraction of Metals of LOW Reactivity:

Direct Reduction: Sulfide ores of less electropositive metals like Mercury (Hg), Lead
(Pb), and Copper (Cu) undergo self-reduction when heated in air. No external reducing
agent is used in this process.

Cinnabar (HgS): 2HgS (Cinnabar) + 302 (g) + heat → 2HgO (crude-metal) + 2SO2 (g)
: 2HgO (s) + heat → 2Hg (1) + O2 (g)

Copper Glance (Cu2S): Cu2S (Copper-pyrite) + 302 (g) + heat → 2Cu2O (s) + 2SO2 (g)
: 2Cu2O(s) + Cu2S (s) + heat → 6Cu (crude metal) + SO2 (g)

Galena (PbS): 2PbS (Galena) + 302 (g) + heat → 2PbO (s) + 2SO2 (g)
: PbS (s) + 2PbO (s) → 2Pb (crude metal) + SO2 (g)

Extraction of Metals of MEDIUM Reactivity:

These metals are usually preset as sulphides or carbonates in nature. The extraction
of metals of medium reactivity, such as iron, zinc, and lead, typically involves the
following steps:
These sulphides or carbonates are first converted into oxides because it is easy to
extract metals from its oxides. Sulphides are converted into oxides by roasting
and carbonates are converted into oxides by calcination.

Roasting: Roasting involves heating of ore lower than its melting point in the presence
of air or oxygen.
Example of Zinc Sulphide ore: 2ZnS (s) + 3O2 (s) → 2ZnO (s) + 2SO2 (g)
Calcination: Calcination involves thermal decomposition of carbonate ores.
Example of Zinc carbonate ore: ZnCO3 (s)​→ ZnO (s) + CO2 (g)​
The metal oxides thus obtained are then reduced to the corresponding metals by
reduction process. Depending upon the reactivity of metals, reduction is done in
different ways as:

Smelting (Reduction with Carbon): This process, the roasted or calcined ore is mixed
with suitable quantity of coke or charcoal (which act as reducing agent) and is heated
to a high temperature above its melting point.
Example of Zinc: ZnO (s) + C (s) → Zn (s) + CO (g)
Thermite process: It is the technique, to reduce metal oxide using more reactive metal
powder as fuel. Aluminium, magnesium, titanium are some metals which are used as fuel
in thermite process. In this process, a mixture of concentrated oxide ore
and metal powder (i.e., thermite) is taken in a steel crucible and kept on
sand. A mixture of magnesium powder and barium peroxide (called ignition
mixture) is used to ignite the reaction mixture. A large amount of heat is
evolved during the reaction which melts the metal.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Example: Cr2​O3 (s) ​+ 2Al (s) → 2Cr(l) + Al2​O3 (s)​

: Fe2​O3 (s)​+ 2Al (s) → 2Fe (l) + Al2​O3 (s) {Gold-Schmidt aluminothermic reduction}​
Electrolytic Reduction: Highly reactive metals like Na, K, Mg, Ca, Al, etc, are reduced by
electrolysis of their respective oxides, hydroxides of chloride in molten state. On passing
electric current into the molten solution, metal is liberated at cathode while impurities are
settled down as anode mud generally.

Example: NaCl → Na+ (l) + CL- (s)​

At cathode: Na+ + e− → Na
At anode: 2Cl− → Cl2 ​+ 2e−

Refining/Purification of Metal: The reduced

metals obtained are generally impure which may
be associated with following types of impurities
as -

Uncharged (not reduce associated with following types of ore.

Other metals that are produced by simultaneous reduction of their compounds originally
present in the ore
Non-metals like silicon, carbon, phosphorous etc.
Slag, flux etc., which is present in residual condition.
These impurities can be removed by "refining of metals".

These Impurities are removed by "refining of metals" as:

JOSH METER?

Electrolytic Refining (Purification of copper): In this process, a thick block of impure metal
is used as anode and a thin strip of pure metal is used as cathode. A solution of metal salt (to
be refined) is used as an electrolyte. When electric current is passed, metal ions from the
electrolyte are reduced as metal which get deposited on the cathode. An equivalent amount
of pure metal from the anode gets oxidized to metal ion and goes into the electrolyte and
from there it goes to cathode and deposit.

Cu (impure)​→Cu (pure) ​+ impurities

At cathode: Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu (pure)​

At anode: Cu (impure) ​→ Cu2+ + 2e−

Corrosion
Corrosion refers to the gradual
deterioration of a material, typically a
metal, due to the influence of moisture, air,
or chemicals in the surrounding environment.
An example is the rusting of iron.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# TOP 7
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1) Explain why calcium metal after reacting with water starts floating on its surface.
Write the chemical equation for the reaction. Name one more metal that starts
floating after some time when immersed in water.

Solution:

When calcium metal reacts with water, it produces hydrogen gas and calcium
hydroxide. The hydrogen gas bubbles stick to the surface of the calcium, creating
buoyancy, causing calcium to float on the water's surface. The chemical equation for
the reaction is:
Ca (s) + 2H2O (l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Another metal that starts floating after some time when immersed in water is sodium.

2) (a) (i) Write two properties of gold that make it the most suitable metal for
ornaments.
(ii) Name two metals which are the best conductors of heat.
(iii) Name two metals that melt when you keep them on your palm.
(iv) Explain the formation of the ionic compound CaO with an electron-dot structure.
Atomic numbers of calcium and oxygen are 20 and 8 respectively. [5M, 2020]

Solution:
(i). The property of gold used in making ornaments is ductility and
luster.
(ii). Silver are copper are the best conductors of heat.
(iii). Gallium and cesium are the metals that melt when kept on the palm.
(iv) Atomic no. of Ca - 20, Electronic Configuration 2,8,8,2. Atomic no.
of O - 8 Electronic Configuration - 2,6
3) (a)Carbon cannot be used as a reducing agent to obtain Mg from MgO. Why?
(b) How is sodium obtained from molten sodium chloride? Give an equation of the
reactions.
(c) How is copper obtained from its sulfide ore? Give equations of the reactions.

Solution:
(a) Carbon and MgO:
- Carbon can't reduce MgO; Mg is more reactive.
(b) Sodium from Molten NaCl:
-Na obtained from molten NaCl by electrolysis: 2NaCl (l) 2Na (l)+Cl2(g)
 PRASHANT KIRAD
(c) Copper from Sulfide Ore:
- Copper from CuFeS2 by smelting: CuFeS2(s) + O2(g)→Cu (l)+FeO (s)+SO2(g)
4) The way, metals like sodium, magnesium, and iron react with air and water is an
indication of their relative positions in the 'reactivity series'. Is this statement true?
Justify your answer with examples.

Solution:
Yes, the statement is true. The reactivity series ranks metals based on their
tendency to undergo reactions. Metals like sodium, which reacts vigorously with both
air and water, magnesium, which burns in air and reacts with water, and iron, which
reacts with oxygen and steam, demonstrate the correlation between their reactivity
and their positions in the reactivity series.
5) A non-metal X exists in two different forms, Y and Z. Y is the hardest natural
substance, whereas Z is a good conductor of electricity. Identify X, Y, and Z.
Solution:
X is carbon. Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon. Diamond is the hardest
natural substance, and hence Y is diamond. Graphite is a good conductor of electricity,
and hence Z is graphite.
6) What are the constituents of solder alloy? Which property of solder makes it
suitable for welding electrical wires?
Solution:
Constituents of Solder Alloy:
- Typically, tin and lead or lead-free alternatives with elements like silver, copper, or
antimony.
Property Suitable for Welding Electrical Wires:
- Low melting point of solder (below 450°F or 232°C), enabling easy melting and secure
bonding without damaging the electrical wires.
7) A metal that exists as a liquid at room temperature is obtained by heating its sulfide
in the presence of air. Identify the metal and its ore and give the reaction involved.
Solution:
Mercury is the only metal that exists as a liquid at room temperature.
It can be obtained by heating cinnabar (HgS), the sulfide ore of mercury. We can get
metals low in activity series by heating or reducing their sulfides or oxides.

The reactions are as follows: 2 HgS + 3 O2 → 2 HgO + 2 SO2

2 HgO → 2 Hg + O2

“Class 10th Phodenge”

- Prashant Bhaiya
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Control And Coordination
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Nervous System
The nervous system is like the control center of our bodies. It's made up of special
tissues called nervous tissue. The worker in this system is the nerve cell or neuron. The
nervous system is mainly in charge of managing and coordinating things in complex animals.

Functions of the nervous system:

The nervous system gets information from the world around us.
It collects information from different parts of our body.
It helps us to make decisions and control our muscles and glands.

Neuron and Nerve cells

Neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. Neuron is a

D
highly specialized cell which is responsible for the transmission of nerve impulses.

RA
Structure of a neuron:
EMA
A neuron has four main parts:
KI
Cell Body (Soma):
Contains the nucleus and other organelles.
T

Maintains the cell's functions.

AN

Dendrites:
Tree-like structures that extend from the cell body.
Receive signals from other neurons and conduct these signals toward the cell body.
H

Axon:
AS

A long, thread-like structure that carries impulses away from the cell body.
It ends in axon terminals, which transmit signals to other neurons, muscles, or
PR

glands.
The axon may be covered with a myelin sheath, which insulates it and speeds up the
transmission of nerve impulses.
Nerve endings: They are like tiny branches at the ends of neurons, and they send
electrical signals to other neurons.
EMA
Working of a neuron:
Stimulus Received: The neuron receives a stimulus, which initiates an electrical signal
called an action potential.
Impulse Generation: The action potential is generated at the cell body and travels
along the axon.
Impulse Propagation: The nerve impulse moves down the axon towards the axon
terminals.
Synapse Transmission: At the synapse, neurotransmitters are released, transmitting
the signal to the next neuron or target cell.
Response: The signal leads to a response, such as muscle contraction or hormone
release.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Transmission of nerve impulse:
Nerve impulses travel in the following manner from one neutron to the next.

Dendrites Cell body Axon

dendrite of next neuron synapse nerve endings at the tip of axon

Flow mantra
The chemicals released from the tip of a neuron's axon traverse the synapse or
neuromuscular junction to connect with the adjacent cell.

CNS (Central Nervous System)

The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal
cord. The brain controls bodily functions, while the

D
spinal cord relays signals between the brain and the

RA
peripheral nervous system.

Human Brain:
KI
It serves as the central “Topic zarrori hai
T

coordination hub of the Exam mei aata hai”

AN

body, empowering an - Prashant Bhaiya

organism to both think and
act.
H
AS

Three Regions of Brain:

EMA
Fore-brain: It is composed of the cerebrum.
PR

Mid-brain: It is composed of the hypothalamus.

Hind-brain: It is composed of the cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata.

Forebrain: The largest and primary cognitive region of the brain responsible for
receiving sensory impulses. Its components include:
Cerebrum: Shaped like a dome, it serves as the brain's uppermost structure and
functions as the primary thinking center. Responsible for tasks such as reasoning,
speech, and information processing.
The cerebrum controls voluntary motor actions.
It is the site of sensory perceptions, like tactile and auditory perceptions.
It is the seat of learning and memory.

Lobes:
Frontal- controls voluntary movements of muscles, memory, and speech.
Parietal- a sense of touch and taste.
Temporal- a sense of smell and hearing.
Occipital- a sense of vision.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Midbrain: The inclusion of the hypothalamus defines its composition.

Hypothalamus:
EMA
It lies at the base of the cerebrum.
It also controls the urges for eating and drinking.
It controls sleep and wake cycle of the body.

Hindbrain: Serving as the link between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain,
it consists of three distinct parts.
1. Cerebellum: It's under the balanced and does three main things:
helps you move
keeps you balanced
manages things you do on purpose

2. Medulla: It's the brain stem, found at the bottom of the brain and stretching into
the spinal cord. It handles things our body does automatically, like hearing, heartbeats,
breathing, and actions like salivating and vomiting.

D
RA
3. Pons:
It also controls involuntary actions.
KI
It regulates respiration

Spinal Cord: It manages quick reflex actions and

T

JOSH METER?
sends messages between the body and the brain.
AN

EMA
Peripheral Nervous System
H

The peripheral nervous system includes cranial nerves and spinal nerves. We have 12
AS

pairs of cranial nerves that extend from the brain to the head's organs. Additionally,
there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves that come out of the spinal cord and connect to
PR

organs below the head.

1. Cranial Nerves: Originate from the brain and extend throughout the head.
2. Spinal Nerves: Arise from the spinal cord and extend throughout the body, excluding
the head.
3. Visceral Nerves: Emerge from the spinal cord and establish connections with internal
organs.

Reflex Action: A rapid, sudden, and immediate bodily response to a stimulus. Examples
include the knee jerk and withdrawing the hand upon touching an object.
Reflex Arc: The route traveled by nerve impulses during a reflex action is known as a
reflex arc.

Heat Receptors Spinal Organ Effector Organ Response

(Stimulus) (Skin) (Muscles) (Hand Withdrawal)

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Three Types Of Responses:

1. Voluntary Actions: Governed by the forebrain. Examples include talking and writing.
2. Involuntary Actions: Regulated by the mid and hind brain. Examples encompass

D
heartbeat, vomiting, and respiration.

RA
3. Reflex Actions: Orchestrated by the spinal cord. An instance is the withdrawal of a
hand upon touching a hot object.
KI
Coordination in Plants:
Control and coordination in plants are carried out by hormones.
T
AN

“Bht zarrori Table”

- Prashant Bhaiya
Plant Hormones Functions
H
AS

Auxin Helps in the growth of plant tissues

PR

Cytokinin Promotes cell division, delays ageing of cells

Facilitates stem growth, triggers seed germination, stimulates

Gibberellins flowering, supports cell division, and fosters seed development
post-germination.

Suppresses growth, induces wilting of leaves,

Abscisic Acid
encourages bud and seed dormancy.

Ethylene This is a gas hormone responsible for fruit ripening.

