BCA III YEAR

AISHWARYA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

1. Course: BCA

2. Class :- BCA III Year

3. Subject: Computer Networks (English)

4. Unit :- Third

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SNO Contents

1 Types of signals encoding and decoding techniques

Signal bandwidth
2 requirements

3 Signal formats used in LAN

4 Switching and broadcast techniques

5 Multiplexing

6 Network Protocols

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Signal Encoding Techniques

In order to transport digital bits of data across carrier waves, encoding techniques have been

developed each with their own pros and cons.

1. Manchester Phase Encoding (MPE)

The IEEE 802.3 Ethernet uses Manchester

Phase Encoding (MPE). A data bit '1' from the

level-encoded signal (i.e. that from the digital

circuitry in the host machine sending data) is

represented by a full cycle of the inverted

signal from the master clock which matches

with the '0' to '1' rise of the phase-encoded

signal (linked to the phase of the carrier signal

which goes out on the wire). i.e. -V in the first

half of the signal and +V in the second half.

The data bit '0' from the level-encoded signal is represented by a full normal cycle of the

master clock which gives the '1' to '0' fall of the phase-encoded signal. i.e. +V in the first half

of the signal and -V in the second half.The diagram shows graphically how MPE operates.

The example at the bottom of the diagram indicates how the digital bit stream 10110 is

encoded.

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A transition in the middle of each bit makes it possible to synchronize the sender and

receiver. At any instant the ether can be in one of three states: transmitting a 0 bit (-0.85v),

transmitting a 1 bit (0.85v) or idle (0 volts). Having a normal clock signal as well as an

inverted clock signal leads to regular transitions which means that synchronisation of clocks

is easily achieved even if there are a series of '0's or '1's. This results in highly reliable data

transmission. The master clock speed for Manchester encoding always matches the data

speed and this determines the carrier signal frequency, so for 10Mbps Ethernet the carrier is

10MHz.

2. Differential Manchester Encoding (DME)

A '1' bit is indicated by making the first half of the signal, equal to the last half of the previous

bit's signal i.e. no transition at the start of the bit-time. A '0' bit is indicated by making the first

half of the signal opposite to the last half of the previous bit's signal i.e. a zero bit is indicated

by a transition at the beginning of the bit-time. In the middle of the bit-time there is always a

transition, whether from high to low, or low to high. Each bit transmitted means a voltage

change always occurs in the middle of the bit-time to ensure clock synchronisation. Token

Ring uses DME and this is why a preamble is not required in Token Ring, compared to

Ethernet which uses Manchester encoding.

3. Non Return to Zero (NRZ)

NRZ encoding uses 0 volts for a data bit of '0' and a +V volts for a data bit of '1'. The

problem with this is that it is difficult to distinguish a series of '1's or '0's due to clock

synchronization issues. Also, the average DC voltage is 1/2V so there is high power output.

In addition, the bandwidth is large i.e. from 0Hz to half the data rate because for every full

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signal wave, two bits of data can be transmitted (remember that with MPE the data rate

equals the bit rate which is even more inefficient!) i.e. two bits of information are transmitted

for every cycle (or hertz). After 50m of cable attenuation the signal amplitude may have

been reduced to 100mV giving an induced noise tolerance of 100mV.

4. Return to Zero (RZ)

With RZ a '0' bit is represented by 0 volts whereas a '1' data bit is represented by +V volts

for half the cycle and 0 volts for the second half of the cycle. This means that the average

DC voltage is reduced to 1/4V plus there is the added benefit of there always being a

voltage change even if there are a series of '1's. Unfortunately, the efficiency of bandwidth

usage decreases if there are a series of '1's since now a '1' uses a whole cycle.

5. Non Return to Zero Invertive (NRZ-I)

With NRZ-I a '1' bit is represented by 0 volts or +V volts depending on the previous level. If

the previous voltage was 0 volts then the '1' bit will be represented by +V volts, however if

the previous voltage was +V volts then the '1' bit will be represented by 0 volts. A '0' bit is

represented by whatever voltage level was used previously. This means that only a '1' bit

can 'invert' the voltage, a '0' bit has no effect on the voltage, it remains the same as the

previous bit whatever that voltage was.

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Data Flow

Data flow is the flow of data between two points. The direction of the data flow
can be described as:

• Simplex
• Half Duplex
• Full Duplex

Simplex

Data flows in only one direction on the data communication line (medium).
Examples are radio and television broadcasts. They go from the TV station to your
home television.

(Unidirectional)

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Half-Duplex

Data flows in both directions but only one direction at a time on the data
communication line. For example, a conversation on walkie-talkies is a half-duplex
data flow. Each person takes turns talking. If both talk at once - nothing occurs!
(Bi-directional but only 1 direction at a time)

Full-Duplex

Data flows in both directions simultaneously. Modems are configured to flow data
in both directions.