 PRASHANT KIRAD

EMA
Growth Independent Movements:
Movements unrelated to growth are termed nastic movements. These responses occur
due to environmental stimuli, but the direction of the response is not determined by the
direction of the stimulus.
The movement in the touch-me-not plant is thigmonastic movement (movement in
response to touch).

Plants Movements Associated with Growth:

Growth-related movements are referred to as tropic movements. These responses occur
in reaction to environmental stimuli, and the direction of the response is influenced by
the direction of the stimulus.

Phototropic movement (light-dependent)

Geotropic movement (gravity-dependent)
“Dhyan mei rakhna
Chemotropic movement (chemical-dependent) topic exam mei pucha

D
Hydrotropic movement (water-dependent) jaata hai”

RA
- Prashant Bhaiya
Thigmotropic movement (touch dependent)
1. Geotropism: The response of plant parts to the Earth's
KI
gravitational force is termed geotropism or gravitropism.

Positive geotropism refers to growth towards gravity, while negative

T

geotropism involves growth away from gravity. Roots exhibit positive

AN

geotropism by growing towards gravity, while shoots display negative

geotropism by growing away from gravity.
H

2. Phototropism: The response of plant parts to light is termed

phototropism.
AS

Positive phototropism involves movement towards light, while

PR

negative phototropism entails movement away from light. Stems

exhibit positive phototropism by moving towards the light, while
roots demonstrate negative phototropism by moving away from the
light.

3. Hydrotropism: Movement of plant parts in response to water or

moisture.

Positive hydrotropism involves movement towards water, while

negative hydrotropism entails movement away from water. Root
movement in search of water is an example of positive hydrotropism,
as seen in the movement of roots towards areas with high humidity.

4. Chemotropism: The response of plant parts to chemical stimuli is

termed chemotropism.

Positive chemotropism involves movement towards a chemical

stimulus, while negative chemotropism entails movement away from a
chemical stimulus. The growth of the pollen tube towards the ovule
exemplifies positive chemotropism.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

5. Thigmotropism: Movement of plant parts in response to touch is called as

thigmotropism.
Positive thigmotropism involves movement towards touch, while negative
thigmotropism entails movement away from touch. The movement of
tendrils around a support is an example of positive thigmotropism.
The Endocrine System: rtion)
VIP (very important po

Exocrine Glands: Exocrine glands release their secretions through ducts that open
onto an epithelial surface.
Endocrine Glands: Endocrine glands are ductless glands that release hormones
directly into the bloodstream in humans. In the human body, notable endocrine
glands include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pineal, pancreas, ovary (female),
testis (male), and others. Now, let's delve into each gland to learn more.

Pituitary Gland:
Pea-sized gland situated at the base of the

D
brain
Functions as the master gland, overseeing
the secretions of all other endocrine glands
Produces Growth Hormone (GH), LH, FSH. RA
KI
Insufficient GH secretion results in
Dwarfism
T

Excessive GH secretion leads to Gigantism

AN

in children.
Excessive GH in adults causes 'Acromegaly'
H

Thyroid Gland:
AS

Butterfly-shaped gland in the throat

Secretes the hormone 'Thyroxine,' which regulates body metabolism
PR

Requires iodine for thyroxine synthesis in the body

Iodine deficiency results in under-secretion of thyroxine
Under-secretion of thyroxine causes goitre

Pancreas:
Leaf-like gland located behind the stomach in the abdomen
Functions as both an endocrine and exocrine gland
Endocrine function involves the production of two hormones: Insulin and glucagon
Insulin and glucagon act antagonistically to regulate blood sugar levels
Exocrine function includes the secretion of enzymes to break down proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids in food
Insufficient insulin production from the pancreas results in diabetes
Adrenal Gland:
Present in pairs above each kidney
Size decreases with age
Secretes adrenaline, a hormone facilitating the flight and fight response
Additionally secretes noradrenaline
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Gonads:
Gonads are gamete-producing organs: testes in males, ovaries in females
Testes produce androgen (testosterone and other male hormones), while ovaries
produce estrogen and progesterone (female hormones)
Androgen and estrogen contribute to gamete production and influence the sexual
characteristics of males and females, respectively
Progesterone serves as the pregnancy hormone.

# TOP 7
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1) What are hormones?
Solution:

D
Hormones are the chemical substances secreted in trace amounts by specialised tissue
called endocrine glands.
RA
2) Trace the sequences of events through a reflex arc which occur when a bright light is
KI
focused on your eyes.
T

Solution:
AN

Photo receptors (EYE) Sensory neuron Spinal cord

Effector Muscles in Eye (blinking) Motor neuron

H
AS

3) (a) What is reflex arc?

(b) What are the components of reflex arc?
(c) How do muscle cells move?
PR

Solution:
a. The process of detecting the signal or the input and responding to it by an output
action might be completed quickly. Such a connection is commonly called reflex arc.
b. Stimulus " Receptors " Sensory neurons " Spinal cord " Motor neurons " Effector.
c. Muscle cells have special proteins that change their shape and arrangement in the
cell in response to electrical impulse. This leads the muscle cells shortening.
4) What are hormones? Name the hormone produced by thyroid gland and state its
function.
Solution:
Chemical coordination in animals occurs through chemicals called hormones which are
secreted by endocrine glands. Thyroxin hormone. It regulates metabolism of
carbohydrates, fats and proteins. It is advisable to consume iodized salt in our food as
iodine is required by our thyroid gland to produce thyroxin hormone. If it lacks in our
body goiter may occur due to enlargement of thyroid in the neck region.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

5) Name the hormone synthesized at the shoot tips. How does it help the plant to
respond to light?
Solution:
Auxin is synthesized at the shoot tips when growing plant detects light and helps the
cells to grow longer. When light is coming from one side of the plant, auxin diffuses
towards the shady side of the shoot. This concentration of auxin stimulates the cells to
grow longer on the side of the shoot which is away from light. Thus, the plant appears
to bend towards light.

6) State how concentration of auxins stimulates the cells to grow longer on the side of

D
shoot which is away from light?
Solution:
RA
Auxin form in the shoot tip but diffuse toward the part which is in shade/away from
KI
the light. The concentration on shady part increase stimulation cells in this part to
T

elongate. The side of shoot on this side grows longer than the part in light hence bend
AN

towards light.

7) 1. Name the endocrine gland associated with brain.

H

2. Which gland secretes digestive enzymes as well as hormone?

AS

3. Name the endocrine gland associated with kidneys.

4. Which endocrine gland is present in males but not in females?
5. Which hormone is responsible for changes in females during puberty?
PR

6. Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of which hormone?

Solution:
1. Pituitary gland
2. Pancreas
3. Adrenal gland
4. Testes
5. estrogen
6. Thyroxine

“Class 10th Phodenge”

 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Heredity and Evolution
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Heredity
Heredity involves the transmission of
characteristics from one generation to the
next, as traits are passed down from parents.
Heredity is the result of genes being inherited.
Study of Heredity and Inheritance is term as
Genetics.
A trait that is Genetically passed down from one
generation to another is termed as Inherited trait.

Variations: Variations in traits among individuals in a species arise from genetic

D
mutations and environmental factors, such as diet, chemicals, and pollution.

RA
Inherited Traits: Inherited traits are characteristics passed from parents to
offspring through generations, controlled by genes. Examples include height and
KI
skin colour.
T
AN

Gregor Johann Mendel is a central figure in the

field of genetics, often referred to as the
H

"Father of Genetics."
AS

Mendel conducted experiments between 1856 and

1863 using pea plants (Pisum sativum). He chose
PR

pea plants because they had easily observable

traits, such as flower color and seed shape.

Mendel carefully cross-pollinated pea plants with

different traits and observed how these traits
Gregor Johann Mendel were passed on to the next generation.

It is easy to cultivate.
It has a short life span so easy
to study various generations.

Why pea plant?

 PRASHANT KIRAD

Important Terms EMA

Gene: The basic unit of heredity, made of DNA, that codes for a specific trait.
Allele: Different forms of a gene that can exist at a particular locus.
Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism, representing the combination of
alleles.
Phenotype: The observable characteristics or traits of an organism, resulting
from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.
Dominant Allele: An allele that expresses its trait even when only one copy is
present (e.g., "A" in Aa).
Recessive Allele: An allele that only expresses its trait when two copies are
present (e.g., "a" in aa).
Homozygous: An organism with two identical alleles for a trait (e.g., AA or aa).

D
Heterozygous: An organism with two different alleles for a trait (e.g., Aa)

RA
Chromosomes: Chromosomes are thread-like structures in the cell nucleus that
carry genetic information (DNA).
KI
Monohybrid Cross: A cross that focuses on one pair of contrasting traits is
referred to as a monohybrid cross, resulting in a 3:1 ratio known as the
T

monohybrid ratio.
AN

Dihybrid Cross: A cross that involves two pairs of contrasting traits is termed
a dihybrid cross, and it yields a 9:3:3:1 ratio, which is known
as the dihybrid ratio.
H

Dominant Trait: The trait that can be visibly expressed in the first generation.
AS

Recessive Trait: The trait that is not able to express itself in F1 generation
but reappears in f2 generation.
PR

Dominant Gene: The gene that can be expressed in both homozygous and
heterozygous conditions.
Recessive Gene: A gene that can only express itself in the homozygous
condition.

Inherited traits from previous generations provide a shared body

plan and introduce subtle modifications for the next generation.

Depending on the nature of variations, various individuals may possess

diverse advantages.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Mendel’s Experiment:
Mendel discovered that traits can be either dominant or recessive.
When he crossed a tall pea plant with a short one, all the offspring in the first
generation were tall.
To investigate the disappearance of the short trait,
he allowed the first-generation plants to self-
pollinate.
In the second generation, he observed both tall and
short plants in a 3:1 ratio.
This led Mendel to conclude that the short trait was
hidden in the first generation, unable to express
itself because it was recessive.

D
RA
KI
T
AN
H
AS
PR
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Mendel crossed pea plants with round yellow seeds

and green wrinkled seeds.
In the first generation, all offspring had round
yellow seeds.
To investigate the missing traits of wrinkled and
green seeds, he self-pollinated these plants.
In the second generation, he found new
combinations of traits along with the original ones,
revealing that seed shape and color are inherited
independently of each other.

D
RA
KI
T
AN
H
AS
PR

Sabse zyada pucha jata

hai - Mendel’s Experiment
- Prashant Bhaiya
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Chromosomes:
Chromosome pairs refer to the two sets of
chromosomes present in most human cells.
Each set consists of 23 individual
chromosomes, with one set inherited from
the mother and the other from the father.
These pairs include sex chromosomes (X and
Y in humans) and autosomes, which carry
genetic information and are essential for
genetic inheritance.

Sex Determination EMA

Environmental Factors: In certain reptiles, such as turtles and crocodiles, the

D
temperature at which eggs are incubated determines the sex of the offspring.

RA
Higher incubation temperatures result in females, while lower temperatures result in
males.
KI
T

Genetic Factors: The sex of the baby is determined by the type of male gamete
AN

that fuses with the female gamete. If the fertilizing sperm contains X chromosome,
then the baby produced will be a girl and if the fertilizing sperm contains Y
chromosome, then the baby produced will be a boy.
H
AS

In humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes,

making a total of 46 chromosomes. Among these, 22
PR

pairs are autosomes, and one pair is sex

chromosomes. In males, the sex chromosomes are
XY, and in females, they are XX. The sex of a child is
determined during fertilization.

If an X-carrying sperm fertilizes the egg, the child

will be female (XX), and if a Y-carrying sperm
fertilizes the egg, the child will be male (XY).
Therefore, the sperm's genetic contribution
determines the child's sex.

Most repeated topic!

- Prashant Bhaiya
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# TOP 7
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. It is a matter of chance whether a couple will have a male or a female child.”
Justify this statement by drawing a flow chart.

Solution:

Women produce only one type of ovum (carrying X chromosome) and males produce
two types of sperms (carrying either X or Y chromosome) in equal proportions. So
the sex of a child is a matter of chance depending upon the type of sperm
fertilizing the ovum.

D
RA
2. Why traits such as intelligence and knowledge cannot be passes on to the next
generation?
KI
Solution:
T
AN

Traits such as intelligence and knowledge are not heritable traits, which do not bring
upon any changes in the DNA of the germ cells and, therefore, cannot be passed on
H

to the progeny.
AS

3. Distinguish between inherited traits and acquired traits in a tabular form, giving
PR

one example of each.

Solution:

Inherited Trait Acquired Trait

Experiences of an individual during

Genetically Inherited
its lifetime.

They can be passed on from one It cannot be passed on from one

generation to the next. generation to the next.

Example: power to lift weights and

Example: Eye colour or height
reading French.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

4.What is a dominant trait with respect to height in pea plants? Give any
two examples.

Solution:
Characters/Traits like ‘T’ are called dominant trait (because it express itself) ‘t’ are
recessive trait (because it remains suppressed)

5. What are chromosomes? Explain how sexually reproducing organisms the number
of chromosomes in the progeny is maintained.

D
RA
Solution:
Chromosomes - Thread-like structures made up of DNA found in the nucleus. The
KI
original number of chromosomes becomes half during gamete formation. Hence, when
the gametes combine, the original number of chromosomes gets restored in the
T

progeny.
AN

6.Rekha has a dark complexion and seeks beauty products to lighten her skin. Her
friend Lila tells her that skin color is determined by birth and advises against
H

excessive use of such products. (All India 2013)

AS

a. What might have caused Rekha’s color to be dark?

b. Is it possible that all the family members of Rekha’s family were dark?
PR

c. What value do you learn?

Solution:
a. Her dark colour may be due to genetic inheritance.
b. All may not be dark, depending upon the genes inherited and the environmental
conditions that each one of them living in.
c. Awareness, logical thinking, and scientific temperament.
7. How do Mendel’s experiment show that traits are inherited independently?
Solution:
Mendel performed dihybrid crosses by mating pea plants with different traits in two
characteristics. like yellow round seeds With green wrinkled seeds. In the F2
generation, he observed both parental (yellow round and green wrinkled) and
recombinant (yellow wrinkled and green round) phenotypes. This showed that these
traits separated from their original combinations and were inherited independently.
 es

CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE

Life Processes
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Life processes are the basic processes in living organisms which are necessary for
maintaining their life

Nutrition. Respiration Transportation Excretion

Herbivores eat only plant
grass, e.g. cow, goat.
Autotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic Nutrition
prepare their own food depend on other sources for their food
Carnivores eat other
animals. e.g. lion, tiger.
plants, algae, plankton Dogs, birds, fish, and humans
and bacteria Omnivores feed on both
plants & animals. e.g. humans

Saprophytic Nutrition Parasitic Nutrition Holozoic Nutrition

dead and decaying bodies, feeds on other living ingest solid or liquid food
e.g. yeasts, mushrooms. organisms e.g. lice (जूँ) particles and then digest, e.g.
and tapeworm humans, dogs
Nutrition: taking in food and converting it into energy and other vital nutrients required
for life.

D
RA
*Organisms use enzymes to break down complex substances into simpler ones for
growth and maintenance*
KI
Autotrophic Nutrition:
Photosynthesis: process by which green plants and certain other organisms transform
T

light energy into chemical energy.

AN

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) + Water (H₂O) + Light energy → Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)+ Oxygen (O₂).
H

Chlorophyll
6CO₂ + 12H₂O C₆H₁₂O₆ + O₂.
AS

Sunlight
Unused carbohydrates - stored as starch in plants (energy reserve)
PR

Humans - energy is stored as glycogen.

(i) Light absorption by chlorophyll JOSH METER?

(ii) Light energy converts to chemical energy; water splits into hydrogen and oxygen
(iii) Carbon dioxide reduces to carbohydrates.
Stomata: CO₂ is taken ,tiny pores on leaves for gas
exchange.
Guard Cells: Control opening and closing of stomata.
Water Loss: Stomata close to prevent water loss, stomata close when carbon
dioxide isn't needed
Plants absorb water and essential nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, etc.) from soil.
Nitrogen: Vital for proteins, absorbed as nitrates/nitrites or organic compounds
from bacteria.
Paramecium: Has a definite shape, Takes in food at a specific spot and Cilia move food
to this spot.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Amoeba feeding:
Uses finger-like extensions to engulf food.
Forms a food vacuole where complex substances are broken
down.
Nutrients diffuse into the cytoplasm.
Undigested material is expelled from the cell.

Nutrition in human being: Flow mantra

FOOD MOUTH TONGUE OESOPHAGUS STOMACH

WASTE ANUS LARGE INTESTINE SMALL INTESTINE

Alimentary canal: long tube extending from the mouth

to the anus.
Mouth: (Ingestion)

D
1. Teeth - chewing and breaking down of food in

RA
smaller pieces
2. Tongue - wet the food & mixes it with saliva
KI
3. Salivary glands - secretes saliva
- saliva contains salivary amylase, digestion of starch.
T

Oesophagus: (food pipe) muscular tube - moves food

AN

from the mouth to the stomach through rhythmic

contractions (peristaltic movement).
H

Stomach: J shaped large organ, food is mixed with

gastric juices:
AS

1. hydrochloric acid : kills bacteria, make gastric juice acidic in nature

2. pepsin : protein digestion starts
PR

3. mucus: protects stomach lining from HCl effect

Small Intestine: main site for digestion and absorption of nutrients. Receives bile
from the liver which breakdown fats and also receive pancreatic juices from the
pancreas - amylase (breaks down starch), trypsin (digest protein) and lipase (breaks
down emulsified fats)
Villi- finger like projections, increases surface area of small intestine , i.e. increases
absorption rate.
Large Intestine: Absorbs water from undigested food, forming solid waste, which
is then excreted through the anus.

Respiration: Respiration is a process by which living organisms, including

humans, take in oxygen from the environment and use it to produce energy.
During respiration, the body breaks down food molecules (like glucose) in the
presence of oxygen to release energy, carbon dioxide, and water. This energy is
used for various functions such as growth, movement, and repair.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Breathing (Pulmonary Ventilation)

Respiration involves : External Respiration (Gas Exchange in the Lungs)
Transport of Gases
Internal Respiration (Gas Exchange in Tissues)
Cellular Respiration
Exhalation of Carbon Dioxide

Steps of respiration:
1. Glycolysis (in the Cytoplasm): During glycolysis, one molecule of glucose (a 6-carbon
compound) is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate (a 3-carbon compound).

2. Fate of Pyruvic Acid in Mitochondria:The fate of pyruvic acid (pyruvate) in the

mitochondria involves its conversion into acetyl-CoA, which then enters the Krebs cycle.
In the presence of oxygen, this process leads to the complete breakdown of pyruvate,
resulting in the production of carbon dioxide,
water, and a significant amount of ATP (energy).

D
EMA

RA
Types of respiration: KI
Aspects Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Presence of Oxygen Requires oxygen Occurs in the absence of oxygen

T
AN

Location of Pyruvate
Mitochondria Cytoplasm
Breakdown

Products of Pyruvate Ethanol and carbon dioxide (in yeast);

H

Carbon dioxide and water

Breakdown Lactic acid (in muscles)
AS

Energy Yield High energy yield Lower energy yield

Pathway for Glucose Complete breakdown to carbon Partial breakdown to ethanol

PR

Breakdown dioxide and water (fermentation) or lactic acid

Common process during intense activity

Occurrence in Muscles Not applicable
causing cramps

ATP Production Produces a large amount of ATP Produces a smaller amount of ATP

ion)
ry important port
VIP (ve
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Pain in leg muscles while running:

Due to intense running, human muscle cells respire anaerobically when they do not
receive sufficient oxygen.
They break down glucose in the absence of oxygen to make lactic acid.
The accumulation of lactic acid causes muscle cramps

ATP
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a high-energy molecule found in cells.
It has three phosphate groups, making it a tri-phosphate.
ATP provides energy for cellular activities, much like a battery powers various
devices.
It is essential for processes such as protein synthesis, muscle contraction, and
other cellular functions.

Respiration in Humans
A complex network crucial for breathing, gas exchange, and cellular respiration.

D
Involves inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide.
Occurs in the lungs, supplying oxygen to the blood and removing carbon dioxide.

RA
Takes place in cells, producing energy essential for cellular functions.
Ensures efficient oxygen delivery and energy production for overall body function.
KI
Respiratory System:
T

Main organs of the respiratory system includes:

AN

Nose: Filters and warms air.

Trachea: Airway to the lungs.
H

Lungs: Main site of gas exchange.

AS

Bronchi & Alveoli: Air passages and sacs where oxygen and CO₂ exchange occurs.
Diaphragm: Muscle aiding in lung expansion and contraction.
PR

Inhalation and Exhalation

Feature Inhalation Exhalation

Muscle Activity Diaphragm flattens; ribs lift Diaphragm relaxes; ribs move down

Chest Cavity Expands, increasing volume Contracts, decreasing volume

Air Pressure Decreases inside the chest cavity Increases inside the chest cavity

Air Movement Air is sucked into the lungs Air is pushed out of the lungs

Alveolar State Alveoli expand as they fill with air Alveoli contract as air is expelled

Oxygen is absorbed from alveoli into the Carbon dioxide is released from blood into
Gas Exchange
blood alveoli

Some air remains in the lungs for gas

Residual Air Residual air stays in the lungs
exchange

Purpose To bring oxygen into the body To remove carbon dioxide from the body
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Cellular Respiration:
It is the process of breakdown of glucose on other respiratory substrate in the
cell to produce energy for performing various functions.
Flow mantra
Nostrils (Air intake; filters air with fine hairs and mucus)

Throat (Pharynx) (Channels air from nostrils to trachea)

D
Trachea (Main airway conducting air; cartilage rings prevent collapse)

RA
Bronchi (Branches of trachea; each leads to one lung)

Bronchioles (Smaller branches distributing air throughout the lungs)

KI
Alveoli (Tiny sacs where gas exchange occurs; surrounded by capillaries)
T

Blood Vessels (Capillaries) in Alveoli (Diffuses oxygen to blood; remove carbon dioxide)
AN

Hemoglobin (Respiratory pigment in red blood cells; transports oxygen and carbon dioxide)
H

Respiration in Plants
AS

In contrast to animals and humans, plants lack specialized

structures for gaseous exchange.
PR

Gaseous exchange in plants occurs through stomata in leaves and

lenticels in stems.
Plant roots, stems, and leaves exhibit a considerably lower
respiratory rate compared to animals.

Transportation

It is a life process in which a substance absorbed is transported from one body

part to it’s other parts.

Transportation in Humans
The circulatory system in humans serves as the primary transportation
mechanism.
Comprising blood, blood vessels, and the heart, it facilitates the supply of oxygen
and nutrients while eliminating carbon dioxide and other excretory products.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Additionally, the circulatory system plays a vital role in the body's immune response,
aiding in the fight against infections.

HEART
It is pumping machine that pushes out the blood into the blood vessels and from
these to different parts of the body. It has four chambers separated by septum which
prevent mixing of pure and impure blood.

Chambers—
1.Atrium (upper chambers) — there are two atrium seperated by septum (dividing walls).
2. Ventricle (lower chambers) - The two inferior chambers of heart are right and left
ventricle.

Through systole and diastole, the heart

efficiently propels and circulates blood, ensuring
essential oxygen and nutrients reach the

D
body's tissues and organs.

Arteries
RA
Thick-walled blood (withstand the high pressure
KI
released from the heart during the process of
pumping the blood) vessels transport
T

oxygenated blood from the heart to various

AN

organs, with the exception of pulmonary arteries. EMA

Pulmonary arteries deviate from the norm by
carrying deoxygenated blood from the heart to
H

the lungs, where the blood undergoes oxygenation.

AS

Veins
These are thin-walled blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood
PR

from different organs to the heart, pulmonary

veins are exceptions because they carry oxygenated
blood from lungs to the heart. “Dil ke baare me padhlo
Valves are present in veins to prevent back flow pakka kaam aayega”
of blood. - Prashant Bhaiya
Capillaries
These are thin walled, extremely narrow tubes which connect arteries to veins.
Blood, a connective tissue, functions as the carrier for various substances in
the body and is comprised of three main components:
1. Plasma 2. Blood cells 3. Platelets

Blood Plasma: This is a light-colored fluid primarily composed of water,

constituting the matrix of blood.

Blood Cells: 1. Red Blood Cells (RBCs) 2. White Blood Cells (WBCs).
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Red Blood Cells White Blood Cells

These cells are red due to the presence These cells are pale white and play a
of the pigment haemoglobin. Haemoglobin crucial role in the immune system.
readily binds with oxygen and carbon Platelets: Responsible for blood
dioxide, facilitating the transport of coagulation, platelets serve as a
oxygen. Additionally, a portion of carbon defense mechanism preventing excessive
dioxide is transported through blood loss in the event of an injury.
haemoglobin.

Lymph
Lymph resembles blood but lacks red blood cells (RBCs).
Formed from leaked fluid in tissues, lymph is collected by lymph vessels and
returns to blood capillaries.
Lymph, a yellowish fluid with fewer proteins than blood, plays a vital role in the

D
immune system.

RA
It flows from tissues to the heart, assisting in transportation and germ
destruction.
KI
Flow mantra
Double Circulation:
T
AN

The heart receives oxygenated blood

from the lungs, pumps it to various
parts of the body, and then receives
H

it back for another circulation.

AS

Consequently, the blood completes a

full round through the body, passing
PR

once through the right half as

deoxygenated blood and once through
the left half as oxygenated blood.

Transportation in Plants
Transportation is a crucial process in plants.
It encompasses the movement of water and essential nutrients throughout the
plant to support its survival.
Plants conduct the transportation of food and water through distinct pathways.
Xylem is responsible for transporting water.
Phloem, on the other hand, is dedicated to the transportation of food.

Transpiration
Transpiration refers to the loss of water in vapor form from the plant's
aerial parts.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
This process aids in the absorption and upward transport of water and dissolved
minerals from the roots to the leaves, contributing to temperature regulation.
Transport of food and other substances
The movement of soluble products resulting from
photosynthesis is termed translocation, and it takes “Bahut Jaroori Table”
place within the vascular tissue section called the - Prashant Bhaiya
phloem.
Energy is harnessed to accomplish translocation in the
phloem.
Substances such as sucrose are actively transferred
into phloem tissue, utilizing energy derived from ATP.

Xylem Phloem

Transports water and minerals from Transports products of photosynthesis (e.g.,

D
roots to other parts of the plant. sucrose) from leaves to other parts of the plant.

Composed of vessels, tracheids,

fibers, and parenchyma. RA
Composed of sieve tubes and companion cells.
KI
T

Uses physical forces such as root

Utilizes energy (e.g., ATP) to create osmotic
AN

pressure and transpiration pull for

pressure that drives the transport of substances.
water movement.
H

Movement is unidirectional, typically Movement can be bidirectional (upwards and

AS

upwards. downwards).
PR

Transpiration creates a suction

Translocation is driven by osmotic pressure and
force that pulls water up through
energy, moving substances according to plant needs.
the xylem.

Primarily provides support and Primarily involved in the transport of nutrients and
conduction of water. food.

Excretion
Excretion is the process by which living organisms remove waste products from
their bodies to maintain a healthy internal environment.
Human Excretory System
The human excretory system comprises of two kidneys, two ureters, a
urinary bladder and a urethra.
In human excretory system each kidney is connected to the urinary
bladder by a tube called the ureter.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Urine is gathered in the urinary bladder and expelled through the urethra
as needed.

Kidney
The kidney, a bean-shaped organ, is situated
near the vertebral column in the abdominal
cavity.
The kidneys filter waste products, excess salts,
and water from the blood to form urine, which
helps in removing toxins from the body.
Kidney comprises of numerous filtering units
known as nephrons.
Nephron
It is basic filtering unit found in kidney. It is long coiled tubular whose

D
one end is connected to cup shaped structure called Bowman’s capsule
contain bundle of blood capillaries called glomerulus that is followed by

RA
tubular part of nephrons and loops at some places.
Functioning-
KI
1. Glomerulus filters the blood passing
T

through it.
AN

2. It also ensures to remove only harmful

substances from the body that include
waste materials.
H

3. The useful substances like glucose,

AS

amino acids, salts, and major amount of

water is selectively reabsorbed by tubular
PR

part of nephron.
4. Some substances like K+ are actively
secreted into the urine through tubule.
5. The collecting dust collects the urine and passes it to ureter.