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Multiplexing

The term multiplex has its roots in the Latin words multi (many) and plex (fold). Multiplexers
(MUXs) act as both concentrators and contention devices to allow multiple, relatively low-
speed terminal devices to share a single, high-capacity circuit (physical path) between two
points in a network. The benefit of multiplexers is that they allow carriers and end users to take
advantage of the economies of scale. Just as a multilane highway can carry increased volumes
of traffic in multiple lanes at higher speeds and at relatively low incremental cost, a high
capacity circuit can carry multiple conversations in multiple channels at relatively low
incremental cost.

Traditional multiplexing comes in several varieties, presented in chronological order of

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) takes advantage of the fact that a single twisted pair,
copper circuit can carry much more than the 4 kHz guaranteed for individual voice
conversations. Even in the early days of vacuum tube technology, up to 96 kHz could be
supported over a set of 2 copper pairs (a 4-wire circuit, with 2 wires in each direction), thereby
enabling the carrying of up to 24 individual voice channels, separated by frequency bands [2-2].
In terms of a commonly understood analogy, multiple frequencies can be supported over a
single, four-wire electrical circuit much as can multiple radio stations, and TV channels be
supported over the airwaves through frequency separation

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Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) offers all of the advantages of digital transmission, namely
improved bandwidth utilization, enhanced error performance, improved security and
upgradeability. At the transmitting end of the connection, the TDM scans the ports to which
individual devices are attached, allocating each device port a channel, or time slot, for
transmission of data. At the receiving end, the process is reversed, with the channels being
identified serially and the individual conversations being transmitted by the MUX over
individual ports to the individual, intended receiving terminal devices. Clearly, the MUXs must
be carefully synchronized in time, so as to allow the receiving MUX to determine the proper
separation of frames and channels of data.

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Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Although they are not yet in common usage, Wavelength Division Multiplexers (WDMs), allow
multiple high speed channels to be supported over a single fiber optic transmission system. This
is accomplished through the transmission of multiple frequencies (wave lengths) of light, much
as multiple electrical frequencies can support multiple, simultaneous conversations in a FDM
transmission system. For instance, multiple 2 Gpbs channels can be accommodated over a 8
Gbps fiber optic system through the use of four different frequencies of light.

Network Protocols

Network Protocols are a set of rules governing exchange of information in an easy, reliable and

secure way.

TCP/IP
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. TCP/IP is a set of layered
protocols used for communication over the Internet. The communication model of this suite is
client-server model. A computer that sends a request is the client and a computer to which the
request is sent is the server.

FTP
As we have seen, the need for network came up primarily to facilitate sharing of files between
researchers. And to this day, file transfer remains one of the most used facilities.The protocol
that handles these requests is File Transfer Protocol or FTP.

PPP
Point to Point Protocol or PPP is a data link layer protocol that enables transmission of TCP/IP
traffic over serial connection, like telephone line.

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GSM
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile communications. GSM is one of the most widely
used digital wireless telephony system. It was developed in Europe in 1980s and is now
international standard in Europe, Australia, Asia and Africa. Any GSM handset with a SIM
(Subscriber Identity Module) card can be used in any country that uses this standard. Every
SIM card has a unique identification number. It has memory to store applications and data like
phone numbers, processor to carry out its functions and software to send and receive
messages

CDMA
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It was first used by the British military during
World War II. After the war its use spread to civilian areas due to high service quality. As each
user gets the entire spectrum all the time, voice quality is very high. Also, it is automatically
encrypted and hence provides high security against signal interception and eavesdropping.

WLL
WLL stands for Wireless in Local Loop. It is a wireless local telephone service that can be
provided in homes or offices. The subscribers connect to their local exchange instead of the
central exchange wirelessly. Using wireless link eliminates last mile or first mile construction of
network connection, thereby reducing cost and set up time. As data is transferred over very
short range, it is more secure than wired networks.

SMTP
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is connection oriented application
layer protocol that is widely used to send and receive email messages. It was introduced in
1982 by RFC 821 and last updated in 2008 by RFC 5321. The updated version is most widely
used email protocol.

POP3
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POP3 or Post Office Protocol Version 3 is an application layer protocol used by email clients to
retrieve email messages from mail servers over TCP/IP network. POP was designed to move
the messages from server to local disk but version 3 has the option of leaving a copy on the
server

IMAP
IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. IMAP was defined by RFC 3501 to enable
email clients to retrieve email messages from mail servers over a TCP/IP connection. IMAP is
designed to retrieve messages from multiple mail servers and consolidate them all in the user’s
mailbox. A typical example is a corporate client handling multiple corporate accounts through a
local mailbox located on her system.

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