Kidneys (Filter waste products from the blood to form urine.)

Nephrons (Perform the filtration of blood and the formation of urine within the kidneys)

Ureters (Transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder)

Urinary Bladder (Stores urine until it is ready to be excreted from the body)

Urethra (Conducts urine from the urinary bladder out of the body)

Flow mantra
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Hemodialysis
Hemodialysis is a medical procedure used to artificially remove waste products
and excess fluids from the blood when a person's kidneys are not functioning
properly. It is commonly used in patients with kidney failure or severe kidney
disease.

Purpose: Hemodialysis helps to filter the blood, performing the function of

the kidneys by removing waste products from the blood.
How It Works: During hemodialysis, a machine pumps the patient's blood
through a dialyzer (artificial kidney), where it is filtered. The cleaned blood
is then returned to the body. The process typically takes several hours and is
usually done multiple times a week.
Importance: Hemodialysis is a life-saving procedure
for individuals with kidney failure, allowing them to manage
their condition and maintain a stable internal environment

D
in the body.

RA
JOSH METER?
Excretion in Plants
Excretion in plants refers to the process by which plants remove waste
KI
products resulting from their metabolic activities. Unlike animals,
plants do not have a specialized excretory system,
T

so they use different methods to manage and eliminate waste.

AN
H

1. Gaseous Excretion: Plants excrete oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis

AS

and carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. These gases are released

into the atmosphere through tiny openings called stomata in the leaves.
PR

2. Storage and Removal of Waste: Some waste products, such as resins, gums,
and latex, are stored in specific parts of the plant like old leaves, bark, or in
vacuoles within cells. Eventually, these wastes are removed when the leaves,
bark, or other parts of the plant fall off.

3. Excretion through Roots: Plants can also excrete waste substances into the
soil through their roots. Some waste products, such as organic acids, are
released into the soil where they are either utilized by the plant or broken
down by soil microorganisms.

These processes help plants maintain a balanced internal environment and

avoid the accumulation of harmful substances.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# TOP 7
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1.Differentiate between Photosynthesis and Respiration.

Solution:
Photosynthesis
Respiration
• It occurs in only autotrophs.
• It occurs in all living cells.
• CO2 and H2O combine to form starch
· 02 reacts with food and energy is
and water in the presence of light.
released.
• Occur in plastid-chloroplast.
• It occurs in cytoplasm and

D
mitochondria.

RA
2. a. How is oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanged between blood and tissue?
KI
How are the gases transported in human being?
b. What is haemoglobin?
T
AN

Solution:
a. Exchange of gases in tissues occurs through diffusion. Oxygen is carried as
H

oxyhemoglobin from lungs to tissues. It dissociates and carbon dioxide diffuses out
AS

into blood from tissues. It is transported in dissolved form and reaches lungs where
again it diffuses to alveoli.
PR

b. Respiratory pigment: Hemoglobin is a red colored protein present in red blood

cells. Hemoglobin has affinity for 02.

3. What is excretion? Name some parts in our body involved in this life process.

Solution:
Excretion means throwing out metabolic waste from living body. Many organs perform
this process such as:
a. Kidneys remove nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid in urine.
b. Sweat and oil by glands in skin.
c. Carbon dioxide and water vapor by lungs.
d. Feces or undigested food by large intestine.
e. Bile pigments by liver. It also converts toxic ammonia to urea.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

4.Explain how the air is inhaled during breathing in humans.

Solution:
Mechanism of inhalation:
a. The diaphragm and rib muscles contract which make the throat move upwards and
outwards.
b. The volume inside the thoracic cavity increases i.e., it expands.
c. Air pressure inside the thoracic cavity decreases. Thus, air from outside rushes into
the lungs /alveoli through nostrils, trachea and bronchi.

5. Leaves of a healthy potted plant were coated with Vaseline to block the
stomata. Will this plant remain healthy for long? Stage three reasons for your
answer.

Solution:

D
No, the plant will not stay healthy for a long time. The reasons are:

RA
a. It will not be able to exchange 02 and CO2, hence respiration will be affected
adversely.
KI
b. Photosynthesis will also be affected as CO2 will not be available.
c. Transpiration will not take place hence there will
T

be no ascent of sap, hence no water absorption from the soil.

AN

6.Draw neat and labeled diagram of nephron and describe the process of urine
formation.
H

Solution:
AS

Within the kidney are small functional units called

PR

nephrons, which are made up of glomeruli, Bowman's

capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henley, distal
convoluted loop, and collecting duct. Steps of urine
formation: Each kidney is made of millions of nephron. Each
nephron has a hollow cup like Bowman's capsule and a long
tubule system following it. Arteriole branching from renal
artery make bunches of capillaries, one of which is called a
Glomerulus. The first step in the filtration process is when
the blood enters the Glomerulus, where it is then pumped
through the porous walls into the Bowman's space. This
filtered plasma is mainly water, various salts, urea and
glucose. The "glomerular filtrate" then passes through the
proximal convoluted tubule, Loop of Henle, the distal
convoluted tubule so that useful substances are re-
absorbed by blood present in the capillaries around them.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

7.Describe double circulation in human beings. Name the group of

animal with double circulation? How is it important for them?

Solution:
Such a flow in which blood enters the heart twice is
called double circulation. It helps in keeping the
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separate. The right
atrium receives blood from the vena cava and pumps the
blood into the right ventricle. Blood is sent to lungs,
where it is oxygenated. Then, it is sent through the
right and left pulmonary veins to the left atrium where
it is pumped to the left ventricle. The blood then
travels to the ascending aorta where it leaves the heart
and delivers oxygen to different parts of the body.

D
RA
“Class 10th Phodenge”
KI
- Prashant Bhaiya
T
AN
H
AS
PR
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Our Enviroment
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Enviroment
It refers to the complete range of physical and biological conditions in which org. like and
interact with biotic and abiotic factors.

Ecosystem: All the interacting organisms in an area together with the non-living
constituents of the environment form an ecosystem. E.g. Forest, pond etc.
Natural
Ecosystem
Ecosystem
Artificial
Ecosystem

D
Natural Ecosystem: The ecosystem which Artificial Ecosystem: Man-made ecosystems

RA
exists in nature on its own. e.g. Forest, lake, are called artificial ecosystem. e.g., crop
ocean. field, aquarium, garden.
KI
Components of an Ecosystem
T
AN

Abiotic components Biotic components

Producer Consumer Decomposers

H
AS

EMA
PR

Herbivore Carnivore Omnivore Parasites

Biotic component:
Producers: All green plants, blue green algae can produce their food
(Sugar and starch) from inorganic substance using light energy
(Photosynthesis). Therefore, all green plants are called producers.
They are also called autotrophs.

Consumers: They are organisms which consume other organisms or

their products as their food. All animals belong to this category. The
consumers depend upon producers for their food directly or
indirectly. They get their food by eating other organisms or their
products. For example, man, goat, deer, fish, lion, cow, buffalo, etc.,
are common consumers.
The consumers can be classified into the following types :
Herbivores: These are organisms (animals) which get their food by eating the
producers (or plant) directly. Herbivores are also called first order consumers. Some
common examples of herbivores are: deer, rabbit, rat, squirrel, goat, cattle, etc.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Carnivores: These are organisms (animals) which consume other animals. Therefore,
carnivores feed on the flesh of herbivores. These are also called primary carnivores
or second order consumers. Some common examples are snake, wild cat, jackal, frog,
some birds, fishes, etc.

Omnivores: The organisms which feed on both plants and animals are called
omnivores. Human beings are common example of omnivores because they eat both
plants (For example ; pulses, grams, oilseeds, fruit, etc.) and animal products (milk,
meat, egg, etc.).

Parasites: Those who live on body of host and take food from it without killing them.
e.g.- Lice, Cascuta etc.
Decomposers: They are those micro-organisms that obtain energy
from the chemical breakdown of dead organisms or animals or plant
wastes. These microorganisms are decomposers as they breakdown
the complex organic substances into simple inorganic substances that
go into the soil and are used up once more by the plants.
Abiotic component:

D
All the nonliving components such as air, water, land,

RA
CO2, O2, light etc. form abiotic. These components
are physical factors such as light, temp., water etc.
KI
Climatic factors: These are sunlight temperature, pressure humidity, moisture, rainfall,
etc. these factors affect the distribution of the organisms.
T
AN

Light energy (sunlight) is the primary source of energy in nearly all ecosystems. It is
used by green plants (which contain chlorophyll). During photosynthesis plants
manufacture organic substances by combining inorganic substances.
H

Temperature The distribution of plants and animals is greatly influenced by

extremes in temperature. The pattern of rain also affects the growth of the plant.
AS

This plant growth determines the overall variety of animals living in that place.
Atmospheric Gases Oxygen is required for respiration and carbon dioxide for
PR

photosynthesis. Nitrogen is made available to plants by certain bacteria and through

the action of lightening.
Wind It helps in pollination and seed dispersal of some plants. It can remove and
redistribute topsoil, especially where vegetation has been reduced.
Water It is essential for life. Plant and animal habitats vary from entirely aquatic
environments to very dry deserts.
Trophic levels: EMA
Trophic levels are the various steps or levels in the food
chain where transfer of food or energy takes place.
Producers are the first trophic level, herbivores are
second trophic level, carnivores or secondary consumers
are third trophic level and large carnivores or tertiary
consumers are the fourth trophic level.
Food Chain :
Food chain is sequence of organisms through which energy is transferred in the form of
food by the process of one organism consuming the other.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Grass > Grasshopper > Frog > Snake > Eagle

(Producer) (Herbivore) (Carnivore) (Carnivore) (Top Carnivore)

Significance of Food Chain :

rtion)
VIP (very important po

“Dhyaan se padhna
Exam mei kaam
aayega”
- Prashant Bhaiya

Significance Description/Defination

D
RA
Connections in The food chain shows how different plants and animals are
Nature connected and depend on each other for food.
KI
It explains how energy moves from plants to animals and then to
Energy Transfer
T

other animals in a sequence.

AN

The food chain helps recycle nutrients in nature, making sure

Nutrient Recycling
plants and animals get what they need to grow.
H
AS

A healthy food chain keeps nature in balance, and if one part is

Ecosystem Balance
disrupted, it can affect the whole system.
PR

Understanding food chains helps us see how human activities like

Human Impact
pollution can harm nature.

Food Web : EMA

Food web is the network of various food chains which are
interconnected at various tropic levels. Since an organism
can occupy position in more than one food chain, in a food
web it occupies more than one trophic level.

Energy Flow : EMA

Energy is accumulated by the primary producers and its
transferred through food chain to different trophic This
phenomenon is called energy flow. It is unidirectional and
there is no recycling or going back to previous level,
whenever energy is transferred from one to another, some
energy is always lost.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

The flow of energy in an ecosystem:

The energy in a food chain only moves in one direction. It goes from the plants (the
autotrophs) to the plant-eating animals (the herbivores) and doesn't go back to the sun.

The flow of energy in different trophic levels:

Energy in a food chain only goes in one direction.

Green plants capture a small part of sunlight (about
1%) and turn it into food energy.

According to the 10 percent law, only about 10% of

“Dhyaan se padhna
this energy is passed on to the next level of
creatures. The rest, the remaining 90%, is used up
Exam mei kaam
by the current level of organisms for their life
aayega”
processes like digestion, growth, and reproduction. - Prashant Bhaiya

Because energy decreases at each step, most food chains consist of 3 to 4 levels of

D
different creatures.

RA
Biological magnification is when harmful chemicals become more concentrated as
you move up the food chain. This can be a problem because the highest
concentration of these chemicals often ends up in human bodies since humans are
KI
typically at the top of many food chains.
T

Food web is the network of various food chains which are interconnected at various
AN

tropic levels. Since an organism can occupy position in more than one food chain, in a
food web it occupies more than one trophic level.
H

Ozone (O3) is a special form of oxygen made up of three oxygen atoms. Ozone plays
a crucial role in protecting the Earth's surface from the sun's harmful ultraviolet
AS

radiation.

O2 + O —> O3
PR

Depletion of ozone layer: Ozone layer gets depleted – due to the use of chemicals
called aerosol, spray propellants like chlorofluorocarbons. Depletion of ‘ozone layer
would cause skin cancer in men and animals and severe damage to the plants.

Biological magnification happens when harmful, non-biodegradable chemicals like

pesticides accumulate in organisms as you move up the food chain, increasing their
concentration.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

#SECRET QUESTIONS
1) a. What is an ecosystem? List its two main components.
b. We do not clean ponds or lakes, but an aquarium needs to be cleaned regularly.
Explain.
Solution:
A self-sustaining functional unit consisting of living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic)
components, is called an ecosystem.
1. Biotic components: Plants, animals, microbes and other livings.
2. Abiotic components: Light, soil, temperature, humidity, wind, air, etc.

b. An aquarium is an artificial and incomplete ecosystem in contrast to a pond or lake

which is natural, self- sustaining and complete ecosystem. In natural ecosystem,
decomposers help in recycling waste. So, an aquarium needs to be cleaned regularly.

D
RA
2) Mention the differences between food habits of organisms belonging to the first and
third trophic level. Give one example of each of them
KI
Solution:
First Trophic Level Third Trophic Level
T
AN

The organisms of this trophic level The organisms of this trophic level are
are plants and are also called animals and are also called secondary
H

producers. consumers.
AS

They transform solar energy into They obtain chemical energy by eating
PR

chemical energy by green plants other animals. e.g., all carnivores (like
lion).
3) State one important function of ozone layer in the atmosphere. How is it formed
there? Which compounds are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer? How do
these compounds enter into the atmosphere?
Solution:
Ozone present in the upper regions of the atmosphere protects us from dangerous UV
radiations. Formation of ozone layer:

Ozone at the higher levels of the atmosphere is a product of UV radiations acting on

oxygen (O2) molecule. The higher energy UV radiations split apart some molecular
oxygen (O2) into free oxygen (O) atoms. These atoms then combine with the molecular

oxygen to form ozone as shown:

 PRASHANT KIRAD

# TOP 7
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1) Distinguish between biodegradable and nonbiodegradable substances. List two effects
of each of them on our environment.
Solution:
Biodegradable Non-Biodegradable

Substances that are broken down by Substances that are not broken down
biological processes are said to be by biological processes are said to be
biodegradable. nonbiodegradable.
These substances get recycled and, These substances require a lot of space

D
therefore, do not require any dumping for dumping which causes wastage of

RA
sites. land.
2) a. What is the height of ozone from the equator?
KI
b. Name the rays against which ozone layer provides protection.
c. Name one effect of depletion of ozone.
T

Solution:
AN

i. 10 to 16 km.
ii. UV rays.
H

iii. Global warming.

AS

3) State two advantages of conserving (i) forests (ii) wild life

Solution:
PR

Advantages of conserving forest are termed as biodiversity hotspots. They have

large number of species of plants and animals.
(a) They purify air, help in recharging groundwater, bring rains and maintain the
fertility of soil.
(b) They are also a source of income for tribal people.
Wildlife is important
(a) To preserve biodiversity.
(b) As each species has a position in the food chain so wildlife helps in balancing
the nature.

4) Why are green plants called ‘producers’ ?

Solution:
‘Producers’ are the organisms which prepare their own food in the presence of sunlight
and chlorophyll. Therefore, green plants are called producers as they prepare their own
food.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

5) Energy flow in a food chain is unidirectional. Justify this statement. Explain how
the pesticides enter a food chain and subsequently get into our body.
Solution:
a. Energy moves progressively through the various trophic levels and is no longer available
to the previous trophic level. The energy captured by autotrophs does not revert back to
the solar input. Therefore, flow of energy is unidirectional.

b. Pesticides, used for crop rotation when washed down into the soil/water body, are
absorbed by the plant/producer along with water and minerals. Being nonbiodegradable
these chemicals get accumulated progressively in the food chain and enter our body.

6) Food web increases the stability of an ecosystem. Justify.

Solution:
Food web depicts feeding connection in an ecological community. It consists of many

D
food chains. Thus, if any of the organism becomes endangered or extinct, the one who is
dependent on it has an alternative option available to him for its survival. In this way,
food web increases stability in an ecosystem.
RA
7) What is wildlife? How is it important? How is it being protected by government of
KI
India?
T

Solution:
AN

Wildlife means our flora and fauna. It is important:

to preserve biodiversity.
H

as each species has a position in the food chain, so wildlife helps in balancing the
nature.
AS

Various species of plants and animals are preserved in botanical gardens, national parks,
zoological parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
PR

“Class 10th Phodenge”

 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Reproduction
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Reproduction
The term for creating new life from existing life is Reproduction. Its significance lies in:
- Replacing deceased organisms.
- Ensuring the continuity of life on Earth.

Sexual Types Of Asexual

Reproduction Reproduction Reproduction

DNA: DNA, or Deoxyribonucleic Acid, is the molecule that carries the genetic
instructions for life. It is found in the cells of all living organisms and is responsible

D
for passing traits from one generation to the next. DNA is like a blueprint that
determines everything about an organism, from how it looks to how it functions.
Significance of DNA Replication:
→ Preserves body structure. RA
KI
→ Facilitates the inheritance of traits.
→ Introduces diversity during the DNA replication process.
T
AN

Significance of variation:
→ Essential for evolutionary processes.
H

→ Enables adaptation to changing environments.

→ Contributes to the resilience and survival of populations.
AS

Asexual Reproduction: EMA

PR

Asexual reproduction is a type of Vegetative

reproduction where a single organism Fragmentation Propagation
produces offspring that are
Types of Asexual
genetically identical to itself. This Reproduction
process does not involve the fusion of
gametes (sperm and egg), and the Fission Budding Regeneration Spore
offsprings are exact copies of the Formation

parent.
Fission:
A unicellular organism, such as bacteria, undergoes division into two or more organisms.
Generally categorized into two types, this process involves binary fission and multiple
fission.
Binary fission: Involves the splitting of an organism into two
new organisms under specific conditions.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Binary fission in Amoeba: Initially, the nucleus undergoes

division into two, followed by the division of cytoplasm.
Ultimately, the parent cell splits into two daughter cells.

Multiple fission: Multiple fission involves the parent organism dividing into numerous
identical daughter organisms simultaneously. This reproductive mechanism is observed
in certain organisms, including Plasmodium, the malarial parasite.
Fragmentation:
In Fragmentation an organism breaks into two or more
pieces, and each piece grows into a new, complete organism.
This process is common in organisms like starfish,
flatworms, and some types of algae. Each fragment
develops into an independent organism that is genetically
identical to the parent.
Example: Algae (Spirogyra) undergo maturation and
subsequently break into two or more small fragments. Each

D
of these fragments then grows independently, eventually

RA
developing into a completely new organism.

Budding:
KI
In the process of budding, small outgrowths called "buds" emerge from the body of the
T

parent organism. These buds eventually detach and give rise to new organisms. Examples
AN

include Hydra and yeast.

Hydra:
H

Hydra, a simple multicellular organism, reproduces

asexually through budding utilizing regenerative
AS

cells.
Initiation involves a small bud forming on one side
PR

through simple mitotic division.

The bud matures, developing a mouth and tentacles.
Ultimately, the new Hydra detaches from the
parent's body to live independently as a singular
organism.
Vegetative Propagation:
Vegetative propagation involves obtaining new plants from portions of an old plant
without the involvement of reproductive structures. Typically, this process centers on
the growth and development of a single bud on an existing
plant part to give rise to a new plant. Examples include
potato buds, onion bulbs, leaf buds of Bougainvillea, and
Dahlia roots. This method is a form of natural
propagation.

Artificial methods of vegetative propagation are techniques used by humans to grow

new plants from the parts of existing plants. Common artificial methods include:
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Cutting: A part of the plant, usually a stem or leaf, is cut

and planted in soil or water, where it develops roots and
grows into a new plant. Example: Rose.

Grafting: A branch (scion) from one plant is attached to

the stem of another plant (rootstock) in such a way that
they grow together and develop into a single plant. This is
commonly used in fruit trees like apples and mangoes.

Layering: In this method, a branch of the plant is bent

down and covered with soil, where it develops roots. Once
rooted, the branch is cut from the parent plant and grows
independently. Example: Jasmine.

Advantages of Artificial Plant Propagation:

Ensures that new plants inherit precisely the desired

D
characteristics of the parent.

RA
Requires less attention for the growth of plants propagated
through this process.
KI
Allows the generation of multiple plants from the same parent, JOSH METER?

increasing efficiency and productivity.

T

Tissue Culture:
AN

Tissue culture generates new plants from a small

piece of plant tissue or cells taken from a
H

growing plant. This tissue is then cultivated under

AS

suitable conditions.
Advantages of tissue culture:
Rapid plant growth characterizes tissue culture,
PR

making it a quick technique.

Plants produced through tissue culture are free
from diseases.
It results in many plants in a short period, typically weeks, and requires minimal
space for growth.
Regeneration:
Regeneration is the reconstruction of a complete organism from a specific body part.
Challenges in Complex Multicellular Organisms:
Regeneration is viable in organisms with simpler body structures than cellular
organization.
In complex multicellular organisms, cells assemble into tissues, tissues into organs,
organs into organ systems, and ultimately, organ systems constitute the entire
organism.
The intricate hierarchy of organization in complex multicellular organisms hinders
the formation of a complete individual from a cultured body part.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Spore Formation:
In spore formation, a parent plant generates
numerous microscopic reproductive units known as
spores. Upon bursting the plant's spore case, these
spores disperse into the air. Subsequently, airborne
spores settle on the soil, and under favorable
conditions, they initiate germination, giving rise to
new plants.

Sexual Reproduction:
Sexual reproduction involves the union of two specialized
reproductive cells known as "sex cells," alternatively referred
to as "gametes" or "germ cells." There are two types: male
gametes (sperm) and female gametes (egg). The fusion of a
male gamete with a female gamete results in the formation of Sabse zyada pucha jata

D
a "zygote" cell, which subsequently develops into a new hai yeh topic.
organism.

RA
KI - Prashant Bhaiya
T
AN
H

The union of a male gamete and a female gamete leads to the formation of a "zygote"
AS

cell, which subsequently develops into a new organism.

Sexual Reproduction in flowering plant: EMA

PR

Angiosperms, or flowering plants, are characterized by sex

organs in their flowers, with seeds enclosed within fruits.
These plants exhibit a variety of reproductive structures.
Bisexual flowers contain both male and female reproductive
organs within the same flower. In contrast, unisexual
flowers have either male or female reproductive parts
within a single flower.

Stamen: The stamen is the male part of the flower

responsible for reproduction. A single flower can
have several stamens.
Anther: The anther is a two-lobed structure
located at the tip of the stamen. It contains two
pollen sacs producing yellowish pollen grains.
Carpel: The carpel is the female reproductive part
located at the center of the flower.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

It consists mainly of three parts:

1. Stigma: The stigma is the terminal part of the carpel and may be sticky. It
plays a role in receiving pollen grains during pollination.
2. Style: The style is the elongated middle part of the carpel. It aids in connecting
the stigma to the ovary.
3. Ovary: The ovary is the swollen bottom part of the carpel. It contains ovules
that house the egg cell, the female gamete.

“Bht important topic

hai”
- Prashant Bhaiya
Pollination: Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of the

D
stamen to the stigma of a flower.

RA
Self-pollination: In self-pollination, pollen from the stamen of a flower is
transferred to the stigma of the same flower.
Cross-pollination: Cross-pollination involves the transfer of pollen from the
KI
stamen of one flower to the stigma of a different flower.
T
AN

Fertilization:
In following pollination, fertilization occurs in plants, involving the fusion of male
H

germ cells with female gametes, forming a zygote.

AS

Upon landing on a suitable stigma, pollen reaches the female germ cells in the ovary
through a pollen tube, growing from the pollen grains, traveling through the style,
PR

and reaching the ovary.

After fertilization, the zygote undergoes multiple divisions, forming an embryo
within the ovule. The ovule develops a sturdy coat and transforms into a seed.
The ovary enlarges and matures into a fruit. The seed contains a future embryo,
which, under favorable conditions, grows into a seedling in a process called
germination.
Sexual reproduction in Human Beings
Puberty: Puberty is the stage when "sex hormones" are
produced, marking the sexual maturity of a boy or girl.
Age of Puberty: - Boys: 13-14 years
- Girls: 10-12 years
Sex Hormones:
➔ Testis produces the male sex hormone testosterone.
➔ Ovaries produce two female sex hormones, estrogen and
progesterone.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Common Changes in Both Genders:

➔ Growth of thick, darker hair in new body parts like
armpits and the genital area.
➔ Thickening of hair on arms, legs, and face.
➔ Skin becomes oily with the development of pimples.
Changes in Girls:
➔ Increase in breast size. JOSH METER?

➔ Darkening of the nipple tips.

➔ Onset of menstruation. EMA

Male Reproductive System:

Testis: The testis is responsible for the
production of germ cells or sperm. It is
situated outside the abdominal cavity within
the scrotum, a positioning essential for sperm

D
formation as it necessitates a lower
temperature than the body's normal operating
temperature.
RA
KI
➔ Sperm are small entities
T

comprising a lengthy tail, facilitating

AN

their movement toward the female

germ cell.
H
AS

What is a sperm?
PR

Vas Deferens: The vas deferens transports the formed sperm, which combines
with a tube originating from the urinary bladder.
Urethra: The urethra is a duct that conveys urine from the bladder and serves
as a passage for semen in males.
Prostate Gland and seminal Vesicle: Secretes fluid to make transport easier for
the sperm. This fluid also provides nutrition.
Scrotum: The scrotum is a small pouch housing the testes, located outside the
abdominal cavity. Because sperm formation occurs here, a lower temperature than
the body's normal temperature, necessary for this process.
Penis: The penis is the external male reproductive organ that transfers sperm
into the female vagina during copulation.
EMA
Female Reproductive System:
Ovaries: Paired, oval-shaped organs are located in the abdominal cavity near the
kidney. It produces thousands of ova or egg cells and secrete female sex hormones
like estrogen progesterone.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Oviduct (fallopian tube): The oviduct, also

known as the fallopian tube, transports eggs
from the ovary to the uterus. It serves as
the site for fertilization and features a
funnel-shaped opening near the ovary, with
additional openings connecting to the uterus
on both sides.
Uterus (womb): A Hollow, pear-shaped bag-
like structure where the growth and
development of the fetus take place.
Vagina: It relieves stems from the male
partner, and serves as a birth canal.
Cervix: lower and the narrower portion of
the uterus which opens into the vagina

Fertilization or Sexual Reproduction in Animals:

D
RA
Sperm and Ovum Production: Male parent produces sperm and Female parent
produces ovum.
KI
Fertilization Process: During copulation, sperm enters the ovum and
Fertilization occurs, resulting in the formation of the first cell, known as a
zygote.
T

Embryo Formation: The zygote undergoes various divisions to form an embryo.

AN

Implantation: The embryo embeds itself into the soft and thick lining of the
uterus. This process is known as implantation.
H

Placenta Development: During pregnancy, the placenta grows into a disc

between the uterine wall and the embryo.
AS

The placenta forms finger-like projections called villi towards the embryo.
Child Development: The development of the child inside the mother's body
PR

takes approximately nine months in humans.

Childbirth Process: Strong rhythmic muscular contractions in the uterus cause
childbirth if the egg is not fertilized.
Unfertilized Egg Outcome: If the egg is not fertilized, menstruation occurs.

Menstruation:
Each month, the ovary releases a single egg, prompting the uterus
to prepare itself for the potential arrival of a fertilized egg. This
preparation involves the thickening and spongy transformation of
the uterine lining. If the released egg remains unfertilized, its
lifespan is approximately one day. In the absence of fertilization,
the thickened uterine lining is deemed unnecessary. Consequently,
the lining gradually breaks down and is expelled through the vagina
as a combination of blood and mucous. This natural process, known
as menstruation, recurs roughly every month and typically spans a
duration of about two to eight days.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Birth Control: EMA

Some Contraceptive or Birth control methods:

Barrier Methods:
1. Condoms: Thin coverings worn on the penis or inside the vagina to prevent sperm
from reaching the egg.
2. Diaphragm: A dome-shaped device placed over the cervix to block sperm from
entering the uterus.

Hormonal Methods:
1. Birth Control Pills: Pills taken by women daily to
prevent ovulation (release of an egg).
2. Contraceptive Injections: Hormones injected into
the body to prevent ovulation for a few months.
3. Contraceptive Patches: Patches worn on the skin
that release hormones to prevent pregnancy.

D
Intrauterine Devices (IUDs):

RA
1. Copper IUD: A small device inserted into the uterus that releases copper to
prevent sperm from fertilizing the egg.
2. Hormonal IUD: Similar to the copper IUD but releases hormones to prevent
KI
pregnancy.
T

Surgical Methods:
AN

1. Vasectomy: A surgical procedure for men where the tubes carrying sperm are
cut or sealed.
2. Tubectomy (Tubal Ligation): A surgical procedure for women where the
H

fallopian tubes are cut or sealed to prevent eggs from reaching the uterus.
AS

Health Consequences of Unprepared Pregnancy:

PR

● If a woman is not ready for pregnancy, it can negatively impact her physical and
mental health.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs): Diseases

transmitted through sexual contact are known as
sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).
● Examples include AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome) and genital warts, often caused by
infections like gonorrhea.

Importance of Safe Practices:

● Raising awareness about safe practices and
preventive measures is crucial for safeguarding sexual
health.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# TOP 7
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1) What is the main difference between sperm and eggs of humans?
Solution:

Sperms are motile and produced in large numbers by males. Eggs are non-motile,
produced one at a time by females. Sperms travel to the egg for fertilization, forming
a zygote. The zygote develops into a fetus and eventually a baby, protected inside the
female's body.

2) List any two differences between pollination and fertilization.

Solution:

D
Pollination Fertilization
It is the transfer of pollen grains
from the anther to the stigma of the RA It is the fusion of male gamete with
female gamete (egg).
KI
flower. It is achieved by the growth of pollen
It is achieved by agents like wind, tube so that the male gamete reaches
T

water, or animals. the female germ cells.

AN

It leads to fertilization. It leads to formation of seeds..

H

3) Define reproduction. How does it help in providing stability to the population of

AS

species? [CBSE 2015 C]

PR

Solution:

a. Reproduction is the vital process ensuring the continuity of a species by generating

individuals of its own kind.
b. The sustained stability of a population necessitates the replacement of members lost
to factors like old age, disease, and accidents, ensuring a balanced and functioning
community.
c. Through reproduction, genetic variation is introduced, facilitating better adaptation
and the evolutionary progression of species, ultimately leading to the emergence of new
ones.
d. While individual survival may not hinge on reproduction, it is indispensable for the
survival and perpetuation of a species.
4) What is vegetative propagation? List two advantages and two disadvantages of
vegetative propagation.

Solution:
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Vegetative propagation is a method of generating new plants from vegetative parts such
as roots, stems, and leaves.

Advantages:
a. Plants produced through vegetative propagation exhibit earlier flowering and fruiting
compared to sexually propagated ones.
b. In cases where plants have lost the ability to produce
seeds, vegetative propagation becomes essential for their
reproduction

Disadvantages:
a. Genetically, plants derived from vegetative propagation closely resemble parent
plants, making them susceptible to infections and diseases.
b. The lack of genetic variation in such plants hinders their adaptability to changing
environments, impeding the evolutionary development of the plant species.
5) List three techniques to prevent pregnancy. Which of them is not meant for males?
How does the use of such techniques have an impact on the health and prosperity of a

D
family?

RA
Solution:
Three pregnancy prevention techniques include:
KI
a. Mechanical barriers for both males and females.
b. Hormonal methods such as oral pills, alter the hormonal balance,
T

preventing egg release.

AN

c. The use of intrauterine devices like the Lippes loop or Copper-T.

d. Surgical methods like tubectomy for females or vasectomy
H

for males.
AS

Hormonal preparations are not designed for males.

PR

Effects on Health and Prosperity:

a. Women's health is preserved.
b. Parents can devote more attention to their children.
c. Additional resources become available.

6) Why are the testes located outside the abdominal cavity? Mention the
endocrine and exocrine function of the testes.
Solution:
Sperm formation necessitates a temperature of 2°-2.5°C lower than the body's normal
temperature. The testes are positioned outside the body, allowing the scrotum to
maintain an optimal temperature for sperm development.

Endocrine function:
The production of the male hormone (testosterone).

Exocrine function:
The generation of male gametes (sperms).
 PRASHANT KIRAD
7) What is placenta? Explain its function in human females.

Solution:
Placenta is a specialized tissue embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi on the
embryo’s side and blood spaces on the mother’s side.

Function:
a. Helps in passing of nutrients from mother to fetus.
b. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases.
c. Passing of waste materials from the embryo to the mother.

D
RA
KI
T
AN
H
AS
PR

“Class 10th Phodenge”

 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Electricity
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Electric Charge
A physical phenomenon characterized by an excess or deficiency of electrons in a body.
It is a scalar quantity.
The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C).

Magnitude of Electric Charge

Proton Neutron Electron

+ 1.602 × 10^-19 coulombs 0 - 1.602 × 10^-19 coulombs

D
EMA

RA
Electric Current (I)
The quantity of electric charge 'Q' flowing through a specific cross-sectional area in
KI
unit time 't'.
It is a scalar quantity.
T

The SI unit of current is the Ampere (A).

AN

Q (coulombs)
I (ampere) =
H

t (seconds)
AS

The direction of electric current is considered opposite to the flow of electrons, and
in a circuit, conventional current flows from the battery's positive terminal to the
PR

negative terminal.
EMA
Electric Potential (V)
The amount of work done (1 W) when moving a unit positive charge (1C) from infinity
to a specific point.
It is a scalar Quantity.
SI unit is volt (V).
W (joules)
V (Volts) =
Q (coulombs)
JOSH METER?

Electric Potential Difference (ΔV)

It quantifies the energy expended per unit of electric charge. Electric potential,
delineated as the variance in electric potential energy between two locations within an
electric field, corresponds to the energy expended for each charging unit when
transporting it from one point to another in an electrostatic field.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

It is a scalar Quantity.
SI unit is joules per coulomb.

The measurement of the electric potential difference between two

points in a circuit is accomplished using a device known as a voltmeter.

Electric Circuit:
An electric circuit is a closed and unbroken loop that facilitates the flow of electric
current. It comprises diverse components, such as a current source (like a cell or
battery), a load (such as a bulb or any appliance), a switch (for opening or closing the
circuit), a fuse, and interconnecting wires, typically constructed from copper.

When the switch is closed, the circuit is termed a closed circuit (allowing the
current to flow).
Conversely, when the switch is open, the circuit is referred to as an open circuit
(preventing the flow of current).

D
RA
KI
T
AN

Circuit Diagram:
H

It is a visual depiction of a circuit

AS

wherein various electrical components

are represented by their symbols.
PR

EMA

Ohm’s Law:
According to this principle, the electric current coursing
through a conductor exhibits a direct proportionality to the
applied potential difference across its terminals, under the
condition that physical factors like temperature remain
constant.
V V
V = I.R I = R =
R I
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Resistance (Ω)

It is the characteristic of a conductor that hinders

or resists the movement of electric charge through
it. This property is known as resistance. Resistance
is a scalar quantity, and its unit in the International
System of Units (SI) is the ohm, denoted by the “Kaafi important Topic
symbol Ω. hai”
The resistance of a conductor depends on several - Prashant Bhaiya
factors, including:

Length (L): The longer the conductor, the greater the resistance.
Cross-sectional Area (A): Wider pathways - larger cross-sectional area (A) in a
conductor make it easier for electric current to flow by reducing resistance.
Material Resistivity (ρ): Different materials have different inherent resistances.

D
Resistivity is a property of the material itself.

RA
Temperature (T): Generally, resistance increases with temperature. This is a more
complex relationship and depends on the material.
KI
T

Resistivity (ρ)
AN

Resistivity is a property of materials that describes their ability to impede the flow
of electric current. It is denoted by the symbol (ρ= rho) and is measured in
H

ohmmeters (Ω⋅m) in the International System of Units (SI). The formula for
AS

resistivity (ρ) is:

R = ρ L
PR

Resistivity (ρ) is a material property measuring its resistance to electrical current

flow. Conductors like metals have low resistivity, allowing easy current flow, while
insulators have high resistivity. Ohm's Law (I=V/R) relates current (I), voltage (V),
and resistance (R), where resistance depends on the material's resistivity (ρ) length
(L), and cross-sectional area (A).

Series Combination:
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Series combination formula: Total resistance is the sum

Req = R1 + R2 + R3
of individual resistances.

I (Electric Current) remain same

In Series Combination
V (Voltage) Divides

Adding Resistances: In a series circuit, you just add up all the resistances to find
the total resistance.
Total Resistance is Higher: The total resistance in a series is greater than any
single resistor.
One Stops, All Stop: If one component in a series circuit stops working,
everything in the circuit stops.
Not for Different Devices: Series circuits are not good for devices like bulbs

D
and heaters because they need different amounts of current.

Parallel Combination:
RA
KI
T
AN
H
AS

Parallel combination formula: Inverse of total 1 = 1 + 1 + 1

PR

resistance equals the sum of inverses of individual Req R1 R2 R3

resistances

I (Electric Current) divides

In Parallel Combination
V (Voltage) remain same

Add Inverses: In a parallel circuit, sum the inverses of individual resistances to

find the reciprocal of the total resistance.
Lower Total Resistance: The overall resistance in parallel is less than that
of any single resistor.
Diverse Currents: Different currents flow through components in parallel.
Continued Operation: If one component fails, others continue to operate in
a parallel circuit.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Heating effect of electric current:

In an electric circuit, the source must continuously provide
energy to maintain current flow. Some energy sustains the
current, while the rest dissipates as heat—known as the
heating effect of electric current.
EMA
Joule's Law of Heating:
This law indicates that the heat generated in a resistor is:

1. Directly proportional to the square of the current (I) flowing through

the resistance (R).
2. Directly proportional to the resistance (R) in the circuit.
3. Directly proportional to the time (t) for which the current flows.

2
H=I RT

D
RA
Practical applications of the heating effects of electric current include:

Producing Light (Electric Bulb): The bulb features a tungsten

KI
filament with high resistivity and melting point. The application of
voltage heats the filament, making it white-hot and emitting light.
T

Electric Fuse: A safety device in household circuits, it contains a

AN

lead and tin alloy with a specific melting point. If the current
surpasses the safe limit, the fuse wire heats, melts, and interrupts
H

the circuit, safeguarding other elements from potential hazards.

AS

Power: EMA
PR

Definition of Electrical Power (P): Electrical power (P) is defined as the rate at
which electric charge is consumed or transferred in a circuit per unit of time.
Scalar Quantity: Electrical power is a scalar quantity, meaning it only has
magnitude and no direction.
Unit of Electrical Power: The unit of electrical power is the watt (W). The
relationship between power (P), current (I), and resistance (R) is given by Ohm's
Law (P = I^2R).

2
V = I.R P = (IR)I = I R
P = V.I
V V V
2
I = P = V =
R R R
 PRASHANT KIRAD

2
V2
P = V.I = I R =
R

“Very important
formula"
- Prashant Bhaiya
“Bahut Jaroori
conversions hai”
Unit Conversions - Prashant Bhaiya
Kilowatt (kW) 1 kilowatt (1 kW) is equivalent to 1000 watts (1000 W).
Megawatt (MW) 1 megawatt (1 MW) is equivalent to (10^6) watts (1,000,000 W).
Gigawatt (GW) 1 gigawatt (1 GW) is equivalent to (10^9) watts (1,000,000,000 W).
Horsepower (HP) 1 horsepower (1 HP) is approximately equal to 746 watts (746 W).

D
RA
Commercial unit of electrical energy: KI
1{kilowatt-hour (kWh)} = 1000 watt-hour (Wh)

Since 1 watt-hour is equal to 3600 joules (J)

T
AN

3.6 * 10^6{J}
This simplifies to 1000 {Wh}
H

1000 {Wh} = 1000 * 3600 J

AS

So, 1 kilowatt-hour is equivalent to (3.6 times 10^6) joules.

PR

Commercial unit of electrical energy:

Certainly! The number of units consumed by an electric appliance is calculated by
multiplying its power (in kilowatts) by the time it is in use (in hours). The formula is:

Energy (kWh) = Power (kW) * Time (hours)

For example, if you have a 1.5 kW appliance running for 3 hours:

{Energy (kWh)} = 1.5 {kW} * 3 hours = 4.5 {kWh}

So, the appliance consumes 4.5 kilowatt-hours of energy during that period.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# TOP 7
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1) What is the function of a galvanometer in a circuit? [CBSE 2019]
Solution:

A galvanometer is used to detect and measure electric currents in a circuit. It

indicates the presence and direction of current flow.

2) State Ohm’s law. [Delhi 2016]

Solution:
If the physical conditions of a conductor remain the same, then the current through a

D
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference b/w the two ends of the

RA
conductor.
I ∝ V => V= IR
KI
3) The power of a lamp is 60 W. Find the energy in joules consumed by it in 1 s. [CBSE
2014]
T
AN

Solution:
H
AS
PR

4) An electric kettle of 2 kW works for 2 h daily. Calculate the [CBSE 2014]

(a) energy consumed in SI and commercial units
(b) cost of running it in the month of June at the rate of `3.00 per unit.

Solution:

5) (a) Explain why a conductor offers resistance to the flow of current.

(b) Differentiate between conductor, resistor, and resistance.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Solution:
a. When a current is passed through a conductor, the atoms or molecules of the
conductor produce a hindrance in the path of flow of electrons. This hindrance in the
path of the flow of charge is called the resistance of the conductor.

b. A substance that allows it to pass the charges through them easily is called a
conductor. Resistor: A conductor having some value of resistance is called a resistor.
Resistance: It is the property of any conductor by virtue of which it opposes the flow
of charge through it.
6) Two conducting wires of the same material, equal length, and equal diameter are
connected in series. How does the heat produce by the combination of resistance
change? [CBSE 2010]

Solution:

D
RA
KI
T
AN
H
AS
PR

7) Q7) (a) Define the term ‘volt’.

(b) State the relation between work, charge, and potential difference for an
electric circuit. Calculate the potential difference between the two terminals
of a battery, if 100 joules of work is required to transfer 20 coulombs of
charge from one terminal of the battery to the other.
a. Potential difference b/w two points in an electric field is said to be 1
volt if the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from one point
to another point is 1 J.
b.

“Class 10th Phodenge”

 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Human eye and the colourful
world
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

The Human Eye

The human eye is a complex and highly specialized sensory organ responsible for the
sense of vision. It is one of the primary components of the visual system in humans and
plays a crucial role in perceiving the world around us.

D
Different parts of the human eye :
RA
KI
Part Function/Definition
T
AN

The transparent, dome-shaped surface that covers the front of the

Cornea
eye and helps to focus incoming light.
H
AS

The colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil,
Iris
regulating the amount of light entering.
PR

The opening in the center of the iris that allows light to pass
Pupil
through.

A transparent structure behind the pupil that focuses light onto

Lens
the retina by changing shape.

The inner layer at the back of the eye containing light-sensitive

Retina
cells (rods and cones); converts light into electrical signals.

Aqueous and Clear fluids filling the front and back chambers of the eye,
Vitreous Humors providing nourishment and maintaining the eye's shape.

The nerve that carries visual information from the retina to the
Optic Nerve
brain for processing.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Flow mantra

Power of accommodation :

D
The power of accommodation is the eye's ability to adjust and “Defects Of Vision

RA
focus on objects at different distances by changing the shape dhyaan mei rakhna
of the lens, allowing us to see clearly at various ranges.
diagram ke saath”
KI
Defects of vision and their connections : - Prashant Bhaiya
Defects of vision, also known as refractive errors, occur when the eye is unable to
T

focus light correctly on the retina, leading to blurred or impaired vision. The most
AN

common types of vision defects are:

1. Myopia (Nearsightedness): Myopia, or
H

nearsightedness, is a vision condition where

AS

distant objects appear blurry due to the eye's

inability to focus properly on them.
PR

Causes of myopia: The eyeball is too long, or

the cornea is too curved, causing light rays to
focus in front of the retina instead of
directly on it.
Correction: Myopia is usually corrected with concave (diverging) lenses, which
spread out the light rays before they enter the eye, allowing them to focus on
the retina.

2. Hypermetropia (Farsightedness): It is also known

as farsightedness, is a vision condition where
distant objects are clearer than close-up objects
due to the eye's inability to focus on nearby
objects properly.
Causes of Hypermetropia: The eyeball is too short,
or the cornea is not curved enough, causing light
rays to focus behind the retina.
 PRASHANT KIRAD
Correction: Hypermetropia is corrected with convex
(converging) lenses, which bend the light rays inward
before they enter the eye, allowing them to focus on
the retina.

3. Presbyopia: Presbyopia is an age-related vision condition

where it becomes difficult to focus on close-up objects,
usually requiring reading glasses for correction.
Causes of Presbyopia: The lens of the eye loses its flexibility
with age, making it harder to change its shape for focusing
on near objects (loss of power of accomodation).
Correction: Presbyopia is often corrected with
reading glasses, bifocal lenses, or progressive lenses.

D
RA
KI
Prism JOSH METER?
T
AN

A transparent refracting medium bounded by at least two lateral surfaces inclined to

each other at a certain angle.
H
AS

Dispersion of white light by a glass prism

PR

A glass prism disperses white light,

splitting it into its constituent colors,
and creating a rainbow-like spectrum
due to the varying refraction of
different wavelengths of light.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Why dispersion occur?

Dispersion of light occurs when white light passes through a prism because different
colors (wavelengths) of light are refracted, or bent, by different amounts.

Recombination of the spectrum of white light:

Recombination of white light involves merging the separated colors (spectrum) created
by a prism or similar device, resulting in the restoration of white light.

BGYO
Rainbow

VI

R
D
A rainbow is a natural optical phenomenon that occurs when sunlight is dispersed,

RA
refracted, and reflected by water droplets in the atmosphere, creating a spectrum of
light in the form of a circular arc.
KI
Rainbow formation:
After rain, there are many tiny droplets of water
T

still in the air

AN

When sunlight falls on these droplets

These droplets act as tiny prisms
H

When sunrays fall on these droplets, the rays get

first refracted, then internally reflected and
AS

then refracted again

Due to this different colors of sunlight are bent
PR

at different angles and we are able to see a spectrum

in the form of a rainbow EMA
Atmospheric refraction:
When refraction occurs between two mediums, and one of these mediums is
Earth's atmosphere, this phenomenon is referred to as atmospheric refraction.
Consequences of Atmospheric Refraction:

Atmospheric
refraction
Twinkling of stars Planet do not Twinkle

Stars seem higher than they actually appear Advance sunrise and Delayed sunset
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Concept Explanation

Twinkling is caused by the bending of starlight as it passes through Earth's

Twinkling of
atmosphere, due to variations in the atmosphere's refractive index. This leads
Stars
to rapid fluctuations in a star's apparent position and brightness.

Light from stars undergoes refraction as it enters Earth's atmosphere,

Stars Seem
bending towards the normal with each layer. This atmospheric refraction
Higher than
causes the apparent position of a star to be slightly higher than its actual
They Appear
position, especially when viewed near the horizon.

Planets appear as small disks and reflect the Sun's light, providing a more
Planets Do
stable and constant source of illumination. This prevents the twinkling effect,
Not Twinkle
unlike distant stars, which are point sources of light.

D
Advance The Sun can be seen approximately two minutes before it officially rises and

RA
Sunrise and about two minutes after it technically sets. This is due to atmospheric
Delayed refraction, which bends the Sun's light, allowing it to be visible even when it is
KI
Sunset below the horizon.
“Bahut Jaroori Table”
T

- Prashant Bhaiya
Scattering of light:
AN

Scattering of light is the process by which light rays are redirected in

different directions as they pass through particles in the atmosphere or
H

another medium. This phenomenon occurs because light interacts with small
AS

particles or molecules, causing the light to spread out in various directions.

Scattering of light depends on the type of particles:
PR

Very fine particles scatter mainly in blue colour.

Large sized particle scatter light of longer wavelength
Shorter wavelength greater will be the scattering
Consequences of scattering of light: VIP (very important portio
n)

Scattering of light

Tyndall Effect Blue Sky

Colour of sun During sunrise
The scattering of light by and sunset Air molecules and tiny
tiny particles in Earth's
Light travels a longer path particles in the atmosphere
atmosphere, such as smoke,
through the atmosphere, scatter shorter-wavelength
water droplets, and dust,
scattering shorter blue light more effectively
making these particles
wavelengths like blue, and than longer-wavelength red
visible.
allowing the red and orange light, making the scattered
colors to dominate.. blue light reach our eyes.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

#TOP 7 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1) "A person cannot read a book at distances less than 50 cm. Name the defect of vision
he is suffering from. How can it be corrected? Draw ray diagrams to show the image
formation:
a. by defective eye
b. after using a corrective lens

Solution:
a. Either the hypermetropic eyeball is too short or
corea is too curved.
b. The ciliary muscle is unable to change the shape of
the lens enough to properly focus the image i.e., the
focal length of the eye lens is too long. This defect
is called hypermetropia.

D
2) (a) If a person wears a lens of power - 6D for distant vision and for correcting his
near vision he needs a lens of +2D. Determine the focal length of the lenses in both
cases. [CBSE 2016]
RA
(b) Give a reason for the following natural phenomenon:
KI
(i) Stars twinkle
(ii) Planets do not twinkle
T

(iii) Stars appear raised in the sky.

AN

Solution:
H
AS
PR

(b) (i) Due to continuous changes in the densities of the atmospheric layers the
apparent position of the star also changes; which makes the light coming from the
distant point-sized star brighter and dimmer. The light coming from the stars
therefore gives a shaking appearance, which gives the impression of the twinkling of a
star.
(ii) Since the planets are closer to us. Due to this they appear a combination of large
point-size source of light, and change in the path of light coming from the planets is
not significant. So planets do not appear twinkling.
(iii) Due to atmospheric refraction, a star appears to be slightly higher than its actual
position in the sky.

3) a) Explain why colour of the sky appears blue during the day with the help of a
diagram.
(b) Explain why the Sun looks reddish at the time of sunrise and sunset.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Solution: (a) Due to the scattering of blue colours by the dust particles present in
the atmosphere.

(b) During the Sunrise or Sunset, Sun is at the horizon, and sunlight travels a longer
distance in the atmosphere. Due to this, all colours get scattered except red which
reaches the eye of the observer to whom sun appears reddish in the morning or
evening.
4) Why do stars twinkle? Explain.
Light coming from stars when enters the Earth's atmosphere suffers
Solution:

D
refraction from the atmospheric layers. Since the densities of
atmospheric gases change frequently. Since the stars are point-sized and at a far

RA
distance sometimes stars appear brighter and sometimes dimmer which gives the
impression as the stars twinkling.
KI
5) (a) What is the least distance of distinct vision for the normal eye?
T

(b) Does the above distance increase or decrease for long sighted eye? Give a reason
AN

for your answer with a diagram.

Solution:
H

(a) For a normal human eye, the least distance of distinct vision
AS

is 25 cm.
(b) Least distance of distinct vision increases for long-sighted
PR

eyes. A hypermetropic eye can see up to an infinite distance,

which is more than 25 cm.

6) With the help of a diagram, Explain the formation of a rainbow in the sky.

Solution:
The water droplets in the atmosphere act like small
prisms. These droplets refract and disperse the
incident sunlight, then reflect it internally, and
finally refract it again when it comes out of the
raindrop. Due to the distortion of sunlight and
internal reflection, different colours reach the
observer.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

7. A person with a defective eye-vision is unable to see objects nearer than 1.5 m. He
wants to read books at a distance of 30 cm. Find the nature, focal length, and power
of the lens he needs in his spectacles. (CBSE 2016)

Solution:

D
RA
KI
T
AN

“Class 10th Phodenge”

- Prashant Bhaiya
H
AS
PR
 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE

Light
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Reflection
Reflection is the phenomenon where light bounces back into the same material
after hitting a surface.

Laws of Reflection: EMA

The First Law of Reflection: The incident

ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the
surface at the point of incidence, all lie
in the same plane.

The Second Law of Reflection: The angle

of incidence is equal to the angle of

D
reflection. In other words, the angle between the incident ray and the normal

RA
is equal to the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
KI
Properties of Image formed by a Plane Mirror:
T

An image formed by a plane mirror is virtual and erect.

AN

The Image is laterally inverted.

The image formed is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
H

The Size of the image is equal to that of the Object.

AS
PR

Spherical Mirrors: A spherical mirror is a mirror that has the shape of a

piece cut out of a spherical surface.

Convex Mirror: A convex mirror is a Concave Mirror: A concave mirror is

curved mirror with a reflective surface a mirror that curves inward,
that bulges outward, similar to the shape resembling the inner surface of a
of a sphere. hollow sphere.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Important Terms in Spherical Mirror

Pole: It’s the midpoint of the spherical mirror. EMA
Centre in curvature: The center of the imaginary sphere of which the mirror
is a part is called as center of the curvature.
Radius in curvature: The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is the
radius of the circle or hollow sphere that the mirror is part of.
Principal Axis: A straight line passing through the pole and center of
curvature.
Principal Focus: That point on principal axis through which the reflected light
ray pass when incident light ray was travelling parallel to the principal axis.
Aperture: The diameter of the mirror's reflecting surface.

D
Image formation se question aana
pakka hai!
Ray Diagram Rules:
RA
KI - Prashant Bhaiya

1) A parallel ray will either pass

through or appear to converge at the
T

principal focus for a concave mirror

AN

and appear to diverge from the

principal focus for a convex mirror.
H

2) A ray directed at the principal

AS

focus of a concave mirror or passing

through the principal focus of a
PR

convex mirror will come out parallel

to the principal axis.

3) A ray passing through the

center of curvature of a concave
mirror or directed toward the
center of curvature of a convex
mirror will be reflected back along
its original path

4) Ray incident obliquely to the

principal axis towards the pole of the
concave mirror or a convex mirror is
Reflected Obliquely.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Image Formation by Convex Mirror

D
Image Formation by Concave Mirror

RA
KI
T
AN
H
AS
PR
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Uses of Spherical Mirror:

Concave mirrors (f = -ve): It excel in focusing and magnification, finding uses in
telescopes, headlights, and personal grooming. With their wide field of view.

Convex mirrors (f = +ve): It are crucial for safety in vehicles and security
systems.

Sign Convention:

1. Object on the left, light comes from the left.

2. Start measuring from the mirror's pole.
3. Left is negative, right is positive.
4. Above the principal axis is positive.
5. Below the principal axis is negative.

DD
RAA
Important: KI IR
● The object distance u, is always negative.
TT K
● The image distance v, is positive if the image is formed behind a concave mirror
and negative if the image is formed in front of the mirror.
ANN

● The image distance v, is always positive for a convex mirror.

HHA

● The focal length of a concave mirror is always negative and that of a convex
mirror is always positive.
AASS

● The height of an object is always positive.

● If the image is erect the height is taken as positive and if the image is
PPRR

inverted, the height is taken as negative.

Mirror Formula:

Sign Convention se nazar

hati toh durghatna ghati!
- Prashant Bhaiya

Magnification:
Magnification is defined as the
enlargement of the image formed by a
mirror, whether it is a concave mirror
or a convex mirror, relative to the size
of the object.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Refraction
The phenomenon of change in the direction of light when it passes from one
transparent medium to another is called refraction.

Laws of Refraction: EMA

The First Law of Refraction: The incident ray, the refracted ray and the
normal to the interface of two transparent media at the point of incidence, all
lie in the same plane.

The Second Law of Refraction:The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the

sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for the light of a given colour and for
the given pair of media.

D
This law is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.

RA
If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, then,
KI
T

This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium
AN

with respect to the first.

H

Refraction through a Rectangular Glass Slab:

AS
PR

i = Incident Ray
r = Reflected Ray
e = Emergent Ray

Angle of incidence = Angle of emergence (∠i) =(∠e)

When a ray of light is incident perpendicularly on a plane glass slab, it passes
through undeviated. In this case, the angle of incidence (∠i) is 0°, and
therefore, the angle of refraction (∠r) is also 0°.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Refractive Index EMA

The refractive index measures how light changes direction when it moves from air
to another material. It shows how fast or slow light travels and bends in different
substances (medium), helping us understand its behavior.

Absolute Refractive Index JOSH METER?

The absolute refractive index is the refractive index of a substance

D
compared to a vacuum (where the first medium is free space or a vacuum).

RA
The refractive index of water is 1.33, which means that light travels about
1.33 times slower in water compared to its speed in air.
KI
T
AN
H

Spherical Lens:
AS

A spherical lens is an optical device that uses two spherical transparent surfaces to
PR

converge or diverge light rays.

Convex Concave

1. Thick at middle 1. Thin at middle

2. Converging Lens 2. Diverging Lens

(1) Concave lens - A concave lens is thin in the middle and thicker at the edges,
and it makes light spread out.

(2) Convex lens - A convex lens has a thicker middle and thinner edges, and it
makes light converge.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Important Terms in Spherical Lens

EMA
Centre in curvature: The center of curvature for a spherical lens is the point
on the principal axis that is at the same distance from the lens as the radius
of curvature.
Principal Axis: An imaginary straight line passing through the two centers of
curvature of a lens is called its principal Axis.
Principal focus: The point where parallel rays meet (convex lens) or appear
to diverge from (concave lens). Lenses have two such points.
Aperture: The aperture of a spherical lens is its effective diameter,
representing the size of the circular outline.
Optical center (O): The optical center of a lens is where light passes

D
through without bending.

RA
Focal length: Focal length is the distance between the principal focus and
the optical center.
KI
T
AN
H
AS
PR

Ray Diagram Rules:

1) Rays parallel to the

principal axis converge at
the principal focus
after refraction in a
convex lens, while they
appear to diverge from the principal focus in a concave lens.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

2) A ray passing through or

directed to the focus will
emerge parallel to the principal
axis.

3) A ray directed towards the

optical center will emerge
without deviation.

Image formation by Convex Lens

D
RA
KI
T
AN
H
AS
PR
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Image formation by Concave Lens

Lens Formula and Magnification:

Lens Equation

D
RA
KI
Magnification: The magnification of a lens is the ratio of the height of an image to
the height of an object. It can also be expressed as the ratio of the image distance
T

to the object distance.

AN
H
AS
PR

Power of Lens:
The power of a lens is a measure of its ability to converge or diverge light and is
defined as the reciprocal of its focal length (F) in meters. It is typically measured
in diopters (D) and is calculated using the formula:

f = focal length in metre

SI unit = Dioptre (D)

Power for Convex Lens : +ve

Power for Concave Lens : -ve
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# TOP 7
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. As the velocity of light increases, the refractive index of the medium
decreases. Light enters from air to water having a refractive index of 4/3.
Find the speed of light in water. The speed of light in a vacuum is 3X10⁸ m/s.
[CBSE 2012] (2 - Marks)

Solution:

D
RA
KI
T
AN

2. An object is placed at the focus of a convex lens. Draw a ray diagram to locate
the position of the image formed, if any. State its position and nature.
H

Solution:
AS

Image is formed at infinity, image will be

PR

real, inverted and enlarged.

3. What is meant by the power of a lens? Give its SI unit.

Solution:

Power of a lens is the ability of the lens to converge or diverge a ray of light
incident on it. It is the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens, i.e. P = 1/f.
The SI unit of power is D (dioptre), f is measured in metre.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

4. Differentiate between reflection and refraction of light.

Solution:

Reflection Refraction

It is the phenomenon of bouncing It is the phenomenon of bending

back of ray of light in the same a ray of light when it travels
medium after striking with a surface. from one another medium.

∠i = ∠r ∠i ≠ ∠r

Reflection can take place from any Refraction can take place from a
surface. transparent interface.

D
RA
5. (a) Name the spherical mirror used as: [CBSE 2012] (2-Marks)
1. Shaving mirror,
2. Rearview mirror in vehicles,
KI
3. Reflector in search – fights.
(b) Write any three differences between a real and virtual image
T
AN

Solution:
H

(a) 1. Concave Mirror

2. Convex Mirror
AS

3. Concave parabolic
PR

(b)
Real Image Virtual Image

It can be taken on a screen. It cannot be taken on a screen.

It is always inverted. It is always erected.

When reflected or refracted rays When reflected or refracted rays

actually meet at a point, then real appear to meet at a point then
image is formed. virtual image is formed.

6.A 2.0 cm tall object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex
lens of 1 focal length 10 cm. The distance of the object from the lens is
15cm. Find the position, nature, and size of the image forms.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Solution:

D
RA
7. (a) A concave mirror produces a three-times enlarged image of an object
KI
placed 10 cm in front of it Calculate the focal length of the mirror.
(b) Show the formation of the image with the help of a ray diagram when the
T

object is placed 6 cm away from the pole of a convex mirror.

AN

Solution:
H
AS
PR

“Class 10th Phodenge”

 CLASS 10 NOTES

SCIENCE
Magnetic Effects of
Electric Current
PRASHANT KIRAD
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Hans Christian Oersted found that if you put a compass

next to a wire with an electric current flowing through it,
the needle in the compass would move. He thought this
happened because the electric current created a magnetic
field, which caused the compass needle to deflect.

Magnetic fields:
The region around a magnet where a magnetic force is felt is called the magnetic
field. It's a vector quantity, and its unit in the International System of Units (SI) is
the tesla.
EMA
Magnetic field Lines:
Imaginary lines that depict the magnetic field are
observed when iron fillings are placed near a

D
magnet, forming a pattern that illustrates the

RA
arrangement of magnetic field lines.

● Magnetic field lines start at the North pole of a magnet

KI
and extend to the South pole outside the magnet. However
T

within the magnet, the direction is from South to North.

AN

● They create unbroken, closed curves.

● The tangent indicates the direction of the magnetic field
at any point on the magnetic field lines. JOSH METER?
H

● Magnetic field lines never intersect each other.

AS

● When magnetic field lines are closely spaced, the magnetic field is stronger.
Conversely, the magnetic field is weaker if the field lines are spaced farther apart.
PR

The magnetic field is produced by a current flowing through a straight conductor.

Magnetic field lines form concentric circles

with the center at the wire.
The strength of the magnetic field increases
with an increase in current.
The strength of the magnetic field decreases
as we move away from the wire.

Maxwell's Right-Hand thumb Rule:

Maxwell's Right-Hand Thumb Rule helps you find the
direction of the magnetic field around a wire with
current. Point your thumb in the direction of the current,
and the way your fingers curl shows the magnetic field's
direction.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Magnetic field due to a current circular Loop:

When current flows through a circular loop:
1. Inside the loop, the magnetic field runs along the axis.
2. Outside the loop, it forms concentric circles.
3. The field's strength depends on the current and loop size.
4. The direction inside is determined by the current using the
right-hand rule.

Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid: EMA

1. Magnetic field lines run through the core.
2. It resembles the magnetic field around a bar magnet.
3. Strength depends on current and the number of turns in the
solenoid.
4. The field's direction is determined by the right-hand rule.

Electromagnet:

D
An electromagnet is a temporary magnet created by passing

RA
an electric current through a coil of wire. It exhibits
magnetic properties only when the current flows, making it
KI
useful in various applications like doorbells and electric locks.
The strength of the electromagnet can be adjusted by
T

changing the current or the number of coils in the wire.

AN

Force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field:

H

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field:

AS

1. It experiences a force perpendicular to both the current direction and the magnetic
field direction.
2. The force's strength increases with the amount of current and the strength of the
PR

magnetic field.
3. The direction of the force is determined by Fleming's Left-Hand Rule, where the
thumb represents motion, the forefinger indicates magnetic field, and the middle finger
denotes current direction.

Fleming's Left Hand rule:

Fleming's Left-Hand Rule is a way to figure out the direction of
three things: the magnetic field (fore finger), the current (middle
finger), and the force or motion (thumb).
Imagine holding your left hand with your thumb, fore finger, and
middle finger at right angles to each other. If you point your fore
finger in the direction of the magnetic field, and the middle finger
in the direction of the current, then your thumb will point in the
direction of the force or motion. It helps to remember how these
three things are related in a magnetic field.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

Galvanometer:
A device capable of sensing the presence of an electric
current in a circuit. The needle stays at the zero position
(center of the scale) when there is no current. Depending
on the current direction, the pointer can shift to either the
left or right of the zero mark on the scale.

Types of Current

DC (Direct Current) AC (Alternating Current)

It is the electric current which It is the electric current which reverses its

D
flows in the same direction. direction after every fixed interval of time

Domestic Circuit: RA
KI
Electricity generated at power stations is conveyed
to our homes through two robust copper or aluminum wires.
T

One of these wires is known as the live wire, distinguished

AN

by its red insulation cover, and it operates at a voltage of “”

220 V with a frequency of 50 Hz. - Prashant Bhaiya
H

The other is termed the neutral wire, identifiable by its

AS

black insulation cover, and it is at zero potential.

The live and neutral wires enter an electricity meter, commonly installed in homes,
PR

through a primary fuse.

They are linked to the line wires in the home through a primary switch.
Each distribution circuit is equipped with an individual fuse. In the event of a fault,
such as a short circuit in one circuit, its respective fuse blows, while the other
circuit remains unaffected.
All electric appliances, such as bulbs and fans, are connected in parallel across the
live wire and neutral wire.
 PRASHANT KIRAD

The electric supply reaching our homes has two wires:

Live Wire (Phase Wire): Typically colored red or brown, it carries

the current from the power source to the electrical appliances.
Neutral Wire: Usually blue or black, it completes the circuit by
providing a return path for the current to flow back to the power
source.

Earth Wire:
The earth wire, often green or bare, is a safety wire in
electrical circuits. It provides a path for excess electrical Neutral Live
Earth
current to safely flow into the ground, preventing electric
shocks and ensuring safety in case of faults.

Fuse:

D
A safety device made of a thin wire composed of a tin and

RA
lead alloy with a low melting point. Its purpose is to prevent
potential damage caused by overloading and short-circuiting.
KI
T
AN
H
AS
PR
 PRASHANT KIRAD

# TOP 7
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1) What are permanent magnets and electromagnets? Give two uses of each. [CBSE 2010]

Solution:
Permanent Magnet: It has a constant magnetic field around it. e.g. generator,
loudspeaker.
Electromagnet: When a soft iron is placed in a solenoid it gets magnetized till there is
current in the solenoid, e.g. electric bells, or cranes.
2) Differentiate overloading and short-circuiting. (CBSE 2010)

Solution:

D
Overloading means to draw current more than the permitted maximum current in the

RA
circuit which may be due to connecting many appliances in one socket. In short,
circuiting, when live wire and neutral wire come in contact with each other then the
KI
resistance of the circuit becomes minimal consequently the current in the circuit
increases abruptly. It may be due to damage to the insulation of the wire.
T
AN

3) What happens to the deflection of the compass needle placed at a point near the
current carrying a straight conductor: (CBSE 2011, 2014)
a. if the current is increased?
H

b. if the direction of current in the conductor is changed (reversed)?

AS

c. if the compass is moved away from the conductor?

Solution:
PR

a. If the current increases deflection of the compass increases.

b. If the direction of current is reversed the deflection in the compass needle is also
reversed.
c. The deflection of the compass needle decreases when a compass is moved away from
the conductor.

4) (a) Which effect of the electric current is utilized in the working of an electrical
fuse?
(b) A fuse is connected in series or parallel in a household circuit?
(c) Draw a schematic labeled diagram of a domestic circuit that has a provision of a
main fuse, meter, one light bulb, and a switch socket.
Solution:

a. Heating effect of current

b. In series in the household circuit
 PRASHANT KIRAD
c.

5) State one main difference between A.C. and D.C. Why AC is preferred over D.C. for
long-range transmission of electric power ? Name one source for each of A.C. and D.C.
(CBSE 2012)

Solution:
The magnitude and direction of D.C. remain the same whereas A.C. changes its
magnitude and direction periodically. Low AC voltage can be increased to high voltage to
prevent loss of electric energy during its long-distance transmission. A.C. generator and
D.C. generator/or cell.

D
6) (a) Mention the color code used for live, neutral, and earth wire.
(b) You want to connect a 2 kW electric oven to the electric circuit. In which power

RA
line would you connect it and why? What may happen if you connect it wrongly to the
other power line?
KI
Solution:
T

(a) Live wire – Red, Neutral wire – Black & Earth wire – Green
AN

(b) 2 kW electric iron draws a large current. If it is connected to a socket of 5A then

the fuse will be blown. So it is connected to the power socket of 15 A
H

7) (a) State the function of a fuse in an electric circuit. How is it connected in the
AS

domestic circuit?
(b) An electric fuse of rating 3A is connected in a circuit in which an electric iron of
PR

power 1.5 kilo watt is connected which operates at 220 V. What would happen?
Explain.

Solution:
(a) Fuse is a safety device to prevent damage to electrical devices from short circuits
or overloading. A fuse is connected in series with the circuit.

“Class 10th Phodenge”